Qam Bitno

Telecommunications
Communications Technologies
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

(QAM/DQAM)
Instructor Guide
39866-F0
Order no.: 39866-10
First Edition
Revision level: 10/2016
By the staff of Festo Didactic
© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2007

Internet: www.festo-didactic.com
e-mail: did@de.festo.com
Printed in Canada
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-2-89640-190-1 (Printed version)
ISBN 978-2-89747-795-0 (CD-ROM)
Legal Deposit – Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, 2007
Legal Deposit – Library and Archives Canada, 2007
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Safety and Common Symbols
The following safety and common symbols may be used in this manual and on
the equipment:
Symbol Description
DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which,
if not avoided, may result in property damage.
Caution, risk of electric shock
Caution, hot surface
Caution, risk of danger
Caution, lifting hazard
Caution, hand entanglement hazard
Notice, non-ionizing radiation
Direct current
Alternating current
Both direct and alternating current
Three-phase alternating current
Earth (ground) terminal
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 III

Safety and Common Symbols
Symbol Description
Protective conductor terminal
Frame or chassis terminal
Equipotentiality
On (supply)
Off (supply)
Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

reinforced insulation
In position of a bi-stable push control
Out position of a bi-stable push control
IV © Festo Didactic 39866-10

Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................. IX
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... XI
About This Manual .............................................................................................. XIII
Conventions Used in This Manual ...................................................................... XV
List of Equipment Required ............................................................................... XVII
To the Instructor ................................................................................................. XIX
Introduction Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ............................................. 1

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................... 1
Digital modulation .................................................................... 1
M-ary signaling ........................................................................ 2
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ........................................... 3
Bandwidth efficiency ................................................................ 3
Constellation diagrams ............................................................ 4
Exercise 1 QAM Modulation ........................................................................... 9

DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 9
The QAM waveform ................................................................. 9
QAM constellations ................................................................ 10
A typical QAM modulator ....................................................... 11
Symbol rate and bandwidth ................................................... 13
PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 15
Set-up and connections ......................................................... 15
Observing binary sequences using the virtual instruments ... 15
Settings .................................................................................... 15
The Serial to Parallel Converter ............................................ 20
Channels and symbols ............................................................. 21
D/A Converter ........................................................................ 26
The Filters and mixers ........................................................... 29
The summer........................................................................... 31
Signal constellations .............................................................. 33
Identifying constellation points ................................................. 37
Exercise 2 QAM Demodulation .................................................................... 43

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 43
Demodulation and detection .................................................. 43
QAM demodulation ................................................................ 44
Carrier recovery ..................................................................... 46
Detection of the demodulated signals ................................... 46
Phase ambiguity .................................................................... 47
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 V

Table of Contents
PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 47

Demodulation......................................................................... 48
Detection ................................................................................ 49
Clock recovery ....................................................................... 51
Carrier recovery and phase ambiguity................................... 57
Exercise 3 Differential QAM (DQAM)........................................................... 63

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 63
Review of phase ambiguity .................................................... 63
Using differential encoding to overcome phase ambiguity .... 63
DQAM using v.22 bis ............................................................. 64
Advantages and disadvantages of differential encoding ....... 67
Differential encoding in the QAM/DQAM application............. 67
PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 68
Differential (V.22 bis) encoding in the modulator .................. 68
The effect of differential encoding on demodulation.............. 77
Exercise 4 Data Scrambling and Descrambling ........................................ 81

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 81
The purpose of data scrambling and descrambling .............. 81
Scrambling and descrambling circuits ................................... 81
The choice of polynomial ....................................................... 83
Descrambler impulse response ............................................. 83
Scrambling and descrambling in the QAM/DQAM
application.............................................................................. 84
PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 84
Scrambling a repetitive data stream ...................................... 85
Descrambling ......................................................................... 87
The effect of scrambling on power distribution ...................... 88
Determining the descrambler polynomial from its impulse
response ................................................................................ 91
Exercise 5 Troubleshooting a QAM/DQAM Modem ................................... 95

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 95
Signal flow tracing.................................................................. 95
The divide-in-half method ...................................................... 96
A systematic troubleshooting procedure ............................... 96
PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 97
Observing normal operation .................................................. 98
Troubleshooting an unknown fault......................................... 98
VI © Festo Didactic 39866-10

Table of Contents
Index of New Terms ........................................................................................... 101

Acronyms ........................................................................................................... 103
Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 105
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 VII

Preface
Digital communication offers so many advantages over analog communication
that the majority of today’s communications systems are digital.
Unlike analog communication systems, digital systems do not require accurate

recovery of the transmitted waveform at the receiver end. Instead, the receiver
periodically detects which waveform is being transmitted, among a limited
number of possible waveforms, and maps the detected waveform back to the
data it represents. This allows extremely low error rates, even when the signal
has been corrupted by noise.
The digital circuits are often implemented using application specific integrated
circuits (ASIC) and field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA). Although this
“system-on-a-chip” approach is very effective for commercial and military
applications, the resulting systems do not allow access to internal signals and
data and are therefore poorly suited for educational use. It is for this reason that
we designed the Communications Technologies Training System.
The Communications Technologies Training System, Model 8087, is a state-of-

the-art communications training system. Specially designed for hands-on
training, it facilitates the study of many different types of digital
modulation/demodulation technologies such as PAM, PWM, PPM, PCM, Delta
Modulation, ASK, FSK, and BPSK as well as spectrally efficient technologies
such as QPSK, QAM, and ADSL. The system also enables the study of direct-
sequence and frequency-hopping spread spectrum (DSSS and FHSS), two key
technologies used in modern wireless communication systems (CDMA cellular-
telephony networks, Global Positioning System, Bluetooth interface for wireless
connectivity, etc.) to implement code-division multiple access (CDMA), improve
interference rejection, minimize interference with other systems, etc. The system
is designed to reflect the standards commonly used in modern communications
systems.
Unlike conventional, hardware-based training systems that use a variety of

physical modules to implement different technologies and instruments, the
Communications Technologies Training System is based on a Reconfigurable
Training Module (RTM) and the Communications Technologies (LVCT) software,
providing tremendous flexibility at a reduced cost.
Each of the communications technologies to be studied is provided as an

application that can be selected from a menu. Once loaded into the LVCT
software, the selected application configures the RTM to implement the
communications technology, and provides a specially designed user interface for
the student.
The LVCT software provides settings for full user control over the operating
parameters of each communications technology application. Functional block
diagrams for the circuits involved are shown on screen. The digital or analog
signals at various points in the circuits can be viewed and analyzed using the
virtual instruments included in the software. In addition, some of these signals
are made available at physical connectors on the RTM and can be displayed and
measured using conventional instruments.
The courseware for the Communications Technologies Training System consists

of a series of student manuals covering the different technologies as well as
instructor guides that provide the answers to procedure step questions and to
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 IX

Preface
review questions. The Communications Technologies Training System and the

accompanying courseware provide a complete study program for these key
information-age technologies.
We invite readers of this manual to send us their tips, feedback, and

suggestions for improving the book.
Please send these to did@de.festo.com.

The authors and Festo Didactic look forward to your comments.
X © Festo Didactic 39866-10

Acknowledgements
We thank the following people for their participation in the development of the
Communications Technologies Training System: Richard Tervo, Ph.D., P.Eng.
from the University of New Brunswick, and John Ahern, M.Sc.A. and Marcel
Pelletier, Ph.D. from Comlab Telecommunications Inc.
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XI

About This Manual
Manual Objective
When you have completed this manual, you will be familiar with the principles of
QAM modulation and demodulation. You will be familiar with the use of
differential QAM (DQAM), which uses V.22 bis encoding to overcome phase
ambiguity, and with the use of data scrambling to ensure frequent transitions in
the modulated signal. You will also be able to troubleshoot instructor-inserted
faults in the QAM/DQAM application.
Description
This Student Manual begins with an Introduction presenting important

background information. Following this are a number of exercises designed to
present the subject matter in convenient instructional segments. In each
exercise, principles and concepts are presented first followed by a step-by-step,
hands-on procedure to complete the learning process.
Each exercise contains:

x A clearly defined Exercise Objective
x A Discussion Outline listing the main points presented in the Discussion
x A Discussion of the theory involved
x A Procedure Outline listing the main sections in the Procedure
x A step-by-step Procedure in which the student observes and measures
the important phenomena, including questions to help in understanding
the important principles.
x A Conclusion
x Review Questions
a In this manual, all New Terms are defined at the end of the Introduction. In
addition, an Index of New Terms is provided at the end of this manual.
a Because the theory of QAM is similar to that of QPSK, some parts of the
Discussions in this manual are similar to the Discussions in the student manual
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK/DQPSK), part number 39865-10.
Preparation
Before beginning this manual, it is preferable to be familiar with the following

topics:
x Pseudorandom binary sequences (PRBSs), also called pseudorandom bit
sequences, n-sequences or maximum-length sequences — their time-
domain and frequency-domain characteristics.
x Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) — the generation and demodulation
of QPSK signals and their time-domain and frequency-domain
characteristics.
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XIII

About This Manual
Safety considerations
Safety symbols that may be used in this manual and on the equipment are listed
in the Safety Symbols table at the beginning of the manual.
Safety procedures related to the tasks that you will be asked to perform are
indicated in each exercise.
Make sure that you are wearing appropriate protective equipment when
performing the tasks. You should never perform a task if you have any reason to
think that a manipulation could be dangerous for you or your teammates.
Systems of units
Units are expressed using the International System of Units (SI) followed by units
expressed in the U.S. customary system of units (between parentheses).
XIV © Festo Didactic 39866-10

Conventions Used in This Manual
Special character formats
Colored sidebars New terms are shown in bold colored characters the first time they appear.
contain comple-
mentary infor- Important terms are shown in bold colored characters the first time they
mation that will appear.
be of interest to
the reader.
a Notes provide details that should be noted by the reader.
b Tips provide information on effectively using the system. These are particularly
helpful for inexperienced users.
c This symbol refers you to another manual or document.
Software commands and dialog box names are shown in color. “Choose File f
Print” means choose the Print command in the File menu.
Probe connections
Instrument probe connections to test points are usually presented in tables

showing the type of probe to use, the test point (TP) to connect it to, and the
signal present at that test point:
Oscilloscope probe Connect to Signal

1 TP1 DATA INPUT
2 TP2 CLOCK INPUT
E TP3 BSG SYNC. OUTPUT
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XV

Conventions Used in This Manual
System and instrument settings
Unless you are instructed to make specific settings, you can use any system and
instrument settings that will allow you to observe the phenomena of interest. As a
guide, important settings that were used to produce a figure may be shown
beside the figure.
Generator Settings:
Bit Rate ................................ 2000 bit/s
n ......................................................... 4
Oscilloscope Settings:
Channel 1.................................. 5 V/div
Channel 2.................................. 5 V/div
Channel E ................................. 5 V/div
Time Base .............................. 1 ms/div
Trigger: Slope ............................ Rising
Trigger: Level ................................. 1 V
Trigger: Source ...............................Ext
XVI © Festo Didactic 39866-10

List of Equipment Required
The following equipment is required to perform the procedures in this manual:
QTY DESCRIPTION MODEL
1 Power Supply 9408

1 Reconfigurable Training Module 9431
1 Data Acquisition Interface 9466
1 Analog/Digital Output Interface 9467
1 LVCT Software 9432-0
1 QPSK / QAM / ADSL Applications 9432-4
1 Cables and Accessories 9483
Additional Equipment
The LVCT software requires a current model computer running Windows®

operating system. An Ethernet (100 Mb/s or better) network interface adapter is
also required. A dual-output video adapter and two monitors are recommended
to allow viewing the diagrams and the virtual instruments simultaneously.
a The Communications Technologies Host Computer, Model 9695-A0, meets or

exceeds these requirements.
Optional Equipment
You may wish to use a conventional oscilloscope (Model 797-20 or equivalent)

and/or spectrum analyzer to observe the signals available at the BNC connectors
and test points on the RTM (refer to the RTM Connections tab of the software to
identify these outputs).
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XVII

To the Instructor
You will find in this Instructor Guide all the elements included in the Student
Manual together with the answers to all questions, results of measurements,
graphs, explanations, suggestions, and, in some cases, instructions to help you
guide the students through their learning process. All the information that applies
to you is placed between markers and appears in red.
Accuracy of measurements
The numerical results of the hands-on exercises may differ from one student to
another. For this reason, the results and answers given in this manual should be
considered as a guide. Students who correctly performed the exercises should
expect to demonstrate the principles involved and make observations and
measurements similar to those given as answers.
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XIX

Sample Exercise
Extracted from
the Student Manual
and the Instructor Guide
Exercise 1
QAM Modulation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with QAM
modulation, with the characteristics of QAM signals and with the QAM signal
constellation. You will also be familiar with the LVCT software and the use of the
virtual instruments.
DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
The QAM waveform

QAM constellations
A typical QAM modulator
Symbol rate and bandwidth
DISCUSSION The QAM waveform
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or QAM (pronounced “kwam”) is a digital

modulation technique that uses the data to be transmitted to vary both the
amplitude and the phase of a sinusoidal waveform, while keeping its frequency
constant. QAM is a natural extension of binary phase shift keying (BPSK) and
quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), both of which vary only the phase of the
waveform.
QAM is a type of M-ary The number of different waveforms (unique combinations of amplitude and
signaling with M equal to phase) used in QAM depends on the modem and may vary with the quality of the
the number of different channel. With 16-QAM, for example, 16 different waveforms are available.
symbols. 64-QAM and 256-QAM are also common. 16,384-QAM is possible in ADSL
modems. In all cases, each different waveform, or amplitude-phase combination,
is a modulation symbol that represents a specific group of bits.
With 16-QAM, there are The LVCT Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM/DQAM) application uses
sixteen different symbols 16-QAM. In the modulator, consecutive data bits are grouped together four at a
(quadbits): time to form quadbits and each quadbit is represented by a different modulation
symbol. In the demodulator, each different modulation symbol in the received
0000 0001 0010 0011 signal is interpreted as a unique pattern of 4 bits.
0100 0101 0110 0111
1000 1001 1010 1011 Figure 4 shows all 16 QAM modulation symbols superposed on the same axes.
1100 1101 1110 1111 Four different colors are used in the figure and each color is used for four
different waveforms. Each waveform has a different combination of phase and
Each quadbit is represented amplitude.
by different modulation
symbol (combination of
phase and amplitude).
© Festo Didactic 39866-10 9

Exercise 1 – QAM Modulation Discussion
Figure 4.All QAM modulation symbols for 16-QAM.
QAM constellations
Figure 5 shows the constellation diagram for 16-QAM. The constellation diagram
is a pictorial representation showing all possible modulation symbols (or signal
states) as a set of constellation points. The position of each point in the diagram
shows the amplitude and the phase of the corresponding symbol. Each
constellation point corresponds (is mapped to) to a different quadbit.
Q
Figure 5.16-QAM constellation (4-bits per modulation symbol).
The Gray code was de- Although any mapping between quadbits and constellation points would work
signed by Bell Labs re- under ideal conditions, the mapping usually uses a Gray code to ensure that the
searcher Frank Gray and quadbits corresponding to adjacent constellation points differ only by one bit.
patented in 1953. Gray This facilitates error correction since a small displacement of a constellation point
codes are widely used in due to noise will likely cause only one bit of the demodulated quadbit to be
digital communications. erroneous.
10 © Festo Didactic 39866-10

A typical QAM modulator
A QAM signal can be generated by independently amplitude-modulating two

carriers in quadrature (cos Zt and sin Zt), as shown in Figure 6.
MSB
D/A I Channel
Quadbits Low-Pass
Dibits Converter
(dibit pairs) Filter
Binary
MSD LSB
Data QAM Signal
Input Serial to
Four-level Bi-phase,
Parallel cos Zt 6
Converter analog signals bi-level signals
16 states
LSD MSB (4 phases,
D/A Low-Pass 4 levels)
Dibits Converter Filter
LSB Q Channel
sin Zt
Figure 6.Simplified block diagram of a QAM modulator.
The Serial to Parallel Converter groups the incoming data into quadbits. Each
time four bits have been clocked serially into its buffer, the Serial to Parallel
Converter outputs one quadbit in parallel at its four outputs.
Colors (red, green, blue, and The starting point for grouping bits into quadbits is completely arbitrary. Figure 7
violet) are used in the data shows an example using the repeating 12-bit binary sequence 1000 0000 0000.
bit stream to help distinguish
the individual bits. In this figure, the grouping initially starts at the beginning of the sequence
(Condition A). The first quadbit at the output is 1000 followed by two all-zero
quadbits 0000. Then the quadbit pattern repeats.
Serial to Parallel
Converter
Quadbits Out (parallel)
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 …
TP6
Data Bits In (serial) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 …
1000 0000 0000 1000 0000 0000…
TP7
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 …
TP4
TP8
Time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 …
Drop 1 Bit Condition A Condition B TP9
One bit dropped
Figure 7.Serial to Parallel Converter operation with repeating sequence 1000 0000 0000.
In the QAM/DQAM application, the Drop 1 Bit button is included in the Serial to
Parallel Converter for educational purposes. Clicking this button causes the
Serial to Parallel Converter to ignore one bit in the data sequence. This changes
the grouping of all subsequent data bits into quadbits (see Condition B in
Figure 7).

Each quadbit consists of a pair of dibits, which can be called the most significant
dibit (MSD) and the least significant dibit (LSD). The MSD is sent to the I-channel
of the modulator; the LSD is sent to the Q-channel of the modulator. Each
channel of the modulator works independently to processes the data it receives.
In the QAM/DQAM applica- The D/A Converter in each channel converts the dibit stream into a (baseband)
tion, the MSB input of the four-level pulse stream that can be applied to one input of the mixer. Each of the
D/A Converter determines four levels represents a specific dibit. The four levels used are proportional to -3,
the sign of the output volt- -1, +1, and +3. This makes the distribution of the constellation points uniform.
age and the LSB input de-
termines the magnitude of To restrict the bandwidth of the QAM signal, a low-pass filter is usually used
the output voltage. before the mixer in each channel of the modulator in order to provide the desired
spectral shaping. In addition, a bandpass filter (not shown in Figure 6) may be
used to filter the QAM signal before transmission.
Each mixer performs modulation by multiplying the sinusoidal carrier by the four-
level data signal. Multiplying the carrier by ±1 causes a 180q phase shifts in the
mixer output signal and is equivalent to BPSK modulation. Multiplying by +3
causes a three-fold increase in peak amplitude and is essentially a type of ASK
modulation. Multiplying the carrier by -3 causes a 180q phase shift and a three-
fold increase in peak amplitude. The mixer output signal is therefore a bi-phase,
bi-level sinusoidal signal. The effect of the mixer is to shift the frequency
spectrum of the baseband signal up to the frequency of the carrier.
Table 2 shows the mapping used in the QAM/DQAM application from dibit to
relative pulse level (shown in brackets) and the resulting waveforms. In this
mapping, the first bit (MSB) of each dibit determines the phase of the mixer
output signal and the second bit (LSB) determines the amplitude.
Table 2. Mapping of dibit to pulse level to waveform in one channel of the modulator.
Dibit, (Relative Pulse Level), and Waveform
0 0 (+1) 0 1 (+3)
1 0 (-1) 1 1 (-3)
Orthogonal signals can be The two bi-phase, bi-level signals are summed to produce the QAM signal.
summed, transmitted in a Because these two bi-phase, bi-level signals are generated using orthogonal
channel and (theoretically) carriers (in phase quadrature), the signals themselves are orthogonal, and the
perfectly separated in the QAM demodulator will be able to demodulate them separately.
demodulator without any
mutual interference.

The output signal of the modulator is a sinusoidal carrier with 16 possible states,
each of which represents a four-bit symbol (quadbit). This signal can be
represented by Equation (3).
s (t ) dI (t ) cos(Zt ) dQ (t ) sin(Zt ) (3)

By convention, the ampli-
tude levels used in the
pulse streams dI(t) and dQ(t) where s(t) is the QAM signal waveform
are proportional to ±1, ±3, dI(t) is the I-channel four-level pulse stream d0, d2, d4 …
±5, …, up to the number dQ(t) is the Q-channel four-level pulse stream d1, d3, d5 …
of different levels re-
Z is the angular frequency
quired for the type of
QAM used. This makes
the distribution of the con-
stellation points uniform and Symbol rate and bandwidth
ensures optimal error per-
formance in the presence of With 16-QAM, each symbol represents four bits. Therefore the rate that the
noise. symbols occur in the QAM signal (the symbol rate) is one quarter the bit rate.
Table 3 compares the symbol rates (and bandwidths) for BPSK, QPSK, and
QAM.
Table 3.Symbol rates and bandwidths.
Modulation Bits per symbol Symbol rate vs. Bit rate First-nulls bandwidth
BPSK 1 Rs Rb 2R b
Rb
QPSK 2 Rs Rb
2
Rb Rb
QAM 4 Rs
4 2
The bandwidth of a modulated signal depends on the rate of change in the signal
(i.e. the symbol rate) and not on the magnitude of each change. For this reason,
QAM requires one-half as much bandwidth as QPSK and one-quarter as much
as BPSK for a given bit rate. This is illustrated in Figure 8, where fc is the carrier
frequency. Alternatively, using QAM instead of QPSK or BPSK can double or
quadruple the bit rate for a given signal bandwidth.
Figure 8 shows that, for the same bit rate, the first-nulls bandwidth of a QAM
signal is one-half that of a QPSK signal, and one quarter that of a BPSK. Of the
three modulation techniques, QAM has the highest bandwidth efficiency.

Exercise 1 – QAM Modulation Procedure Outline
Bandwidth
BPSK
Bandwidth
QPSK
Bandwidth
16-QAM
Figure 8. BPSK, QPSK, and 16-QAM magnitude spectrum (for equal bit rates).
PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections:
Set-up and connections

Observing binary sequences using the virtual instruments
The Serial to Parallel Converter
D/A Converter
The Filters and mixers
The summer
Signal constellations

Exercise 1 – QAM Modulation Procedure
PROCEDURE Set-up and connections
1. Turn on the RTM Power Supply and the RTM and make sure the RTM power
LED is lit.
File f Restore Default Settings 2. Start the LVCT software. In the Application Selection box, choose
returns all settings to their QAM/DQAM and click OK. This begins a new session with all settings set to
default values, but does not
their default values and with all faults deactivated.
deactivate activated faults.
Double-click to select SWapp

b If the software is already running, choose Exit in the File menu and restart
LVCT to begin a new session with all faults deactivated.
3. Make the Default external connections shown on the System Diagram tab of
the software. For details of connections to the Reconfigurable Training
Module, refer to the RTM Connections tab of the software.
b Click the Default button to show the required external connections.
4. As an option, connect a conventional oscilloscope to the BSG CLOCK

OUTPUT and the BSG DATA OUTPUT, using BNC T-connectors. Use the
BSG SYNC./4 OUTPUT as an external trigger.
b On-line help is accessible from the Help menu of the software and the Help
menu of each instrument.
You can print out the screen of any instrument by choosing File f Print in that
instrument.
Observing binary sequences using the virtual instruments
5. Make the following Generator settings:
Generation Mode ........................................... Pseudo-Random

n .................................................................... 4
Bit Rate .......................................................... 2000 bit/s
Settings
This application has tables of settings that allow you to change various software
parameters in order to configure the system. Two Settings tables are provided –
QAM Settings and Generator Settings. By default, these tables are located at the
right side of the main window and only one of these tables is visible at a time.
Two tabs at the bottom allow you to select which table is visible and the name of
the visible table is displayed at the top. (Refer to on-line help for more
information.)
Settings tables have two columns. The name of each setting is shown in the left
column and the current value of each setting is shown in the right column. The
column separator can be moved using the mouse, and the entire table can be
resized as desired.

Some settings have a drop-down list of possible values. To change this type of
setting, click the setting and then click the down arrow to display the drop-down
list and select a new value. You can also click the setting and then roll the mouse
wheel to change the value or repeatedly double-click the setting to cycle through
the available values.
To change an editable numerical setting, simply select or delete the current value
in the settings table, type a new value and press Enter or Tab. You can also click
the setting and roll the mouse wheel. When fine adjustments are possible,
holding down the Ctrl key on the keyboard while rolling the mouse wheel will
change the value by small increments.
When you change the value of a numerical setting, the focus remains on that
setting until you click elsewhere in the software. To immediately change the
setting to another value, you can simply type the new value and press Enter.
6. Click the QAM Modulator tab in order to display the QAM Modulator diagram.
Show the Probes bar (click in the toolbar or choose View f Probes Bar).
Connect the probes as follows:

1 TP2 CLOCK INPUT
2 TP1 DATA INPUT
E TP3 BSG SYNC. OUTPUT
Logic Analyzer probe Connect to Signal

C TP2 CLOCK INPUT
1 TP3 BSG SYNC. OUTPUT
2 TP1 DATA INPUT
Other probes Connect to Signal

Spectrum Analyzer TP1 DATA INPUT
b To move a probe from the Probes bar to a test point, click the probe, move the
mouse until the tip of the probe is over the test point, and click the mouse
button to connect the probe.
To move a probe from one test point to another, move the mouse pointer over
the probe until the pointer changes into a grasping hand . Then, click the
probe and, without releasing the mouse button, drag the probe to another test
point. Release the mouse button.
7. Show the Oscilloscope (click in the toolbar or choose Instruments f

Oscilloscope). Figure 9 shows an example of settings and what you should
observe.

a Unless you are instructed to make specific settings, you can use any system
and instrument settings that will allow you to observe the phenomena of
interest. As a guide, important settings that were used to produce a figure may
be shown beside the figure.
Generator Settings:
Generation Mode ......Pseudo-Random
n ......................................................... 4
Bit Rate ................................ 2000 bit/s
Channel 1.................................. 5 V/div
Channel 2.................................. 5 V/div
Channel E ................................. 5 V/div
Time Base .............................. 1 ms/div
Trigger: Level ................................. 1 V
Trigger: Source ...............................Ext
Figure 9. Clock, Sync. and PRBS data signals.
b Some settings have a drop-down list of possible values. To change this type of
setting, click the setting and then click the down arrow to display the drop-
down list and select a new value. You can also click the setting and then roll
the mouse wheel to change the value or repeatedly double-click the setting to
cycle through the available values.
b To display the trace of any channel on the Oscilloscope, you must set the
Visible setting for that channel to On. (You can trigger the Oscilloscope on a
channel even when Visible is set to Off.)
Channel 1 on the Oscilloscope shows the Clock signal. Channel E (External)

shows the BSG SYNC. signal, which is used as the trigger source for the
Oscilloscope. This signal goes high for one clock period at the beginning of
each sequence period. Note that the level changes of the pulses in the other
signals align with the rising edges of the clock signal.
Channel 2 shows a pseudo-random binary sequence (PRBS). With, n = 4 in

the Generator Settings, the length L = 24-1 = 15. Count the number of clock
cycles from one sync. pulse to the next to verify that this is the case. Note
that the PRBS begins to repeat at the second sync. pulse.
b To refresh and freeze the display, click the button in the instrument toolbar.
This refreshes the display once and freezes it. You can also press F5 or
choose View f Single Refresh. Click , press F6 or choose View f
Continuous Refresh to resume normal operation.
8. Experiment with the Binary Sequence Generator by changing the value of n

and the Bit Rate. Adjust the Time Base on the Oscilloscope as necessary.
b In order for the Oscilloscope to trigger properly, the Time Base must be set so
that at least one complete period of the Trigger Source signal is displayed on
the screen.

9. Show the Logic Analyzer (click in the toolbar or choose Instruments f

Logic Analyzer).
Click in the Logic Analyzer toolbar to record data. Figure 10 shows an

example of settings and what you should observe. Compare the signals as
displayed on the Logic Analyzer with the same signals as displayed on the
Oscilloscope.
Generator Settings:
n ......................................................... 4
Bit Rate ................................ 2000 bit/s
Logic Analyzer Settings:

Display Width ............................. 10 ms
Clock Grid ........................Falling Edge
Source.......................................... Ch 1
Source Edge .............................. Rising
Clock Edge ............................... Falling
S1 Data ........................................ [ch1]
S2 Data ........................................ [ch2]
Figure 10. Clock, sync. and PRBS data on Logic Analyzer.
Note that the signals displayed on the Oscilloscope and on the Logic
Analyzer are very similar. With the Logic Analyzer settings shown in
Figure 10, however, the level changes of the pulses in the Sync. signal (Bit 0)
and in the Data signal (Bit 1) align with the falling edges of the Clock signal.
Logic Analyzer operation
The Logic Analyzer does not display data in real time. Instead, after you click ,
it waits for the trigger and then begins recording data. When its memory is full, it
stops recording and displays the recorded data.
The Source setting determines which signal is used to trigger the recording and
the Source Edge setting determines whether the rising edge or the falling edge
of this signal triggers the recording.
When recording data, the Logic Analyzer samples each channel only once per
clock period. The display shows either a high level (1) or a low level (0) in the
corresponding trace for each sample taken. The Clock Edge setting determines
whether the sampling instants correspond to the rising edges or the falling edges
of the clock signal. (For this reason, the Logic Analyzer cannot display the
precise timing relationship between signals as does the Oscilloscope.)

The following sequence shows how the Logic Analyzer records data:
x The user clicks or presses F5 or selects View f Record.
x The Logic Analyzer waits for the selected Source Edge (Rising or Falling) of
the trigger Source signal.
x The Logic Analyzer takes one sample of each channel at each selected
Clock Edge (Rising or Falling) until 256 samples of each channel have been
recorded. It then updates the display.
The Oscilloscope shows that the transitions in the DATA INPUT signal occur on
the rising edges of the clock signal. Therefore it is preferable to set Clock Edge to
Falling as this ensures that the signal will be sampled in the middle of each bit,
where the signal voltage is not changing. (Setting Clock Edge to Rising would
cause the Logic Analyzer to sample the DATA INPUT signal exactly where the
transitions occur, which could result in ambiguous values.)
To observe the output of a functional block that is falling-edge triggered, as

indicated by the symbol at the clock input, it is preferable to set Clock Edge
to Rising.
10. Show the Spectrum Analyzer (click in the toolbar or choose

Instruments f Spectrum Analyzer). Figure 11 shows an example of settings
and what you should observe. In the Generator Settings, vary the value of n
and the Bit Rate and observe the effect on the spectrum.
b To reduce fluctuations in the displayed spectrum, set Averaging to the number

of consecutive spectra to be averaged. The higher the setting, the lower the
fluctuations, however, the spectrum will take longer to stabilize after a change.
Generator Settings:
n ......................................................... 3
Bit Rate ................................ 5000 bit/s
Spectrum Analyzer Settings:

Maximum Input ........................ 10 dBV
Scale Type ........................ Logarithmic
Scale .................................. 10 dBV/div
Averaging ........................................... 4
Frequency Span ................... 2 kHz/div
Reference Frequency ........................ 0
Cursors .................................... Vertical
Figure 11. Spectrum of a PRBS.

b Use a vertical cursor, as shown in the figure, to determine the approximate

frequency of various spectral elements. You can position each cursor by
dragging it with the mouse.
Theoretically, the spectral Note that the spectrum of a PRBS consists of a series of lobes of decreasing
lines have an infinitesimal magnitude with nulls at multiples of the Bit Rate Rb. This makes the first-null
width. On a spectrum ana- bandwidth equal to the bit rate.
lyzer, however, they appear
as bars or peaks. If the Since the data signal is not truly random but consists of a sequence that
spectral lines are very close repeats every L = 2n-1 bits, the spectrum is not continuous. Instead, it
together, they are not re- consists of spectral “lines” spaced at frequencies that are multiples of
solved by the Spectrum 1 Rb
Analyzer and the spectrum where T is the period of the sequence in seconds.
appears to be continuous.
T 2n 1
11. In the generator Settings, set the Generation Mode to User Entry. Enter
different binary sequences in the Binary Sequence setting and observe the
result using the virtual instruments.
b When the Generation Mode is set to User Entry, the Binary Sequence
Generator generates a repeating binary sequence defined by the Binary
Sequence setting. You can enter up to 32 binary digits (1s and 0s) in this
setting. You can include spaces in this setting to make the pattern more legible
(the software ignores spaces in this setting).
The Serial to Parallel Converter
12. Make the following Generator settings:
Generation Mode ........................................... User Entry

Binary Sequence ........................................... 1001 1000 1110 1110
Bit Rate .......................................................... 1000 bit/s
The Serial to Parallel Converter groups the input data stream into quadbits
and sends the first dibit of each quadbit to the I Channel of the modulator and
the other dibit to the Q Channel of the modulator. Since the Serial to Parallel
Converter is not synchronized with the data, the grouping into quadbits can
start at any bit. Because the number of bits in the Binary Sequence is a
multiple of 4, there are four possible conditions:
A) The grouping starts with the first bit of the defined Binary Sequence,
giving quadbits 1001 1000 1110 1110, as they appear in the Binary
Sequence setting.
B) The grouping starts with the second bit of the sequence.
C) The grouping starts with the third bit of the sequence.
D) The grouping starts with the fourth bit of the sequence.
a If the grouping starts with any other bit, the result is equivalent to one of the
above conditions, since the sequence repeats indefinitely.

The first row of Table 4 shows the data bits from this Binary Sequence. After
16 bits, the sequence begins to repeat. A, B, C, and D in the table represent
the four ways the data bits can be grouped into quadbits.
Complete the four Quadbit rows of this table, grouping the data bits into
quadbits in four different ways.
Table 4. Serial to Parallel Converter inputs and outputs.
Data Bits 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
Quadbit 1 0 0 1
A
Hex 9
Quadbit 0 0 1 1
B
Hex 3
Quadbit
C
Hex
Quadbit
D
Hex
Represent each of the quadbits in Table 4 as a hexadecimal Logic Analyzer

symbol where, if the four digits of the quadbit are (b3, b2, b1, b0), the symbol
value is equal to 2 3 u b3 + 2 2 u b2 + 2 u b1 + b0. This will help in interpreting the
symbols displayed by the Logic Analyzer.
Channels and symbols

Logic Analyzer symbols are
hexadecimal values derived
The Logic Analyzer display includes a Clock channel, eight data channels
from combinations of binary
data in selected channels. Ch 1 to Ch 8, each of which displays the sampled binary data (1s and 0s)
They should not be confused from one probe, as well as two “symbol” channels S1 and S2. Each of these
with the symbols used in symbol channels displays a series of hexadecimal numbers that result from
M-aray signaling. combining the binary data from selected data channels.
In this manual, the channel The data channels that contribute to each symbol channel are selected using
selections for each Logic
Analyzer symbol, and the
the Symbol buttons near the bottom of the screen. By default, all Symbol
hexadecimal symbol values, buttons are up (no channels are selected). Each selected channel
are shown in square brack- contributes one bit to the hexadecimal symbol value; the most significant bit
ets. (MSB) corresponding to the leftmost pressed-down button and the least
significant bit (LSB) corresponding to the rightmost pressed-down button.
For example, if channels [ch1, ch3, ch6, ch7] are selected for Symbol 1, the
hexadecimal values displayed in the S1 channel correspond to 23 u Ch 1 +
22 u Ch 3 + 21 u Ch 6 + 20 u Ch 7. In this case, since four data channels are
combined into one symbol, the symbol values can range from [0] to [F]
(00002 to 11112). If only two data channels are combined into one symbol,
the symbol values can range from [0] to [3] (002 to 112).

Table 4.Serial to Parallel Converter inputs and outputs.
Data Bits 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
Quadbit 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
A
Hex 9 8 E E
Quadbit 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
B
Hex 3 1 D D
Quadbit 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
C
Hex 6 3 B A
Quadbit 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
D
Hex C 7 7 4
13. Connect the Logic Analyzer probes as follows:
a Connect the probes exactly as shown so that the Logic Analyzer will display
the symbols as shown in Table 4.

C TP2 CLOCK INPUT
2 TP4 Serial to Parallel Converter input
3 TP6 Serial to Parallel Converter output (MSB)
4 TP7 Serial to Parallel Converter output
6 TP9 Serial to Parallel Converter output (LSB)
b To make it easier to connect the probes, you may wish to zoom into this region
of the diagram. To zoom in a diagram, right-click on the diagram and choose
Zoom in the context-sensitive menu. This changes the mouse pointer to .
Drag the mouse pointer up or down to zoom in or out. Another way to zoom is
to click the diagram and roll the mouse wheel.

14. Record data with the Logic Analyzer and examine the data. Using the
Symbol buttons, set Symbol 1 to [ch2] and Symbol 2 to [ch3, ch4, ch5, ch6].
Examine the data displayed by the Logic Analyzer. Figure 12 to Figure 15

show the four possible conditions, depending on how the Serial to Parallel
Converter groups the data sequence into quadbits.
Click the Drop 1 Bit button once only in the modulator and perform another
recording. Ch 2 and S1, the input data, will not change but the results in Ch 3
to Ch 6 and S2 should be different.
For each of Figure 12 to Figure 15, identify which of the four possible
conditions (A, B, C, or D) from Table 4 the figure represents.
a Because the Serial to Parallel Converter operates on four bits at a time, it

introduces a slight delay in the output bit streams. The timing relationship
changes slightly after clicking Drop 1 Bit.


Display Width ............................. 38 ms
Source.......................................... Ch 1
S1 Data ........................................ [ch2]
S2 Data ................ [ch3, ch4, ch5, ch6]
Figure 12. Serial to Parallel Converter input (Ch 2) and outputs (Ch 3 to Ch 6).
Figure 12 represents Condition: A B C D
Figure 12 represents Condition: 5A B C D
Figure 13 represents Condition: A 5B C D

Figure 14 represents Condition: A B C 5D
Figure 15 represents Condition: A B 5C D
15. Use the oscilloscope to determine the exact timing relationship of the
different signals. Since this requires observing several signals at a time, it will
be helpful to use the memory of the Oscilloscope.
b Click M1 or M2 in the instrument toolbar to store the current display in

Memory 1 or Memory 2. Use the Memories setting to show the contents of
Memory 1, Memory 2, or both.

Is the output of the Serial to Parallel Converter triggered by the rising edge or
the falling edge of the clock signal? Does this correspond to the symbol used
at the clock input of the Serial to Parallel Converter?
The Serial to Parallel Converter output is falling-edge triggered, as indicated

by the symbol at the clock input and in the following figure.
Channel 1.................................. 5 V/div BSG SYNC.
Channel 2.................................. 5 V/div
Channel E ................................. 5 V/div
Memories ..................................... Both CLOCK INPUT
Time Base .............................. 2 ms/div
Trigger Slope ............................. Rising DATA INPUT
Trigger Level ............................... 1.9 V
Trigger Source ................................Ext
Cursors .................................... Vertical
TP6
TP7
TP8
TP9
Serial-to-Parallel Converter signal timing (Condition A).
D/A Converter
16. Connect the probes as follows:

E TP10 I-channel D/A Converter input (MSB)
1 TP11 I-channel D/A Converter input (LSB)
2 TP14 I-channel D/A Converter output

C TP2 CLOCK INPUT
E TP5 Frequency Divider output
1 TP6 Serial to Parallel Converter output (MSB)
4 TP9 Serial to Parallel Converter output (LSB)
b To disconnect a probe and return it to the Probes bar, you can right-click the
probe and choose Disconnect Probe in the context-sensitive menu.
Alternatively, you can double-click the probe’s place holder in the Probes bar.

a The Frequency Divider divides the BSG SYNC. signal frequency in order to
generate a signal that can be used as a trigger for the Oscilloscope or the
Logic Analyzer. This is necessary when observing the Serial to Parallel
Converter output with a binary sequence having an odd number of bits. (All
pseudo-random sequences have an odd number of bits.)
Make the following Generator settings:
Generation Mode ........................................... User Entry

Binary Sequence ........................................... 0000 0100 1100 1000
Bit Rate .......................................................... 2000 bit/s
Record data on the Logic Analyzer and observe the signal states. Set
Symbol 1 to [ch1, ch2] and Symbol 2 to [ch3, ch4].
The outputs of the Serial to Parallel Converter should be as shown in

Figure 16, with Ch 1, Ch 2 and S1 changing state and Ch 3, Ch 4 and S2
always zero. This means that the first dibit in each quadbit of the defined
Binary Sequence is sent to the I-channel of the modulator, and the second
dibit (always 00) is sent to the Q-channel. If necessary, click the Drop 1 Bit
button and observe the signals again until the signals are as shown in
Figure 16.

Display Width ............................. 20 ms
Source.............................................Ext TP6
Clock Edge ............................... Falling TP7
S1 Data ................................ [ch1, ch2]
S2 Data ................................ [ch3, ch4] TP8
TP9
Figure 16. Desired Serial to Parallel Converter outputs.
Observe the D/A Converter inputs and output on the Oscilloscope. Figure 17
shows an example of what you should see.

Channel 1.................................. 5 V/div
Channel 2.................................. 2 V/div TP10
Channel E ................................. 5 V/div
Time Base .............................. 2 ms/div
Trigger: Level ................................. 0 V
Trigger: Source ............................ Ch 2 TP11
TP14
Figure 17. D/A Converter input and output signals.
You may wish to change the Use the cursors on the Oscilloscope to determine the different D/A Converter
Channel 2 Scale setting to output voltage levels (TP14) for the different input states and enter these into
increase the precision of the
measurements.
Table 5. Divide each output level by the minimum positive output level to
obtain the relative levels.
b When the horizontal cursors are active, the voltage levels corresponding to the
position of each cursor with respect to the Ch 1 and Ch 2 ground levels (as well
as the voltage difference between the two cursors) are shown in the data
below the graticule.
When the vertical cursors are active, the time position of each cursor (as well
as the time difference between the two cursors) is shown in the data below the
graticule. The voltage levels shown correspond to the levels at the
intersections of the Ch 1 and Ch 2 traces with each cursor.
Table 5. D/A Converter input states and output levels.
Input Dibit
Output Level (V) Relative Level
(TP10, TP11)
00
01
11
10
Table 5. D/A Converter input states and output levels.
Input Dibit Output Level (V) Relative Level

00 0.45 +1
01 1.34 +3
11 -1.35 -3
10 -0.45 -1

Explain the operation of the D/A Converter.
The D/A Converter converts one dibit of digital data (b1, b0) signal into a four-
level analog pulse signal whose voltage levels are proportional to -3, -1, +1
and +3.
What determines the sign and the amplitude of the D/A Converter output?
The first bit (MSB) of each dibit determines the sign and the second bit (LSB)
determines the amplitude of the analog signal.
The Filters and mixers
17. Connect the Oscilloscope probes as follows.

1 TP16 I-channel mixer input
E TP17 I-channel carrier
2 TP20 I-channel mixer output
Turn the Low-Pass Filters Off. Figure 18 shows an example of what you may
observe. Then turn the Low-Pass Filters On (see Figure 19).
QAM Settings:
Carrier Frequency .................. 2000 Hz
Low-Pass Filters ............................. Off
Channel 1.................................. 2 V/div
Channel 2.................................. 1 V/div
Channel E ................................. 1 V/div
Time Base .............................. 1 ms/div
Trigger: Level ................................. 0 V
Trigger: Source ............................ Ch 1
Figure 18. I-channel carrier, four-level data and mixer output signal (Low-Pass Filters Off).

QAM Settings:
Low-Pass Filters ............................. On
Channel 1.................................. 2 V/div
Channel 2.................................. 1 V/div
Channel E ................................. 1 V/div
Time Base .............................. 1 ms/div
Trigger: Level ................................. 0 V
Trigger: Source ............................ Ch 1
Figure 19.I-channel carrier, four-level data and mixer output signal (Low-Pass Filters On).
Describe the relationship between the amplitude and polarity of the four-level
analog data signal and the amplitude and phase of the mixer output signal.
Because the mixer multiplies the carrier by the four-level analog signal, the
amplitude of the mixer output signal is proportional to the absolute value of
the amplitude of the four-level data signal, and the phase of the mixer output
signal depends on the sign of the four-level analog signal.
What is the effect of the low-pass filter on the four-level data signal and on
the mixer output signal? What is the advantage of filtering the data signal
before modulation?
The low-pass filter smoothes the transitions in the four-level data signal.
Since rapid changes lead to undesirable frequency components in the
modulated signal, filtering reduces the bandwidth of the modulated signal.
18. Use the oscilloscope to observe the I- and Q-channel carrier signals. How
are these signals related?
The I- and Q-channel carrier signals are in quadrature (out of phase by 90q).
If the I-channel carrier is considered to be a cosine wave, the Q-channel
carrier corresponds to a sine wave.
19. Use the Spectrum Analyzer to observe the frequency spectrum of the carrier,
the baseband four-level data signal, and the mixer output signal (see
Figure 20). Explain the relationship between the frequency spectra of these
signals.
b Click M1 or M2 in the instrument toolbar to store the current display in

Memory 1 or Memory 2. Use the Memories setting to show the contents of
Memory 1, Memory 2, or both.

QAM Settings:
Carrier Frequency ............... 10 000 Hz
Generator Settings:
n ......................................................... 7
Bit Rate ................................ 5000 bit/s

Scale .................................. 10 dBV/div
Averaging ......................................... 16
Reference Frequency .................0 kHz
Memories ..................................... Both
Figure 20. Frequency spectrum of four-level data signal, carrier and mixer output signal.
The spectrum of the modulated signal resembles the spectrum of the

baseband data signal but is double-sided and is shifted up to (and centered
on) the frequency of the carrier.
The summer
20. Use the Oscilloscope to observe the signals at the input and output of the
summer (TP20, TP21, and TP22). Figure 21 shows an example.
As an option, use a conventional oscilloscope to observe the signal at the

QAM Modulator OUTPUT (refer to the RTM Connections tab of the
software).
QAM Settings:
Generator Settings: TP20

n ......................................................... 5
Bit Rate ................................ 2000 bit/s
TP21
Channel 1.................................. 1 V/div
Channel 2.................................. 1 V/div
Channel E ................................. 1 V/div
Time Base .............................. 2 ms/div
(Single Refresh)
TP22
Figure 21. Summer input and output (QAM) signals.

Describe the operation of the summer.
The summer sums the I-channel and Q-channel bi-level, bi-phase signals to
produce the QAM signal.
21. Use the Spectrum Analyzer to observe the spectrum of the QAM signal and
compare this with the spectrum of the DATA INPUT signal (see Figure 22).
b To reduce fluctuations in the displayed spectrum, set Averaging to the number

of consecutive spectra to be averaged. The higher the setting, the lower the
fluctuations, however, the spectrum will take longer to stabilize after a change.
QAM Settings:
Carrier Frequency ............... 10 000 Hz
Generator Settings:
Bit Rate ................................ 4000 bit/s

Scale .................................. 10 dBV/div
Averaging ......................................... 16
Reference Frequency .................0 kHz
Figure 22. DATA INPUT signal and QAM signal spectrum.
In Figure 22, identify the features that correspond to the bit rate and the
symbol rate. Express the bandwidth of the QAM signal in terms of the bit rate
and the symbol rate.

Bit rate Symbol rate
Figure 22.Four-level (baseband) signal and QAM signal spectrum.
The nulls in the QAM signal spectrum occur at multiples of the symbol
rate Rs which is one-quarter the bit rate Rb. The first-nulls bandwidth of the
QAM signal is therefore 2Rs = Rb/2.
Explain why QAM is considered to be a bandwidth efficient modulation

technique.
QAM is bandwidth efficient because it can transmit data at four times the bit
rate over the same bandwidth as binary modulation techniques such as
BPSK.
Signal constellations
22. Connect the Oscilloscope probes as follows:
Oscilloscope probe Test point Signal

1 TP14 I-channel D/A Converter output
2 TP15 Q-channel D/A Converter output
E TP5 Frequency Divider output
As an option, connect a conventional oscilloscope to the QAM Demodulator

I-CHANNEL OUTPUT and QAM Demodulator Q-CHANNEL OUTPUT (refer
to the RTM Connections tab of the software). Use the conventional
oscilloscope in the X-Y mode to observe the constellation. (The Low-Pass
filters in the QAM Modulator must be set to On.)
Make the following Generator settings:
Generation Mode ........................................... Pseudo-Random

n .................................................................... 3
Bit Rate .......................................................... 3000 bit/s

Figure 23 shows and example of what you should observe. The Oscilloscope
will display the I- and Q-channel D/A Converter output signals. Each of these
signals is a four-level analog signal that is used, after low-pass filtering, to
modulate one of the sinusoidal carriers.
Channel 1.................................. 2 V/div
Channel 2.................................. 2 V/div
Time Base .............................. 2 ms/div
Trigger Slope ............................. Rising
Trigger Level .................................. 1 V
Trigger Source ................................Ext
Figure 23. I- and Q-channel D/A Converter output signals.
23. Without moving the Oscilloscope probes, put the Oscilloscope in the X-Y
mode. Figure 24 shows an example of what you should observe.
Channel 1 (X) ............................ 1 V/div
Channel 2 (Y) ............................ 1 V/div
Display Mode ............................... Dots
X-Y .................................................. On
Sampling Window .................... 100 ms
Figure 24. QAM constellation (7 points shown).
b The Sampling Window setting determines the time during which the signals
are sampled before each update of the display. In the present case, this should
be 100 ms or greater so that all quadbits being generated appear each time
the display is updated.

The Oscilloscope now displays a number of points in the signal constellation.

What does each point in the constellation represent?
Each point displayed in the constellation corresponds to a one signal state,

that is, to one combination of phase and amplitude. Each signal state
corresponds to a different quadbit (pattern of four bits) in the input data
stream.
With 16-QAM, the constellation should normally have 16 points. Why are
only 7 points displayed?
With the Generator Setting n set to 3, only 7 of the 16 constellation points are
used. This is due to the fact that the Pseudo-Random Binary Sequence is
relatively short and therefore the number of different quadbits in the data is
limited.
24. In the Generator Settings, set n to different values (2, 4, and 5, etc.) and
observe the displayed constellation. What do you observe?
The longer the Pseudo-Random Binary Sequence, the greater the number of
different quadbits in the data and the greater the number of constellation
points displayed. When the Pseudo-Random Binary Sequence is long
enough, all 16 constellation points are included.
25. Connect the Logic Analyzer probes as follows:

C TP2 CLOCK INPUT
2 TP4 Serial to Parallel Converter input
3 TP6 Serial to Parallel converter output (MSB)
4 TP7 Serial to Parallel converter output
5 TP8 Serial to Parallel converter output
6 TP9 Serial to Parallel converter output (LSB)
26. Set the Generation Mode to User-Entry. Set the Binary Sequence to the four-
bit sequence (quadbit) 0000 and the Bit Rate to 2000 bit/s. Record data
using the Logic Analyzer. Configure Symbol 2 of the Logic Analyzer to
display the hexadecimal value of the quadbit, as shown in Figure 25.


Display Width ............................. 10 ms
Source.......................................... Ch 1
S1 Data ........................................ [ch2]
S2 Data ................ [ch3, ch4, ch5, ch6]
Figure 25. Logic Analyzer showing the quadbit 0000 in Ch 3 to Ch 6 and in S2.
With any four-bit Binary Observe the Oscilloscope display. Figure 26 shows the constellation point
Sequence, the stream of corresponding to the quadbit 0000. Note in Figure 27 that this constellation
quadbits at the output of the
Serial to Parallel Converter is
point has been identified with the quadbit it represents as well as the
uniform over time – each hexadecimal value of the quadbit in square brackets.
quadbit is identical to the
previous quadbit.
Figure 26. Oscilloscope showing the constellation point for the quadbit 0000.

L SD s :
____ ____ ____ ____ __

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
____ ____ 00
_ 0_
__ 0 ____ __
[ ] [ ] [0] [ ]
____ ____ ____ ____ __

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
____ ____ ____ ____ __

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
M SD s : _ _ __ __ __
Figure 27. Quadbits [and HEX values] in the QAM constellation.
27. Set the Binary Sequence to 1111 and repeat the previous step. You have
now identified two of the 16 points in the constellation. In the following steps,
you will identify the remaining points.
Identifying constellation points
Identifying the constellation points that are mapped to 0000 and 1111 is
straightforward because with each of these Binary Sequences, the four outputs
of the Serial to Parallel Converter are identical. The bit at which the Serial to
Parallel Converter begins to divide the DATA INPUT stream makes no
difference.
With all other four-bit Binary Sequences, however, the bit at which the Serial to
Parallel Converter begins does make a difference. For example, setting the
Binary Sequence to 0001 will produce a uniform stream of one of the following
quadbits: 0001, 0010, 0100, or 1000. There is no way to predict beforehand
which of these quadbits you will obtain. Clicking the Drop 1 Bit button allows you
to change the quadbit produced.

In the following steps, for each four-bit Binary Sequence you enter, you will use
the Logic Analyzer to observe which quadbit is present at the output of the Serial
to Parallel converter, and observe which constellation point is displayed on the
Oscilloscope. Then you will use the Drop 1 Bit button to obtain all possible
quadbit from that Binary Sequence.
28. Set the Binary Sequence to 0001. Record data on the Logic Analyzer and
note which quadbit is present at the outputs of the Serial to Parallel
Converter. Since TP6 represents the MSB, a 0 at TP6, TP7 and TP8 and a 1
at TP9 represents the quadbit 0001. Clicking the Drop 1 Bit button will
change this quadbit to 0010.
Click the Drop 1 Bit button several times, each time observing the quadbit
using the Logic Analyzer and observing the constellation point displayed on
the Oscilloscope. Then write in Figure 27 the quadbits that correspond to
these four constellation points.
By using different four-bit Binary Sequences and the Drop 1 Bit button, and
by using the Logic Analyzer and the Oscilloscope, complete Figure 27 to
show all 16 quadbits. Enter the hexadecimal value of each quadbit between
the square brackets.
Each quadbit consists of two dibits – the most significant dibit (MSD) and the
least significant dibit (LSD). Below the horizontal axis of Figure 27, write the
MSDs that correspond to each of the columns. To the right of the vertical
axis, write the LSDs that correspond to each of the rows.

L SD s :
1 101 1 001 0 001 0 101 01

[D] [9] [1] [5]
1 100 1 000 0 000 0 100 00

[C] [8] [0] [4]
1 110 1 010 0 010 0 110 10

[E] [A] [2] [6]
1 111 1 011 0 011 0 111 11

[F] [B] [3] [7]
M SD s : 1 1 10 00 01
Figure 27. Quadbits [and HEX values] in the QAM constellation.
Note the order of the MSDs and the LSDs. Are they arranged consecutively?
The MSDs and LSDs are not arranged consecutively since 00 comes
between 10 and 01.
The smallest distance between neighboring constellation points is the

horizontal or vertical distance between consecutive points. Constellation
points separated by this distance are considered to be adjacent. (The oblique
distance between any two points is greater than this distance.) Note how the
bits values of the quadbits change as you move from one point to any
adjacent point.
Name the type of coding that is used here and explain the advantage of
encoding the constellation points in this manner.
Moving from any constellation point to an adjacent point changes only one bit
in the quadbit. This is an example of a Gray code, where two adjacent values
differ in only one digit. The advantage of a Gray code is that when noise in
the transmission channel causes a constellation point to deviate into the
region of an adjacent point, only one bit is in error. When Gray coding is
combined with an error correction mechanism capable of correcting single-bit
errors, the transmission is less susceptible to noise.

Exercise 1 – QAM Modulation Conclusion
29. Enter the three-bit Binary Sequence 111 and observe the constellation.
Change the binary Sequence to 101. Click the Drop 1 bit button several
times and observe what happens.
Explain why this 3-bit sequence produces three constellation points, each of
which represents four bits and why the drop 1 bit button seems to have no
effect.
The number of bits in this sequence is not a multiple of four. Since the Serial
to Parallel Converter groups bits four at a time, the sequence must pass four
times before the system returns to its initial state (101 101 101 101). The
quadbits sent to the modulator are therefore 1011 0110 and 1101. These
three points appear in the constellation. Dropping one bit does not change
the quadbits that this sequence produces.
30. When you have finished using the system, exit the LVCT software and turn
off the equipment.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you became familiar with the LVCT software and studied the
operation of the basic functional blocks of the QAM modulator. You observed that
the Serial to Parallel Converter groups the input data stream into quadbits that
are processed by two parallel channels, I and Q, and that the starting point of this
grouping is arbitrary. You saw how the A/D Converters and the mixers generate
two bi-phase, bi-level signals using two carriers in phase quadrature. You
observed that summing these two signals produces the QAM signal. You also
observed the signal constellations on the oscilloscope for various binary
sequences.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Explain what is meant by bandwidth efficiency.
Bandwidth efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a modulation technique

uses the available bandwidth. It is equal to the maximum theoretical number
of bits per second that can be transmitted per unit bandwidth.
2. How does the bandwidth efficiency of QAM compare to that of other

modulation techniques?
The bandwidth efficiency of QAM is twice that of QPSK and four times that of
binary modulation techniques such as BPSK.

Exercise 1 – QAM Modulation Review Questions
3. What does a constellation diagram represent?
The constellation diagram is a pictorial representation showing all possible

signal states as a set of constellation points in the I-Q plane. Each
constellation point corresponds to the head of a phasor and represents one
of the symbols used by the modulation scheme. Its position in the diagram
shows the amplitude and the phase of the corresponding waveform.
4. What is the role of the mixers in the QAM modulator?
Each mixer performs modulation by multiplying the sinusoidal carrier by the

four-level baseband data signal. The effect of the mixer is to shift the
frequency spectrum of the baseband signal up to the frequency of the carrier.
5. How are the signals at the outputs of the mixers combined to produce the
QAM signal?
The I- and Q-channel mixer output signals are simply summed in order to
produce the QAM signal.

Bibliography
STREMLER, Ferrel G., Introduction to Communications Systems, Second
Edition, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1982.
ISBN 0-201-07251-3
SKLAR, Bernard. Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications,

Second Edition, Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall Inc., 2001
ISBN 978-0-13084-788-7

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Telecommunications

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

By the staff of Festo Didactic

© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2007

DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

Caution, risk of electric shock

Caution, hot surface

Caution, risk of danger

Caution, lifting hazard

Caution, hand entanglement hazard

Notice, non-ionizing radiation

Both direct and alternating current

Three-phase alternating current

Earth (ground) terminal

© Festo Didactic 39866-10 III

Protective conductor terminal

Frame or chassis terminal

Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

In position of a bi-stable push control

Out position of a bi-stable push control

IV © Festo Didactic 39866-10

Introduction Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ............................................. 1

Exercise 1 QAM Modulation ........................................................................... 9

Exercise 2 QAM Demodulation .................................................................... 43

© Festo Didactic 39866-10 V

PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 47

Exercise 3 Differential QAM (DQAM)........................................................... 63

Exercise 4 Data Scrambling and Descrambling ........................................ 81

Exercise 5 Troubleshooting a QAM/DQAM Modem ................................... 95

VI © Festo Didactic 39866-10

Index of New Terms ........................................................................................... 101

© Festo Didactic 39866-10 VII

Unlike analog communication systems, digital systems do not require accurate

The Communications Technologies Training System, Model 8087, is a state-of-

Unlike conventional, hardware-based training systems that use a variety of

Each of the communications technologies to be studied is provided as an

The courseware for the Communications Technologies Training System consists

© Festo Didactic 39866-10 IX

review questions. The Communications Technologies Training System and the

We invite readers of this manual to send us their tips, feedback, and

Please send these to did@de.festo.com.

X © Festo Didactic 39866-10

© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XI

This Student Manual begins with an Introduction presenting important

Each exercise contains:

Before beginning this manual, it is preferable to be familiar with the following

© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XIII

XIV © Festo Didactic 39866-10

Special character formats

c This symbol refers you to another manual or document.

Instrument probe connections to test points are usually presented in tables

Oscilloscope probe Connect to Signal

© Festo Didactic 39866-10 XV

System and instrument settings

XVI © Festo Didactic 39866-10

QTY DESCRIPTION MODEL

The QAM waveform

s (t ) dI (t ) cos(Zt ) dQ (t ) sin(Zt ) (3)

Set-up and connections