Lecture 1

Per Unit

Lecture Objectives: 1. Transform per phase and three phase circuit quantities
from Standard International (SI) units to per unit.
2. Transform per unit circuit quantities to per phase SI and
three phase SI units.
3. Per form change of base for per unit quantities.

Per Unit Calculations

The transmission system and several portions of the distribution system are
operated at voltages in the kilovolt (kV) range. This results in large amounts of power
being transmitted in the range of kilowatts to megawatts, and kilo volt amperes to mega
volt amperes. As a result, in analysis, it is useful to scale, or normalize quantities with
large physical values. This is commonly done in power system analysis and is referred
to as the per-unit system. The calculation of system performance conveniently uses a
per-unit representation of voltage, current, impedance, power, reactive power, and
apparent power (volt-ampere). The numerical per-unit value of any quantity is its ratio
to the chosen base quantity of the same dimensions. Thus a per-unit quantity is a
normalized quantity with respect to a chosen base value.

Historically the per-unit conversion was used to simplify hand calculations. With the
advent of the digital computer in power system analysis, this advantage has been
eliminated. The conversion however, has several other advantages:

 In the per-unit system of representation, device parameters tend to fall in a relatively

fixed range, making erroneous values prominent.

 Ideal transformers are eliminated as circuit elements. This results in a large saving
in component representation and reduces computational burden.

 The voltage magnitude throughout a given power system is relatively close to unity
in the per-unit system for a power system operating normally. This characteristic
provides a useful check on the calculations.

In power system calculations the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is almost
always known, so the voltage is a convenient base value to choose. The apparent
power (volt-ampere) is usually chosen as a second base. In equipment this quantity is
usually known and makes a convenient base. The choice of these two base quantities
will automatically fix the base of current, impedance, and admittance. In a system
study, the volt-ampere base can be selected to be any convenient value such as 100
MVA, 200 MVA, etc.
The same volt-ampere base is used in all parts of the system. One base voltage in a
certain part of the system is selected arbitrarily. All other base voltages must be related
to the arbitrarily selected one by the turns ratio of the connecting transformers.

For single-phase systems or three-phase systems where the term current refers to line
current, where the term voltage refers to line to neutral voltage, and where the term volt-
amperes refers to volt-amperes per phase, the following formulae relate the various
quantities:

base, VAl
Base current, A  (B4.1)
base voltage, V LN

base voltage, V LN
Base impedance,   (B4.2)
base current, A

base voltage, V LN 2
Base impedance,   (B4.3)
base, VAl

Base power, Wl  baseVAl (B4.4)

Base power, VARl  baseVAl (B4.5)

Actual impedance, 
Per Unit impedance of an element = (B4.6)
Base impedance, 

Normally, in power systems, power bases are specified as kVA or MVA. One must
always ensure these values are converted to units of VA before using the above formula
(1 kVA=1x103 VA, 1 MVA=1x106 VA). Likewise, voltage bases are usually specified as
kV. One must always ensure these values are converted to units of volts before using
the above formula (1 kV=1x103 V).

It is common to use subscripted notation to identify base quantities. For example, in

contrast to the notation of Eq.(B4.3) , Z base can be used to identify the base impedance,
M

In Module B3, Section B3.2.2, we have demonstrated that balanced three-phase circuits
can be solved on a per-phase basis. In performing per-phase analysis, the bases for
the quantities in the circuit representation are volt-amperes per-phase or kilo-volt-
amperes per phase, and volts or kilovolts from line to neutral. System specification is
usually given in terms of total three-phase volt-amperes or kilo-volt-amperes or mega-
volt-amperes and line-to-line volts or kilovolts. This may result in some confusion
regarding the relation between the per-unit value of line-to-line voltage and the per-unit
value of phase voltage (line to neutral voltage). In a per-phase circuit, the voltage
required for the solution is the line to neutral voltage even though a line-to-line voltage
may be specified as a base. The base value of the line to neutral voltage is the base
value of the line-to line voltage divided by 3 . Since this is also the relation between
line-to-line and line to neutral voltages of a balanced three-phase system, the per-unit
value of a line to neutral voltage on the line to neutral voltage base is equal to the per-
unit value of the line-to-line voltage at the same point on the line-to -line voltage base if
the system is balanced. Similarly, the three-phase volt-amperes is three times the volt-
amperes per-phase, and the base value of the three-phase volt-amperes is three times
the base value of the per-phase volt-amperes. Therefore, the per-unit value of the
three-phase volt-amperes on the three-phase volt-ampere base is identical to the per-
unit value of the volt-amperes per-phase on the volt-ampere per-phase base.

The following numerical example clarifies the relationships.

Base Three Phase Kilovolt-ampere  Base kVA3  45,000kVA

and
Base Line-to-line Voltage  Base kVLL  180kV

We then have
45,000kVA
Base Per-phase Kilovolt-ampere  Base kVA1   15,000kVA
3
and
180
Base Line-to-neutral voltage  Base kVLN   103.92kV
3

We will now calculate the per-unit quantities for a line-to-line voltage of a 162 kV and a
total three-phase power of 24,000 kW.

Line-to-Line Base
 162  10 3 
Per - unit Voltage =    0.90
3 
 180  10 
24 ,000  10 3
Per - unit Power =  0.533
45,000  10 3

Line-to-Neutral Base
For an actual line-to-line voltage of 162 kV, in a balanced three-phase system, the line
162
to neutral voltage is  93 .5307 kV , and
3
93.5307 10 3
Per-unit voltage =  0.90
103 .92 10 3

24 ,000 k
For a total three-phase power of 24,000 kW the power per-phase is  8000 kW ,
3
and
8000 10 3
Per-unit power =  0.533
15000 10 3

Throughout the above discussion mega-volt-ampere and megawatt may be substituted

for kilo-volt-ampere and kilo-watt respectively. Conventionally, a given value of base
voltage in a three-phase system is a line-to-line voltage, and a given value of base kilo-
volt-amperes or base mega-volt-amperes is the total three-phase base.

The values of base impedance and base current can be computed from base values of
voltage and volt-amperes as shown earlier in the section. If the base values of volt-
amperes and voltage are specified as the volt-amperes for the total three phases and
voltage from line-to-line in a balanced three-phase system respectively, we have

baseVA3
Base current, A  (B4.7)
3  base voltage, V LL

(base voltage, V LL ) 2
Base impedance,   (B4.8)
baseVA3

(base voltage, VLN ) 2

Base impedance,   (B4.9)
baseVA1

When using these equations, as previously mentioned, it is important to express all

voltages and powers in units of volts and volt-amperes rather then kV and kVA or MVA.

Example B 4.1

In the circuit shown in Figure B4.1, a load having an impedance of 39  j 26 is fed from a
voltage source through a line having an impedance of 1  j8 . The effective, or RMS,
value of the source voltage is 220 V.
 1  j8
+

+
- 2200
0Vrms VL I L 39  j 26

-
Line Load
Figure B4.1

a) Calculate the load current I L and voltage V L .

b) Calculate the average and reactive power delivered to the load.
c) Repeat the above calculation in per-unit choosing a base of 220 V for the voltage,
and a base of 1500 VA for the volt-amperes.
d) Verify the values obtained in c) with those obtained in a), and b).

Solution

a) Since the line and load are in series across the voltage source, the load current
equals the voltage divided by the total impedance. Thus

220 0
IL   3.193  j 2.714  4.1906   40.364  A
40  j34

The load voltage is the product of the load current and load impedance:

VL  39  j 26I L  195.09  j 22.83  196.424  6.674 A

b) The average and reactive power delivered to the load is given by

S  VL I L  195.09  j 22.83 3.193  j 2.714  684.889  j 456.592VA

c) Voltage Base = 220 V, Voltampere Base = 1500 VA

 1500
From Eq. (B4.1) Current Base   6.8181 A
220
220
From Eq. (B4.2) Impedance   32.267 
6.8181

The circuit diagram in Figure B4.1 can now be represented in per-unit. The per-unit
values of the various quantities are given by

2200
Vg   1.0
2200
1  j8
Z line   0.03099  j 0.2479
32.267
39  j 26
Z load   1.20867  j 0.805
32.267

The per-unitized circuit is shown in Figure B4.2.

0 .030991  j 0 . 2479

1 .20867  j 0 .805785
1 0 
+
- VL I L

-
Line Load

Figure B4.2 Per-Unit Representation

10
IL   0.614642   40 .364 
1.23966  j1.053685

VL  1.20867  j 0.805785 I L  0.886805  j 0.103761

 0.8928557   6.674 

S  VL I L  0.548786633.69  0.456618 j0.3044115

d) In order to verify the per-unit values obtained above, we multiply the per-unit values
by their respective base values to obtain the actual values.

I L  0.614642   40.364   6.8181  4.1906   40.364  A

VL  0.8928557   6.674   220  196 .42  6.674 V

 S  0.456618  j 0.3044115   1500  684 .899  j 456 .592VA

These values check with the values obtained in a) and b).

B4.1.1 Change of Base in Per Unit Quantities

In most instances, the per-unit impedance of a component is specified on the rated
component base which is different from the base selected for the part of the system in
which the component is located. When performing calculations, all impedances in any
one part of the system must be expressed on the same impedance base. As a result, it
is necessary to have a means of converting per-unit impedances from one base to
another. Substituting the expression for base impedance given be Eq. (B4.3) or (B4.9)
for base impedance in Eq. (B4.6) gives

(actual impedance, ) x(baseVA)

Per  Unit Impedance  (B4.10)
(base voltage, V ) 2

Given a component impedance in per-unit on a specified base, the process of changing

this per-unit value of impedance to per-unit on a new base can be done as follows. We
shall refer to the base on which the component per-unit value is originally specified as
the old base, and the base on which we want to represent it as the new base. From Eq.
(B4.10), we can calculate the actual impedance of the component in  , given by

( per  unit impedanceold ) x(base voltage, Vold ) 2

Actual Impedance  (B4.11)
(baseVAold )

The per-unit value of the above impedance can now be calculated on the new base by
substituting the value of the actual impedance Eq. (B4.11) in Eq. (B4.10) with the choice
of the new base for voltage and voltamperes. This gives

baseVold 2 baseVAnew
Per  Unit Z new  Per  Unit Z old ( ) ( ) (B4.12)
baseVnew baseVAold

B4.2 Power System Representation

In the above sections, we have presented an overview of the various components,
which constitute a power system. In this section, we demonstrate the assembly of
these components to represent a complete system. We have also shown in Section
B3.2.4 that a balanced three-phase system is analyzed using a per-phase
representation of the system or the equivalent circuit composed of one of the three
phases and the neutral return. In drawing a representation of the circuit, the diagram is
further simplified by omitting the completed circuit through the neutral and by indicating
the component parts by specified symbols rather than their equivalent circuits. This
simplified diagram is called a single-line or one-line diagram.

B4.2.1 Single Line Diagram

In the single-line diagram, the circuit parameters are not shown, and a transmission line
is represented by a single line between its two ends. In addition, associated
components are represented by standard symbols [ 1, 3, 5 ]. The single line diagram
provides important information regarding the system. The level of detail in the single-
line diagram varies with the intended use of the diagram, e.g., the representation of
circuit breakers is not essential in a steady state analysis of the system. Figure B4.3
illustrates a few symbols for components commonly represented in the power system.

Machine or rotating Air circuit breaker

armature (Basic)

Two-winding power Three-phase delta

transformer connection

Three-winding Three-phase wye

power transformer neutral ungrounded

Power circuit Three-phase wye

breaker oil or other neutral grounded
liquid

Figure B4.3 Component Symbols

Figure B4.4 shows the single line diagram of a simple power system. A generator
grounded through a reactor is connected to a bus and through a step-up transformer to
a transmission line. Two motors grounded through reactors are connected to a bus
through a transformer at the other end of the line. A load is also connected to the bus
with the motors. The information regarding the ratings of the generators, transformers,
motors, and loads is usually provided on the one-line diagram.

M1
T1 T2
Transmission Line
G M2
 Figure B4.4 Single-Line Diagram of a Sample Power System

B4.3 Impedance and Reactance Diagrams

To analyze the steady-state behavior of the system, or to analyze its response under
faulted conditions, the per-phase equivalent circuit has to be obtained. The one line
diagram described above is used to generate the per-phase equivalent circuit. In order
to obtain the impedance diagram, the appropriate equivalent circuit of each component
need to be obtained. This aspect of the analysis will be covered in the subsequent
chapters. In general the following representation is adopted for the various
components. Rotating machines are represented by constant voltage sources in series
with appropriate impedances. Transformers are represented by an equivalent circuit,
which has three branches. A series branch representing the primary winding
impedance, a shunt branch representing the magnetizing current, and the effect of the
no-load losses, and another series branch representing the effect of the secondary
winding series impedance. In analysis commonly done, the effect of the magnetizing
current is neglected. As a result the shunt branch is eliminated, and the transformer is
represented by its series impedance reflected to any one side. Transmission lines are
represented by appropriate models based on the length of the line. A commonly used
model consists of a series impedance which includes the resistance and reactance, and
a shunt capacitance at each end of the line equal to half the total capacitance of the
line. Loads are modeled in a variety of ways. A common model used is the
representation of the load by an equivalent shunt impedance [4].

With the appropriate component models briefly described above, the one line diagram
shown in Fig. B4.4 has a per-phase impedance representation as shown in Fig. B4.5
T1 Transmission line T2

M1 M2

Figure B4.5 The Per-Phase Impedance Representation

for the Single-Line Diagram in Figure B4.4.

In most realistic power systems, the line reactance is much larger than the resistance.
In most analyses, the line resistance is neglected. In addition, for transmission lines of
short length (50 miles or less), the shunt capacitance can be neglected, as a result, only
the series reactance is represented. In several cases, the magnetizing current of
transformers is neglected, and the series resistance is small compared to the reactance.
Based on these assumptions, Example B4.2, depicts the development of a simplified
impedance diagram on a common system base in per-unit consisting largely of
reactances for the purpose of analysis.
Example B 4.2

Given the system shown in the single-line diagram in figure B4.4, we select a base
voltage of 161 kV for the transmission line, and a base volt-ampere of 20 MVA. Find
the per-unit impedances of all components referred to these bases. The components
have ratings as follows:

Generator G: 15 MVA, 13.8 kV, x= 0.15 per-unit

Motor M1: 5 MVA, 13.2 kV, x= 0.15 per-unit
Motor M2: 5 MVA, 13.2 kV, x= 0.15 per-unit
Transformer T1: 25 MVA, 13.2 kV-161 kV, x= 0.10 per-unit
Transformer T2: 15 MVA, 13.8 kV-161 kV, x= 0.10 per-unit
Load: 4 MVA at 0.8 pf lag
Transmission Line: x = j100 

Solution

Using Eq. (B4.12), we first convert the reactance of the various components to the
specified system base of 161 kV in the transmission line, and 20 MVA.

Transformer T1, has a transformation ratio of 161 kV: 13.2 kV, as a result, it converts
the 161 kV base voltage in the transmission line to 13.2 kV on the generator side. This
step of determining the appropriate base voltage in different parts of the system based
on the transformation ratio of the transformer involved is a key step in converting all the
components to a common base. The per-unit impedance of the transformer referred to
either side is identical. The power on either side of the transformer is the same, as a
result, the base value of the volt-ampere on either side of the transformer is the same.
With the new system base values identified, the per-unit reactance of the generator G,
and transformer T1, can now be determined.

2
 20  13.8 
Generator G: x  0.15    0.21859 per-unit
 15  13.2 
2
Transformer T1: x  0.10
20  161 
   0.080 per-unit
 25  161 

Transformer T2, has a transformation ratio of 161 kV: 13.8 kV, as a result it converts the
161 kV base voltage in the transmission line to 13.8 kV on the load side. The per-unit
reactance of the motors and the load are then given by,

2
Motor M1 and M2: x  0.15 
20 13.2 
  0.54896 per-unit
 5  13.8 
For the transmission line we must convert from ohmic values to per-unit values. We
divide the actual value of the reactance by the base value given by Eq. (B4.10)

( j100)(20 x106 )
Transmission line, x   j 0.07715 per-unit
(161x103 ) 2

For the load we first evaluate a parallel R-X representation using Eqs. (B3.31, B3.32)

For the given load, S  P  jQ

 S  cos   j sin  
 4  0.8  j 0.6
 3.2  j 2.4MVA

2 2
Vload Vload
Rload   , X load  , where Vload is the voltage at the load bus which can be
P Q
determined if the operating conditions for the motors are known.

Dividing these values by the base impedance we get

2
V (20  10 6 )
(V p.u.) 2 (20) per-unit
load load
R  
load
(3.2)(13.8  103 ) 2 (3.2)

Vload (20 106 )

2
(Vload p.u.) 2 (20) per-unit
X load  
(2.4)(13.8 103 ) 2 (2.4)

Example B 4.3

A balanced Y-connected voltage source with Vab  480  j 0V is applied to a balanced  -

connected load Z   4540 . The impedance between the source and the load is
Z L  186  . Calculate the per-unit current and actual current in phase “a” of the line
using S base 3  15 kVA and Vbase  LL  480V .

Solution

The first step is to convert the Z  into an equivalent Z Y

 Z 4540 
ZY    1540  
3 3

The base impedance is given by

(base VLL ) 2 (480) 2

Z base    15.36
base VA3 (1500)

The per-unit line and load impedances are

ZL 186 
Z Lp .u.    0.06510486  per-unit
Z base 15.36
and
ZY 1540 
Z Yp.u.   0.9765640  per-unit
Z base 15.36

also
VbaseLL 480
VbaseLN    277V
3 3
Van 277   30
Vanp.u.   1.0  30  per-unit
VbaseLN 277

The equivalent circuit in the per-unit representation is shown below in Figure B4.6
below.

Z Lper  unit  0.06510485

+
Ia per unit Z Y per  unit  0 . 976 56  40 
-
V an p er  u nit  1  30 

Line Load

Figure B4.6 Per-Unit Representation for Example B4.3

 Van p u . 1  30 
I a p .u .  
Z Lp .u .  Z Yp.u . 0.06510486   0.9765640 
1  30 

0.0045414  j 0.064945  0.748088  j 0.62772
1  30  1  30 
 
0.752629  j 0.692666 1.02285742.62 
 0.97765  72.62  per  unit

The base current is

kVAbase3 15
I base    18.042 A
3  kVbaseLL 30  0.480

and the actual phase "a" line current is

 
I a  0.9776  72.62 18.042  17.6388  72.62 A

Example B 4.4

Prepare a per-phase schematic of the system shown below in Figure B4.7 and show all
impedances in per-unit on a 100 MVA, 154 kV base in the transmission line circuit.
Necessary data for this problem are as follows

G1: 50 MVA, 13.8 kV, X = 0.15 per-unit

G2: 20 MVA, 14.4 kV, X = 0.15 per-unit
T1: 60 MVA, 13.2/161 kV, X = 0.10 per-unit
T2: 25 MVA, 13.2/161 kV, X = 0.10 per-unit
Load: 25 MVA, 0.80 pf lag

T1 T2
20  j80
G1 G2

10  j 40 10  j 40
Load

Figure B4.7 One-Line Diagram for System in Example B4.4

Solution
 Base kV in the Transmission Line = 154 kV

Base kV in G1 and G2 = 154  13 .2  12 .63 kV

161

Note: Once the Base kV is specified in the transmission line circuit, the Base kV in all
other circuits is determined by the transformation ratio of the appropriate transformers.
In this example T1 and T2 have the same transformation ratio. Hence the Base kV in
G1 and G2 are equal. If the transformation ratios were not the same then the
appropriate transformation ratios should be used to determine the base voltage.
2
100  13.8 
G1 : X  0.15     0.3583 per  unit
50  12.63 
2
100  14.4 
G2 : X  0.15     0.9755 per  unit
20  12.63 
2 2
100  161  100  13.2 
T1 : X = 0.10     0.10     0.18216 per  unit
60  154  60  12.63 
2 2
100  161  100  13.2 
T2 : X = 0.10     0.10     0.4372 per  unit
25  154  25  12.63 
(154x10 3 ) 2
Base Impedance in Transmissi on Line Circuit =  237.16
100x10 6
20  j80
Z T.Line   0.084  j 0.3373 per  unit
237.16
(12.63x10 3 ) 2
Base Impedance in Load Circuit =  1.595
100x10 6
10  j 40
Z D. Line   6.269  j 25.075 per  unit
1.595
Load = 25(0.8 + j0.6) = 20 + j15 MVA
2 2
Vload (100 x10 6 ) Vload (100 x10 6 )
Ru  , Xu 
20 x10 6  (12.63x10 3 ) 2 15 x10 6  (12.63x10 3 ) 2
 j 0 . 3583 j 0 .18216 0 . 08 j 0 . 3373 j 0 .4372 j 0 .9755

G1 G2
6.269 j 25.075 j 25.075 6.269

Load

Ru Xu

Figure B4.8 Impedance Diagram with Per-Unit Representation

PROBLEMS

Problem 1
Consider the power system shown below. Choose a system power base 100MVA and a
line-to-line voltage base for section 1 as 6.9kV. The load in section 3 consumes 10MVA
at 0.8pf leading when the line-to-line voltage at the load is 13.8kV
(a) Determine the ohmic value of a R+jX load (R and X connected in series, as shown)
in section 3 that consumes this same amount of power at the specified voltage level
(i.e., that consumes 10 MVA at 0.8 pf leading at 13.8kV line-to-line).
(b) Compute the impedance base for the section 3 load.

T1 T2

Section 1 6.8kV/69kV 71kV/13.8kV

Section 2 Section 3

Problem 2
Consider the power system shown below. Choose a system power base of 100MVA
and a line-to-line voltage base for section 1 as 6.9kV. Determine the appropriate values
of per unit impedance for transformers T1, T2, and the transmission line.

T1 T2
5  j 20

6.8kV/69kV 71kV/13.8kV
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
10%, 50MVA 8%, 20MVA

Problem 3
A generator is connected to a transmission line through a transformer having a rated
turns ratio (ratio of line to line voltages) of:
20 kV (generator side) to 100 kV (transmission line side).

The generator has a per unit reactance of 0.08 pu on a 19 kV, 50 MVA base.

Select the base voltage on the transmission line side to be 110 kV.
 a. Compute the base voltage on the generator side.
b. Compute the pu reactance of the generator using a 100 MVA system power
base.

Problem 4
Choose a system MVA base of 100 MVA and a voltage base of 4.0 kV for the load
portion of the system. Find per-unit values of impedances for both transformers and the
transmission line.

T1 T2
Xline = 6 

Section 1 4.1kV/34.5kV 36kV/4.5kV

10%, 15MVA Section 2 Section 3
8%, 20MVA

Problem 5
You receive the following data from a manufacturer regarding a new three-phase
transformer:
Ratio of line-line voltages: 13.8kV/225kV
Power rating: 400 MVA
Per unit reactance on component base: 8%
You are considering replacement of an existing transformer in your three-phase system
with this new one, and you want to see how it would affect the currents. Below is a
circuit of your system. All data is in per unit on a 100 MVA base. The voltage base for
the transmission line is 230 kV and the voltage base for the low side of transformer 1 is
14.1067 kV. The per unit impedances of the transmission line, transformer 2, and the
load are:
Zt=0.0004+j0.005 pu XX2=0.02 pu RL=0.8 pu
a. Compute the per unit reactance of the transformer on the system bases.
b. Compute the magnitude of the current It in the transmission line, in per unit, and
in amperes.
Transformer 1 Trans. Line Transformer 2 Load

Xx1 Zt Xx2

1.0 pu + It
voltage RL
-