ATPL(A) 040 Human Performance and limitations

CRS.ATPL.EN.040.Rev2.2
 Human performance and limitations

I. Humans factors: basic concepts

II. Basic of flight physiology

III. Basic aviation psychology

 Human performance and limitations

I. Humans factors: basic concepts

II. Basic of flight physiology

III. Basic aviation psychology

ATPL(A) 040 1. Human factors : basic concepts
 I. Human factors: basic concepts

1. Human factors in aviation

2. Accidents statistics

3. Flight safety concepts

4. Safety culture
 I. Human factors: basic concepts

1. Becoming a competent pilot

2. Accidents statistics

3. Flight safety concepts

4. Safety culture
 I.1.a) Becoming a competent pilot
• Competent and skilled pilots:
o Regular training
o Know how to organize themselves
o Resources to cope with the unexpected events

• Self training:
o Read, research, discuss, discover
o Self-debrief after every flight

=> Lifetime learning and continuous training

 I. Human factors: basic concepts

1. Human factors in aviation

2. Accident statistics

3. Flight safety concepts

4. Safety culture
 I.2. Accident statistics

• Aviation fatal accident rate : 1/1 000 000 flight

• Automobiles accidents rate: 1/10 000 journeys

• Most common causes of

human factor errors:
o Loss directional control
o Poor judgment
o Airspeed not maintained
o Poor pre-flight planning
and decision making
 I.2. Accident statistics
• Statistic plays a fundamental role in accident
analysis
• Comprehensive and large statistics
=> causes of accident established

• Low variation in the number of accidents since 1959

but enormous growth in traffic
= considerable reduction in the rate compared to
the number of departures or hours of flights
 I.2. Accident statistics

Since the 1980s, significant reduction due to:

• Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)
• Automation
• SOP’s (standard operational procedure)
• training
 I. Human factors: basic concepts

1. Human factors in aviation

2. Accidents statistics

3. Flight safety concepts

4. Safety culture
 I.3. Flight safety concepts

• The TEM (Threat and Error Management):

Conceptual model that assists in understanding
the inter-relationship between safety and
human performance in complex environment

Threats Errors Undesired Aircraft

states (UAS)
 I.3. Flight safety concepts

• Threats
o Events or errors that occur outside the
influence of the crew
o increase operational complexity
o must be managed to maintain the margins of
safety

▪ Aircraft malfunctions
▪ Errors committed by the
ATC
▪ Congested airspace
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
o Types: anticipated / unexpected

o Latent threats: not immediately observable by

crews e.g.: poor equipment design

o Environmental threats: during actual operation

e.g.: weather, terrain, ATC command, traffic
congestion

o Organizational threats:
e.g.: operational pressure, aircraft type, cabin
design, maintenance, documentation
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
• Errors
o Action or inaction by operational person that
leads to deviations from organizational or the
operational person’s intentions
o Essential axis of security
=> reduce human error

o Murphy’s law « If that guy has any way of

making a mistake, he will »
So if an equipment is able
to fail or to be misused, in
that case, one day, it will …
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
• Errors
o 3 types of errors :
- Aircraft handling errors (direction, speed,
configuration of the aircraft)
- Procedural errors (flight crew deviation
from regulations)
- Communication errors (miscommunication
between pilots, cabin crew and ATC or
ground personnel

o Error management :
Anticipating – Detecting – Correcting
Errors
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
• Threat and errors management:
- limiting the incident of threats and dangerous errors
- Creating systems able to tolerate errors and contain
theirs damaging effects
• Counter-measures are used by crew to increase safety
margins in flight operations

Counter measures Reduce threats, errors

and UAS

Increase safety
margins
I.3. Flight safety concepts

Counter measures?
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
o Counter measures
✓ Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS)
✓ Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)
✓ Checklists
✓ Briefings
✓ Training
✓ Attempt to foresee potential problems
✓ Deal with threats as they occur
✓ Deal with the consequences of an error
 I.3. Flight safety concepts

• Procedures are constantly requiring

- Pre-programmed automated action
- SOP’s, checklists, briefings, documentation,
….

• Examples of procedural error:

o Checklist: wrong challenge response, items
missed, performed late or at the wrong time
o Briefings: omitted briefings, items missed
o Documentation: wrong weight and balance, fuel
information, ATIS, misinterpreted items on
paperwork
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
• Undesired aircraft states (UAS):
o Position, speed attitude or configuration of an
aircraft that results from crew error and reduces
safety margins
o E.g.: unstable approaches, proceeding towards the
wrong taxiway/runway
o Manage effectively: secure fight restored
Mismanaged: lead to incident or accident
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
• The SHELL model:
o Concept of interface between flight crew and
other parts of the airspace environment
o Provides a better understanding of how the
various components interact and cause failure
• Software: Rules, procedures,
documents, checklist
• Hardware: machine
• Environment: weather, airport,
conditions
• Liveware: flight crew,
engineers, controllers, ...
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
• The SHELL model:
• Ideally : all components in perfect
H harmony

S L E Flight takes place under perfect

conditions ; work environment is
L pleasant ; crew members working
together towards common goals

H • Inadequate coordination between

components: technical problems,
S L E failure, conflicts, work pressure,
errors, risk of accident
L
 I.3. Flight safety concepts
o Directly applicable to the aeronautical field:
✓ Human central
✓ Interacts permanently with his technical
and social environment

o Interactions:

Liveware Liveware
Between people
 I.3. Flight safety concepts

Liveware Software

Liveware Hardware
 I.3. Flight safety concepts

Liveware Environment

• Members of flight crew are safety-minded

• Managers has been proven to exert the biggest
influence on flight safety
 I. Human factors: basic concepts

1. Human factors in aviation

2. Accidents statistics

3. Flight safety concepts

4. Safety culture
 I.4. Safety culture
• Safety culture definition:
o The way safety is perceived, valued and
prioritised in an organisation
o Reflects the real commitment to safety at all
levels in the organisation

• Every individual and every group of the

organisation:
- Aware of the risks induced by its activity
- Able to change when facing novel safety issue
- Willing to communicate safety issue
- Consistently evaluate safety-related behaviour
 I.4. Safety culture

• Open culture:
o Each member has equal rights and possess
different interests
o Legitim to be concerned with aspirations and
self-fulfilment
o Freedom, equal chance and development of its
members
o Permanent search of better solutions
=> All levels play an active part in the
improvement of safety culture
 I.4. Safety culture

• Close culture:
o Laws and social rules are unchangeable
o Position is determined and cannot ,be changed
o Explain the future by the past
o Main advantages: social stability, obedience
=> An organization is reluctant to release
information on threats errors and undesired
aircraft state to other agencies
 I.4. Safety culture
• National culture: represents the shared components of
national heritage National

o Behavioural norms
Organisational
o Attitudes
o Values
Professional

• ‘Safety first’:
o Might be helpful to stop doing something stupid
o Safety is a question of sensible, coordinated protection
goals
 I.4. Safety culture
• James reason’s ‘Swiss Cheese Model’
o The holes in slices are weaknesses
o Holes align => Failure
 I.4. Safety culture
• Factors influencing safety culture of an
organisation:
o History
o Work environment
o Management leadership

• Important factors that promote a good safety

culture:
o Commitment: Attitude towards safety, ALL
personnel, Motivation
o Leadership
o Good example
 I.4. Safety culture

• Benefit of a goof safety culture:

o Profitability: The most safety-minded
companies ae the most profitable
o Efficiency: safety allows a company to deploy
its resources more effectively
o Flexibility: organisation using safety culture is
able to take risks than others cannot
o Adaptability: Able to reconfigure themselves in
the face of risky challenges and high-tempo
operations
 I.4. Safety culture

• Just Culture:
o People are encouraged to report mistake and
errors
o Rules and sentences are clearly defined
o Errors won’t be punished if unintentional

• Non punitive culture:

o Errors won’t be punished
o All the behaviour are tolerated
 I.4. Safety culture
• Flexible culture: organisation and people are
capable of adapting effectively to changing demands
Informed culture: organisation collects and
analyses relevant data and actively disseminate
safety information
Learning culture: organisation able to learn from its
mistakes and make changes
=> Accident statistics !
Reporting culture: people have confidence to
report safety concerns without fear of blame
Just culture: encouraged to report the problems,
won’t be punished if unintentional
 I.4. Safety culture

If you believe safety is expensive,

try an accident ...
I. Human factors: basic concepts
I. Human factors: basic concepts
I. Human factors: basic concepts
I. Human factors: basic concepts
I. Human factors: basic concepts
I. Human factors: basic concepts
ATPL(A) 040 2 Basic of flight physiology
 Human performance and limitations

I. Humans factors: basic concepts

II. Basic of flight physiology

III. Basic aviation psychology

2.
 Human performance and limitations

I. Humans factors: basic concepts

II. Basic of flight physiology

III. Basic aviation psychology

2.
 Basic of flight physiology

1. The atmosphere
2. Respiratory and circulatory system
a) Hypertension and hypotension
b) Coronary artery disease
c) Hypoxia
d) Hyperventilation
e) Decompression sickness/illness
f) Acceleration
g) Carbon monoxide

3. High-altitude environment
a) Ozone
b) radiation
c) Humidity
d) Extreme temperatures
 The atmosphere Definitions

Atmosphere :
• Air envelope that surrounds the Earth
• Plays a great role in the creation of conditions
favourable to life

5 layers differentiated by temperature variations:

· The troposphere : from ground to 10-12 km
· The stratosphere : from tropopause à 50-60 km
· The mesosphere : from stratopause à 80-90 km
· The thermosphere : from mesopause à 800 km
· The exosphere : de 800 à 3000 km
The atmosphere 1. Definitions
 The atmosphere Definitions
Troposphere : atmosphere layer of interest to
aviation, where most of weather phenomena occur.

It contains 80% of the total atmosphere mass and

almost the entire water vapor.

Characteristics:
• Gradual reduction of temperature with the altitude
(very variable according to local conditions)
• Reduction of humidity with the altitude

Only the pressure and the temperature vary with the

altitude, composition of atmosphere remain constant
(except water vapor and some minor components)
 The atmosphere Laws

• Dalton’s law
The total pressure exercised by a mixture is equal
to the sum of the partial pressures of components

Pi : partial pressure of gas i (the pressure the gas i would

have if it filled the entire volume alone)

(pressure drop for a gas with unchanged composition: drop of

partial pressures of the different components)
 The atmosphere Laws

• Boyle-Mariotte’s law
For a given constant temperature, the product of the
pressure and the volume is constant.

(for a volume of constant gas, a decrease of pressure causes

an increase of volume)
 The atmosphere Laws

• Henry’s law

- When a liquid is in contact with a gas, a certain

quantity of gas dissolves in the liquid, up to a
point of balance called saturation. The saturating
quantity of gas depends on the couple gas / liquid

- At constant T and saturation, the quantity of gas

dissolved in a liquid is proportional to the partial
pressure that this gas exercises on the liquid.

(a quantity of nitrogen more important than on surface is

dissolved in the blood during a scuba diving)
 The atmosphere Laws

• Ideal gas laws

P: Static pressure (Pascal)

V: Specific volume (m3/kg)
T: Static temperature (Kelvin), T(K)= t(°C) + 273,15
R: Constant of the ideal gases, R= 287,05 J/°/kg
ρ: Specific gravity (kg/m3)

• In constant volume, temperature and pressure vary in the

same direction
• The law of perfect gases also shows that in constant
pressure, the density ρ (or specific gravity) of the air and
the temperature vary in opposite directions
The atmosphere Atmospheric pressure, temperature
The atmosphere, which has a mass, is subjected to the Earth
attraction, and thus exercises a weight. Brought back to a
surface, the weight is a pressure:
At 0°C and 45° of latitude :
Barometric pressure = 760 mmHg (=1013 hPa =14,696 psi)

The value of the barometric pressure varies according

to the altitude according to an approximately
exponential law ( Decrease of the weight of the air column)
- 1/4 at 2350 m ( 7 750ft)
- 1/2 at 5500 m (18 000ft)
- 1/4 at 10200 m (33 800ft)
- 1/5 at 11700 m (38 500ft)
- 1/10 at 16100 m (53 000ft)
The atmosphere Atmospheric pressure, temperature

In the troposphere the temperature decreases with

the height until 11 000 m, where it stabilizes at
about -56°C.
Beyond 11 000 m, it remains constant (in the
stratosphere), until 50 000 m (stratopause)

In the troposphere the average decrease of

temperature is :

• - 6 to - 7°C / 1000 m (more precisely 6,5°C)

or
• - 2°C / 1000 ft
 The atmosphere Composition
Chemical composition of the atmosphere :
constant in the altitudes used in aeronautics (until
30000m), except :
· Water vapor
· Ozone (O3) : almost exclusively located in the stratosphere
(12-50 km)
· Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• The homosphere (low atmosphere) contains gas in fixed

(O2, N2, …) or variable quantities (H20, O3, Radon, ...), or
from industrial origin (COX, SOX, NOX, H2O, …)
• The atmosphere constantly contains more than 1013
(10 000 billions) tons of water
• Solid particles also exist in variable quantities, they are
in suspension in the air
 The atmosphere Composition

. Nitrogen (N2) ≈ 78% (593, mmHg*)

. Oxygen (O2) ≈ 21% (159,2 mmHg*)

. Carbone dioxide (CO2) ≈ 0,03% (0,23 mmHg*)

. Rare gases < 1% (7 mmHg*)

. TOTAL 100% (760 mmHg)

Volume percentage of the gases remain

constant (troposphere)
* Partial pressure in MSL
The atmosphere Gases contained in the body

Gases are present in the human body under three

forms :

• OCCLUDED

• DISSOLVED

• COMBINED
The atmosphere Gases contained in the body
Occluded gases
In closed or half-closed cavities:
· Sinuses
· Tympanic cavity
· Intestines
· Lungs

These gases are submitted to volume variations

according to Boyle-Mariotte’s law:
P.V = constant (for a constant T°)

(Volumes variation of cavities being limited, rapid increases of

altitude imply a gas expansion => BAROTRAUMA)
The atmosphere Gases contained in the body
Dissolved gases
Present in the whole of tissues, as nitrogen in fats, they
are submitted to:

• HENRY’S LAW : The volume V of a gas in solution in

a liquid is proportionate to its coefficient of solubility k
and in the pressure P of this gas in the gaseous
phase in touch with the liquid: V = k.P

• LAW OF DISTRIBUTION OF GASES: if 2 media

containing gases in different pressures are put in
touch, every gas spreads of the environment of the
strongest partial pressure towards that of the lowest
partial pressure, until equality of the pressures
 The atmosphere Gases contained in the body
Dissolved gases
Saturation : A liquid is said to be saturated with gas when
the net mass of this gas exchanged with the atmosphere
in its contact is nil (number of molecules going out equal to
number of entering molecules)
Oversaturation : When the pressure of the gas in the
liquid is superior to the one who exists in the outside
environment
Appearance of bubbles in case of: oversaturation AND
presence of pre-existent gaseous cores in the liquid, the
microscopic masses of gas fixed to the irregularities of
walls (CO2 in champagne)
In the blood, it is the DISEASE OF ALTITUDE
DECOMPRESSION or aeroembolism (vaporization of the
nitrogen)
 The atmosphere Gases contained in the body

Chemically combined gases : O2 and CO2

Gases transported by the haemoglobin, the molecule present

in red blood cells, called " respiratory gases »

The haemoglobin loads oxygen during the passage of the

blood in lungs and brings it at the level of tissues of the body,
which capture it for their metabolic needs.

The haemoglobin then takes back the carbon dioxide,

the waste of the metabolism, brings it back to the level of the
lungs where it is evacuated

(Decrease of alveolar pressure in oxygen = decrease of the

quantity of oxygen fixed to the haemoglobin and brought to
tissues)
The atmosphere Oxygen requirements for tissues
Human body = aerobic thermal machine

Place of reactions of oxidation requiring molecules of O2

The oxygen is an necessary element for life

• HYPOXIA = lack of oxygen

• ANOXIA = absence of oxygen (leads to death !)

• HYPERCAPNIA = increase of the CO2 in the blood

• HYPOCAPNIA = decrease below the usual rates

The atmosphere Oxygen requirements for tissues

HYPOXIA = lack of oxygen

In case of hypoxia, the body will try to adapt itself by

implementing mechanisms of compensation, but the
phenomena of adaptation have limits...

Hypoxia, hypercapnia and hypocapnia will be

responsible for diverse symptoms, susceptible to
cause a subtle incapacity, even a sudden incapacity
to fly an aircraft…
 The atmosphere Reminder

The consequence of the increase of altitude will

be the hypobaric hypoxia, to which are
associated:
• Hypoxia
• Barotrauma
• Decompression disease

To survive, human beings need:

• Sufficient oxygen
• Appropriate atmospheric pressure
• Source of heat
Respiratory and circulatory system
Cardiovascular system
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Heart: pump of the blood hydraulic system

(closed circuit)

Purpose: brings the blood to cells and

returns waste (O2, then CO2)

Arteries: Vessels transporting the blood of

the heart towards tissues

Veins: Vessels transporting the blood

towards the heart
 Respiratory and circulatory system
Heart divided in 4 cavities:
- Left auricle: takes back the oxygenated blood
coming from pulmonary veins and sends it to:
- Left ventricle: injects this oxygenated blood in
the aorta, the big artery dividing into thinner and
thinner vessels sending the blood to tissues
- Right auricle: takes back the CO2 blood, from
the lower and superior vena cava and sends it to:
- Right ventricle: injects this blood in the lung
artery big artery dividing into a network distributed
in lungs
Right and left heart synchronized in frequency but without
direct connection
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Cardiovascular system:

4 valves for functioning:

- Mitral valve (left auricle-left ventricle)
- Aortic valve (LV-aorta)
- Tricuspid valve (RA-RV)
- Pulmonary valve (RV-pulmonary artery)
 Respiratory and circulatory system
Systole: contraction of the
cardiac muscle, ejection of the
blood (max pressure)

Diastole: relaxation of the

muscle, the filling of auricles
and ventricles (min pressure)
Optimal blood pressure : 120 / 80 mmHg (« blood
pressure of 12 / 8 »)
120 mmHg: systolic pressure
80 mmHg: diastolic pressure

Lower blood pressure (BP) during rest and at night,

increases substantially during the effort
 Respiratory and circulatory system
Pressure :
Normal 13 / 8,5
Optimal 12 / 8
High limit of normal 13,9 / 9

If PB > 14 / 9:
arterial high blood pressure => cardiovascular risks.

Loss of elasticity of arteries with the age =increase of

blood pressure => amplified risks

EASA limits for pilots : 16 / 9,5

 Respiratory and circulatory system

The blood circulation

The big circulation: ramification of more and more
numerous vessels, with smaller and smaller arteries,
then arterioles, then capillaries (diameter: some
microns), in very fine, very permeable walls, place of
exchanges between blood and tissues.
The blood desaturates in O2 and loads with CO2
before returning towards the heart via venules, then
veins, then vena cava
The lower vena cava takes back the blood from the
body, the superior vena cava the blood from the
head
 Respiratory and circulatory system

The blood circulation

The small circulation: same plan, but brings the

desaturated blood from the lung artery to the lung
capillaries, in direct contact with pulmonary alveoli,
where the CO2 is going to spread towards the
alveolus, whereas the O2 contained in the air is going
to spread towards the blood and to attach to the
haemoglobin.

The oxygenated blood is brought back towards the LO

via venules and veins then pulmonary veins
 Respiratory and circulatory system

The blood circulation

The blood volume is from 4 to 5 dm3

The blood flow varies from 5 dm3/min to 30 dm3/min

HR = 60 / min at rest
HR = 200 / min during effort

Blood flow: product of the heart rate (HR) by the

volume of systolic ejection similar to a pump of fixed
capacity Q = V.N
Respiratory and circulatory system
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Lungs: deformable hollow organs within which

takes place a circulation of air (or ventilation),
allowing gaseous exchanges between the body and
the environment.
Air > trachea > right and left bronchi
Bronchi > bronchioles > lobes
Lobes constituted by a group of alveoli, with a very
fine skin, surrounded by a network of capillaries
Respiratory and circulatory system
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Gaseous exchanges take place at the level of these

blood-air membranes, thickness < 1 micron

The surface of exchanges = approximately 90m2

Ventilation: bound to the movements of the rib cage

(depression during the inspiration, overpressure
during the expiration)

Volume of air mobilized by respiratory cycle:

~ 0,5 to 0,7dm3
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Respiratory frequency: 12 to 16 cycles / mn

Average ventilator flow (frequency x volume):

• 6 - 8 dm3 / min at rest
• 100 - 120 dm3 / min during an intense effort
• 180 - 200 dm3 / min on a brief duration during a
maximal effort

> Figures allowing to size needs in air for a

pressurized cabin
 Respiratory and circulatory system
Blood (5 litres for an adult)
Biological liquid made of cells:
• Red blood cells or erythrocytes
• White blood cells or leukocytes
• Platelets

Roles:
• Transport of respiratory gases
• Transport of nutritive substances
• Transport of heat
• Transmission of (hormonal) signals
• Immunological defence mechanisms…
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Red blood cells: carriers of the haemoglobin,

capable of fixing O2, CO2, CO
Connection to oxygen (O2) or to carbon dioxide (CO2) is
easily reversible
Connection to carbon monoxide is 240 times stronger
(affinity), problem of elimination after exposure

White blood cells: defend the body against

infectious disease

Platelets ; key role in blood-clotting

 Respiratory and circulatory system

Anaemia : less than the normal number of red

(oxygen-carrying capacity is decresased)

causes :iron deficiency, bleeding lesion, renal failure, cancer….

 Respiratory and circulatory system
Coronary artery disease
Consequences : heart attack or stroke (blockage of a
coronary artery, necrosis of heart muscle tissue) (blocage
dans une artère, nécrose du muscle cardiaque), arythmia,
angina pectoris …

Factors of risk : high blood pressure, smoking,

obesity, diet, insufficient physical activity, gender,
heredity, age…

Benefits of physical exercise : compensate the

sedentary lifestyle specially for pilots, at least 3 times /
week for at least 20 mn (régénération of vesels and
muscles, organs and tissues oxygen exploiation)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Hypoxia

Altitude = decrease of barometric pressure and the

partial pressure in oxygen (constant percentage)

Physiological necessity of adaptation at first, then

Necessity of technical adaptation to exceed the

biological limits

The technical adaptations also have their limits !

 Respiratory and circulatory system
Classification according to the mechanism:
- Reduction in partial pressure in O2 during the climb
- Circulatory insufficiency (disease of arteries, or
accelerations +Gz)
- Reduction in the quantity of O2 transported by the
blood:
• Deficit in haemoglobin (anaemia)
• Deficit in functional haemoglobin
• Respiratory failure
- Blocking of the cellular chains transporting O2,
poisoning with cyanides, during cabin fires
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Hypoxia : classification according to duration and

the altitude of exposure
- Fulminant: a few seconds (brutal decompression
of the cabin, at high altitude, ≥ 9000 m)
- Acute: a few minutes (average alt: 6000 m, +/-2000)
- Prolonged: several hours (2500-3500 m)
- Chronical: several days, months or years (life in
mountain > 2500 m)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Effects of hypoxia
• Fulminant hypoxia: syncope, without other
symptom, no memories

• Acute hypoxia: physiological and / or

psychomotor reactions, even syncope

It is the one that interests us, met in the slow or

explosive decompressions
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Effects of the acute hypoxia:

- Subjective: sensation of breathlessness, headache
- Ventilation: increase of the ventilation (20 % at
- 4500 m, 50 % between 5500 and 7000 m
- Cardiovascular: increase of the cardiac flow
- Neuromotor: shiver from 4500 m, lack of motor
coordination, then real paralysis.

Disconnection between the will and its realization

Speech disorders (one of the first symptoms)
The symptoms are cumulative and non conscious
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Effects of the acute hypoxia:

- Visual: from 1500 m, (night-vision very impacted)
Decrease of the chromatic sense from 1500 m to
3000 m.
Disorders of the accommodation and decrease of the
field of vision from 6000 m

- Hearing: disorders are very late

- Psychological: disorders of the mood of every types:

excitement, depression with total loss of the will,
cognitive disorders…
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Effects of the acute hypoxia:

The hypoxia is one of the most incapacitating
phenomena for the pilots
The detection is complex, in the slightest symptom,
do not hesitate to request the adapted formal
procedures !
( QRH procedure and/or incapacitation)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Effects of acute hypoxia:

Time of useful consciousness (or effective working time):

Altitude Time of consciousness
20 000 ft 5 – 12 minutes
25 000 ft 2 – 3 minutes
30 000 ft 45 – 75 seconds
35 000 ft 30 – 60 seconds
40 000 ft 10 – 30 seconds
45 000 ft 12 – 15 seconds
50 000 ft and above 12 seconds or less
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Effects of the prolonged hypoxia:

Creates a state of fatigue all the more pronounced
as there will be a preliminary relative hypoxia; very
old subject, (less effective ventilation), but also
smoker (a part of the haemoglobin is blocked by the
CO)

Effects of the chronical hypoxia :

Medium and long-term adaptation; physiological
modifications (increase of the number of red blood
cells and of the haemoglobin rate)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Tolerance to hypoxia depends on:

· The reached altitude

· The speed of climb

· The time spent at this altitude

· Other factors…
 Respiratory and circulatory system
Tolerance to hypoxia according to the reached
altitude:
- Indifferent zone: < 1500 m (5000 ft)
- Complete compensating area: 1500-3500 m (5000-
11500 ft)
Partially inaccurate term because:
· Night vision disrupted above 1500 m
· Capacity of learning reduced above 2500-3000 m
(8000-10000 ft)
- Incomplete compensating area: 3500 - 5000 or
6000 m (11500-18500/20000 ft). Risk of acute
hypoxia with all its disorders
- Critical zone: over 6000 m (20000 ft). Risk of
syncope (the higher, the faster)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Tolerance to hypoxia according to the reached

altitude:
• Threshold of reactions: 1500 m (5000 ft)
• Threshold of disorder: 3500 m (11500 ft)
• Critical threshold: 6000 m (20000 ft)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Tolerance to hypoxia according to the speed of

exposure
Hypoxia established in a very brief time = appearance
of the symptoms no more depends on the altitude
but on the time spent at this altitude:

· Phase of indifference
· Phase of complete compensation
· Phase of incomplete compensation
· Critical phase > loss of consciousness
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Subacute hypoxia and time of useful consciousness:

Passage from the phase of indifference to a state of

increased incapacitation (+/- loss of consciousness)

Time of useful consciousness: interval of time

between the initial accident and the significant loss of
the psychomotor functions (all the more so short as
the altitude is important, depends on the fraction of
O2 before the accident and on the metabolic state;
rest or effort)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Subacute hypoxia and time of useful consciousness:

Time of unconsciousness without irreversible

injuries: period during which the nervous system, in
state of cessation of functioning, can recover ad
integrum without definitive hurts.

Estimated to less than 3 minutes

We retain 2 min 30 in aeronautics for the rescue of

the passengers
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Protections against hypoxia

Oxygen masks with continuous flow: used by the
passengers in case of depressurization
• Correct functioning until 30 000ft, more
unpredictable above
• Moderate cost

Mask with flow on request: used by the pilots

Masks with fast implementation (less than 5s) with
one hand
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Oxygen masks with air flow on request: used by pilots

Limit of use with 100 % of O2 = 39000ft

(minimum partial pressure of O2 for an efficient
ventilation)

Use with sur overpressure until 45 000ft for 3 minutes

(hard to bear !)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Antismoke cowls:
Closed circuit equipment
usable until 30000 to 35000ft

Used by cabin crew as a protection against hypoxia

and in case of intervention on a source of pollution
(cabin fire)

Minimum autonomy: 15mn during intervention

Bearing of glasses is incompatible with the system

(vapor on glasses)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

3 cases :

1. Slow decompression: longue duration with

regard to ventilation cycle (> 30s)

2. Fast decompression: of a duration of the same

order of magnitude as the respiratory cycle (≈ 3s)

3. Explosive decompression: of duration enough

brief to cause specific effects of lung overpressure
(< 0,1s)
 Respiratory and circulatory system
1. Slow decompression: effects bound to the new
environment: hypoxia, risk of aeroembolism,
consequences of the cold
2. Fast decompression: intense cooling of gases;
condensation of the vapor of water / fog in cabin and
extreme hypoxia
3. Explosive decompression:
- Noise: flow of the air at the level of the opening possibly
supersonic > very violent noise
- Blast effect: movement of the air, very fast, causes
important dynamic effects (ejection of people outside)
- Lung overpressure: characteristic of explosive
Decompressions (Risk of lung lesion connected to the
rough expansion of the air contained in lungs)
 Respiratory and circulatory system

Time of consciousness useful for 40 000ft: 10-30s

If we ask ourselves the question

" do I have to put the oxygen mask? "
the answer is " YES AT ONCE! "

In case of cabin decompression, the absolute

urgency, before any other action, is to set up the
oxygen mask
Respiratory and circulatory system 4. Hyperventilation

Hyperventilation
=
Increase of the non regulated ventilation

Normally connected to a physical need and an

increase of the CO2 ( muscular activity)

Hyperventilation
=
decrease of CO2 in the blood ( hypocapnia )

Problems of the hyperventilation: problems of the

hypocapnia
Respiratory and circulatory system 4. Hyperventilation

Risks bound to hypocapnia:

- Vasomotor disorders which can lead to a syncope

- Neuromuscular disorders:
· Paraesthesia; abnormal sensations, pins and
needles in the extremities and the lips
· Muscular cramps of the extremities and the face,
involuntary muscular movements
· At worst: tetanic crisis with change of the
psychomotor performances until the +/-complete
loss of consciousness
Respiratory and circulatory system 4. Hyperventilation

Symptoms

- Sensation of increasing faintness, intense anxiety,

even sensation of imminent death.
The subject often has the impression to run out of
air, to suffocate

- Very plentiful sweating

- Increasing tingling and dullness; muscular spasms,

then very painful cramps and tetania (strengthening
the feeling of anxiety, cause of the problem!)
Respiratory and circulatory system 4. Hyperventilation
Causes of hyperventilation during flight (with
hypocapnia)
- Travel sickness: concerns every crew member
(ventilation x 3 to 5 and constant hypocapnia)
- Anxiety, felt by every pilot victim of an incident or an
unforeseen situation
- Hypoxia, generator of hyperventilation
-Resistance of the O2 inhaler: all the more so resistant as
inspiratory request is important (sensation not to have enough
air)
- Stress, emotional excitement
- Abuse of alcohol or drug
- Excessive consumption of coffee
- Excessive consumption of certain medicine (as the aspirin)
- Fever, severe pain
Respiratory and circulatory system 4. Hyperventilation

Action to be taken during flight:

Recognize the disorders:
- Progressive and increasing faintness (different
from syncope)
- Anxiety (different from the hypoxia)
- Sweating
- Tingling, itches, small cramps of extremities =
excellent signs of the beginning
Evoke systematically two other causes of faintness:
poisoning hypoxia and intoxication (CO)
Respiratory and circulatory system 4. Hyperventilation

Action to be taken during flight:

Control the ventilator behaviour
- Or by short periods of apnoea (20s every time)
- Or by control of the respiratory frequency with
chronometer: 1 inspiration all 6 or 7s
- In case of inspiratory resistance of the mask:
· verify the circuit of O2
· verify the cabin altimeter
· tighten mask
· regulator on pure O2 (eliminate the other causes
= hypoxia or intoxication)
Respiratory and circulatory system 4. Hyperventilation

Conclusion

The hyperventilation is cause of grave faintness,

which arise in an unexpected way, even for trained
crew members

Do not hesitate to announce your concerns to your

captain, (he/she will adjust your workload), do not wait
until the situation is too serious
 Acceleration

1. Introduction

2. Key factors for Man

3. Effects of Gz accelerations

4. Effects of Gx accelerations
 Acceleration 1 : Introduction

➢ Reminders:

• Velocity: d (position) /dt (m/s)

• Acceleration: d (velocity) / dt (m/s2 or G)
• Velocity of acceleration: d (acceleration / dt (m/s3 or jolt)
Acceleration 1 : Introduction

➢ Reminders:

Speed of acceleration:

· Slow: 0,1 G/s

· Fast: 1 G/s

· Very fast: ≥ 3,5 G/s

 Acceleration 1 : Introduction

➢ Different types of accelerations

1. LINEAR: variation of speed without change of direction

of the aircraft. GL

The level of acceleration can be calculated according to

the formula:
GL =dV/dt

Accelerations of same direction as speed: take-off,

catapulting

Accelerations of sense opposite to the speed vector:

decelerations, during: landing, deck-landing, sea
landing, shock in the opening of the parachute
 Acceleration 1 : Introduction

➢ Different types of accelerations

2. RADIAL: variation of heading without change of

speed

Acceleration produced by the rotation on an axis: turn

of the plane with constant speed. The level of
acceleration can be then calculated according to the
equation:

GR = V² / R V speed of the aircraft (m/s)

R turn radius (m)
 Acceleration 1 : Introduction
➢ Different types of accelerations

3. ANGULAR: simultaneous change of heading and

speed of the plane. The axis of rotation passes
through or near the body of the subject. The axis of
rotation can be on the anterior or posterior part of the
plane
Ex: tight spins

This type of acceleration stimulates mainly the

vestibular system and can alter the spatial orientation
during the flight

The angular speeds are measured in d°/s or rad/s

 Acceleration 1 : Introduction

➢ Inertia force

The mass characterizes the inertia, that is the difficulty

to vary the speed:
• Newton's 3rd law: a material point in varied
movement is submitted to an inertia force F ' with
the same direction as the acceleration vector but
with opposite direction

F ' = - mγ

From a physiological point of view, the masses of

inertia are the most important to consider because it
is them who create the observed reactions
 Acceleration 1 : Introduction

➢ Inertia force

These physiological reactions are based on:

· The axis and the direction of application

· The intensity of the accelerations

· The duration of application

· The speed of their installation

Acceleration 2 : Key factors for Man

➢ Axis and direction

Reference = main line of the body

The effects are different if the accelerations are

applied according to this axis or in a cross-functional
way

Accelerations:
· Vertical lines = +/- Gz
· Longitudinal = +/- Gx
· Cross-functional frontal (or laterals) = + /- Gy
Acceleration 2 : Key factors for Man
➢ Intensity
Dangerous effects increase with duration

Unit = the "G" (1 G = 9,81 m/s2)

➢ Duration
The appearance of physio pathologies is based on
this duration:
- Shock < 0,01 s
- Impact = 0,01 to 0,1 s
- Very short duration < 0,1 s
- Short duration < 1 s
- Long duration > 5 s
Acceleration 2 : Key factors for Man

> Speed of acceleration

- Slow: ≈ 0,1 G/s

- Fast: 1 G/s

- Very fast: ≥ 3,5 G/s

Acceleration 2 : Key factors for Man

➢ aircraft with poor manoeuvring capabilities , accelerations:

· Little intense
· Long lasting
· Slow acceleration

➢ Aerobatics or fighter aircraft, accelerations:

· Very quickly established
· High level
· Short or long duration (usually; accelerations > 7G Gz, >
15s, jolt > 3,5 G/s)

➢ Ejection, accelerations:
·Very intense
· Quickly established (Jolt of 200 G/s)
· Very brief (0,2 in 0,4s)
Acceleration 2 : Key factors for Man

Human being supports accelerations of short durations at

levels superior to those of the accelerations of long lasting

When pathologies arise, they interest mainly the bone

structure or the insertion of organs on bones.

These pathological effects are function of 3 factors:

· The energy involved (E = ½ m v²)
· The homogeneity of the application points (harness /-Gx)
· The kinetics of involvement of the energy (appearance of
resonance phenomena, the body is regarded as a
viscoelastic system)
Acceleration 2 : Key factors for Man
Exposure to accelerations of short and very short duration
For example:

Normal flight:
· Catapulting (+ Gx)
· Deck-landing (- Gx)
· Braking by barrier (- Gx)
· Violent aerodynamic turbulences
· important Variation of the lift; turn, resource (+ Gz)

Extreme situations:
· Ejection (+ Gz) 15 - 20 G
· Crash (- Gx + /- Gz + /- Gy) dozens of G, even > 100 G
· Shock in the opening of a parachute + Gz, depends on the
altitude: 9,5 G in 3000m, 32 G in 12000 m
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations
➢ Long duration + Gz accelerations

The most encountered in aeronautics applied according to the

axis of the body, the inertia force applying in the same
direction
They provoke a movement of the blood towards the low parts
of the body and a decrease of the blood pressure in the brain.

Slow speed of acceleration ( 0,2 G/s), and prolonged

acceleration (at least 10 s), the subjective effects will be:
• + 1G: usual sensation of the earth gravity
• + 2G: moderated sensation of compression on the seat, of
heaviness of the head and the members, difficulty to move
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations
➢ Long duration + Gz accelerations
• + 3 G: sensation of big heaviness of the members and the
body, almost impossibility to move arms
• + 3 to 4 G: appearance of a grey veil: shrinkage of the
peripheral field of vision, the loss of the perception of
colors, the decrease of the bright perception (darkening of
the scene) and decrease of visual acuteness (= tunnel filled
with fog)
• + 4 to 5,5 G: appearance of a black veil (total loss of vision)
• + 5,5 to 6 G: risk of loss of consciousness, which goes on
even if the acceleration is interrupted, followed by a phase
of temporal and spatial disorientation for a few seconds,
then by a phase " of operational incapacity " (reduced flying
skills) from 2 to 3 minutes
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations

➢ Long duration + Gz accelerations

The loss of consciousness arises for different values

of accelerations according to the applied jolt.

The tolerance to the + Gz accelerations also

depends on the training of the pilot and on his(her)
physiological state:
The heat, the dehydration and the digestion entail a
mobilization of the blood mass and decrease the
tolerance
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations

➢ Effects of high-level steady + Gz accelerations

. Intensity ≥ 7 G, duration of application ≥ 15s, and often
jolt ≥ 3,5 G/s
. Profiles of acceleration known under the name of
R.O.R. (Rapid Onset Rate) and V.R.O.R. (Very Rapid
Onset Rate), corresponding to 1 and 3,5 G/s.
Fighter and aerobatic aircraft can provoke variations of
acceleration of 10 G/s.
. 2 main risks:
* Loss of inaugural consciousness (without prior
symptom)
* Trauma of the spinal axis (spine)
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations

Methods of protection against the + Gz accelerations

Active:
- Muscular-respiratory manoeuvers
(improvement from 1 to 2,5 G)
- Training in centrifuge

Passive:
- Anti-G equipment's (improvement from 1,5 to 2,5 G)
- Seat recline towards the back
- Breath in overpressure (badly tolerated, but
improvement of the tolerance in Gz from 2 to 3 G)
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations

Means of protection against the + Gz accelerations

The tolerance can achieve approximately 9 G by

combination of the various techniques of improvement

For very high levels of acceleration (> 30 G) there are not

grave hurts so much that the duration of application is
such as the product of the level of acceleration (m/s²) by
the time of application (in s) is < 24

Ex:
· 240 G during 0,01 s
· 80 G during 0,03 s
· 30 G during 0,08 s
These values are modulated by the jolt.
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations
Effects of the - Gz accelerations
Oriented from the head towards the seat, are less well born
than + Gz. During low level navigation with automated
mode (combat aircraft), they are frequent, brief, entangled
with + Gz accelerations (push-pull effect => decreases
tolerance to + Gz). They also occur in inverted acrobatics.

The subjective effects will be:

- 1G: sensation to be upside down
- 2G: sensation of sand in eyes and pressure in the head, the
congestion of the face and the neck, difficult breathing
- 3 G: impression that eyes come out of orbits, sometimes
reddish veil (covers the whole field of vision and can persist
several hours later), violent headaches
Acceleration 3 : Effects of Gz accelerations

Effects of the – Gz accelerations

Beyond -3 G: risk of mental confusion with lack of
motor coordination (can persist several hours)
Classically the limit is - 4,5 G, but pilots of aerobatic
aircraft can support values until -10 G
Tolerance: ≈ 30 s at - 3 G, and 5 s at - 4,5 G.
No efficient means of protection.
Limit of tolerance: - 15 G during 0,1 s
Acceleration 4 : Effects of Gx accelerations

Effects of + Gx accelerations

Accelerations met at take-off of the plane in a very

moderate way and briefly during catapulting.
+ Gx accelerations prolonged arise especially in
astronautics
Cardiovascular effects less important; accelerations
perpendicular to the main vascular axes.
Respiratory and psychomotor disturbances: real limiting
factor
- Until + 5 G; sensation of a thoracic crushing, with
difficulty to move head and members
Acceleration 4 : Effects of Gx accelerations

Effects of the + Gx accelerations

- At + 5 G it is impossible to raise the head, at ≈ + 6 G

appearance of thoracic pains, difficulty to speak, and
beginning of loss of the peripheral vision.
- At + 9 G breathing become difficult, only the movements
of wrists and fingers remain possible
- At + 12 G respiratory difficulties are severe, the severe
pains, the peripheral vision is lost (distortion of globes),
and at 15 G a black veil can appear.

Limit of tolerance: estimated at + 7 G until 3 min

(Longer time for lower values of acceleration)
Acceleration 4 : Effects of Gx accelerations

Effects of the + Gx accelerations

Possible means of protection:

• Immersion in the water
• Breathing in overpressure
• Use of moulded seats …

The short lasting + Gx accelerations can be

supported until very high intensities; ≈ + 30 G or
more during some tenth of a sec
Acceleration 4 : Effects of Gx accelerations

Effects of – Gx accelerations

Long lasting - Gx accelerations little studied

Very high - Gx accelerations can be supported during

very brief durations:
Accelerations of the order of - 75 G do not pull hurts
if they are of the order of some milliseconds (tackle
of rugby)

This type of acceleration has an inertia oriented from

the rear to the front, and is met during violent braking
Acceleration 4 : Effects of Gx accelerations

Protection against the - Gx accelerations of brief

duration (Rough deceleration)

- Belts
The seats of transport aircraft are turned forwards.
The belt is about 5cm wide.

Breaking strength is approximately 900 to 1800 kg

These belts protect correctly until - 15 Gx, but the ties of
seat break between - 6 and - 9 G …

Protection brought by seat belts effective for landings and

forced sea landings, provided that the passengers adopt
the recommended positions
Acceleration 4 : Effects of Gx accelerations

Protection against - Gx accelerations of brief

duration

Advised position:
· Belt tighten · Feet and knees joined · Trunk tilted and
forearm crossed on knees · Head put on forearm with a
pillow · Muscles contracted

If insufficient spacing (light planes):

· Position raised · Forearm and hands on armrests ·
Head gone into shoulders · Chin pressed on the breast
· Back rested against the seat back
Acceleration 4 : Effects of Gx accelerations
Protection against - Gx accelerations of brief
duration
- Harness
Abdominal, inguinal and shoulder belts
The protection reaches in theory - 45 G, but small hurts
are likely over - 30 G
Systems with belt and diagonal belt (cf cars):
protection until - 30 Gx if they are correctly tightened

- Seats oriented backwards with a high backseat, the

protection can reach - 45 Gx if ties and floor have a
corresponding resistance

- Systems of absorption of energy

Influence on the deformation of structure
 High altitude environment

High altitude environment

1. Ozone

2. Radiations

3. Humidity

4. Extreme temperatures
 1 : Ozone
The chemical composition of the air remains more or less
constant until high altitude (≈ 100 to 120 km), thanks to
the movements of the atmosphere (homosphere)
Above, the molecules of air break up into atoms under
the influence of the gravity forces (Variations of
composition = heterosphere)
In the homosphere an altitude layer exists where the
quantity of ozone is important. It is about the ozone layer,
which is situated between 20 to 70km of altitude.
Concentration of ozone (O3) is very low at low altitude
(4 - 200 µg ozone / m3 of air)
It increases slowly from 12000 m and reaches important
values between 18000 and 43000 m, with a maximum
towards 30000 m of altitude (≈ 20 mg / m3 of air)
 1 : Ozone

The quantity of ozone varies:

• With the latitude: minimum in the equator,

maximum in the poles

• With the period of the year: minimum in autumn,

maximum in spring

Protective effect of the ozone in the stratosphere

Dangers of the ozone in the troposphere
 1 : Ozone

The ozone (O3) layer (in the stratosphere): very important role
of absorption of the UV solar radiation (wavelength between
100 and 290 nm, powerful and dangerous biological effects).

O3 is produced under the influence of UVC radiations (they

split the molecular oxygen (O2) in atomic oxygen (O) and by
reaction one to the other.

The UVB radiation re – decomposes O3 into O2 + O. Fluor

chlorocarbons (CFC) intervene in the cycle of O3, they
accelerate the destruction of the O3 layer thanks to the atomic
chlorine.

In the troposphere: O3 is produced from toxic substances for

mankind.
 1 : Ozone

Under the influence of UVA the nitrogen dioxide

(NO2) breaks up in nitric oxide (NO) and atom of
oxygen (O), which is going to react with O2 to create
the ozone (O3).

Precursors of the ozone come for 50-60 % from the

road traffic, and the rest from industrial emissions

Doubling of the concentrations of O3 since 1900 in

the troposphere (respiratory diseases) and reduction
of the protective layer at high altitude particularly in
Antarctica (increase of the skin cancers)
 1 : Ozone

• Irritation of respiratory tracts depends on:

- Concentration of O3
- Time of exposure
- Sensibility of the individual
- Physical activity (to avoid during the peaks of O3)

• Threshold of olfactory perception: ~ 40 µg / m3

• Disorders of the lung function from 160 µg / m3

• Chronic inhalation at rates from 500 to 1000 µg / m3

entails injuries of the lung tissue such as emphysema
and fibrosis, bronchiolitis. The infectious risk is globally
increased. Finally O3 may have a carcinogenic effect
 1 : Ozone

The exposure at high altitude can be envisaged as

far as the renewal of air of the cabin is made from the
outside ambient air

The ozone is quickly destroyed by contact with

surfaces of various types and the closed spaces are
generally very poor in ozone.

The welders are more explained than the crews…

 2 : Radiations
Non-ionizing radiations: The ultraviolet radiation
(UV)

• Consists of UVA (315-400nm), UVB (280-315nm), and

UVC (200-280nm). UVB and UVC largely absorbed by
the O3 layer.
• UVA radiation destroys the elastic fibbers and the
collagen of the dermis, which prematurely ages the
skin. An excessive exhibition can activate a skin
cancer.
• UVB radiation, at a high dose can provoke acute eye
hurts and skin cancer.
• When the protective O3 layer decreases by 1 %, the
proportion of UVB increases from 1.3 to 1.5 %.
 2 : Radiations
Ionizing radiations: Solar cosmic radiation
Continuous flow of radiant energy including various sorts
of electromagnetic and corpuscular radiations :

· Solar electromagnetic radiation: includes the optical

band, a radiation in the radio band (λ of 100m to few
mm), X ray and a γ ray.

· Solar corpuscular radiation: these are diverse particles

moving at high speed, close to the speed of light. It
comes either from the solar corona (solar wind), or from
the region of sunspots (solar flares; ionized plasma
where protons dominate with some heavy particles)
 2 : Radiations

Ionizing radiations: Solar cosmic radiation

• Cycle of 11 years

• In period of strong solar activity, 1 solar flare of

low intensity per month (regular component)

• Intense eruptions arise once to twice in 5 years

(unpredictable component)
 2 : Radiations
Ionizing radiations: The galactic cosmic radiation

• Especially atomic nuclei deprived of their electrons, moving

at nearly speeds of the light:
· 87 % of protons (hydrogen nuclei)
· 12 % of particles alpha (helium nuclei)
· 1 % of heavy particles, especially carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, boron, lithium, phosphor, beryllium

• Considerable energy (high speed): Certain particles cross

all the earth atmosphere.

• In the interplanetary space the equivalent of intensity of

dose of the galactic cosmic radiation is between 0,2 and 0,5
mS/day (Sieverts: unit of measure of the radiation)
 2 : Radiations

Ionizing radiations

Particles largely stopped by the earth magnetic field

Form a high-density zone of radiations; the belt of van

Allen

Maximum radiation to the Poles and at the minimum on

the equator

Risks of an overexposure to radiations include the

appearance of cancers and foetal malformations
Difficult to correlate the appearance of these problems to
the doses of radiations received by the crews ( low
doses)
 2 : Radiations

Ionizing radiations: The secondary cosmic

radiation

By reaching the earth atmosphere, the particles of

cosmic radiation collide with the atoms of atmospheric
gas, destroy them and give birth to secondary cosmic
radiations including :
· Protons
. Secondary Neutrons
· Mesons
· Electrons
· Photons

The intensity decreases as we get closer to sea level

 3 : Humidity

The atmosphere permanently contains more than

10000 billion tons of water, which circulates constantly.
It evaporates from the surface of the oceans, the
rivers, the lakes and the ground.

It condenses (clouds and fogs), giving precipitations

Absolute humidity of air: mass of vapor of water/unity of

volume of humid air (g/m3) varies with the temperature

At sea level :
• Equatorial regions: 20g/m3
• Average Latitudes: 5 in 7g/m3
• Intense frost: 1g/m3
 3 : Humidity
The relative humidity: mass of vapor of water / mass of dry air (in
%) varies a lot according to weather conditions
In the zones of production of clouds, it is 100 %
The quantity of vapor of water (steam) contained in the air
decreases with the altitude :
• In 1500-2000m, it is worth 50 % of that at sea level
• In 5000m, it is 10 times less important
Main consequence of the dry air in cabin: drying of
mucous membranes, at the level of the mouth, nose and
eyes (potential embarrassment for the carriers of lenses)
This "dry" air contains nevertheless another certain
humidity, which will show itself by a rough condensation
and a fog in case of fast decompression!
 4 : Extreme temperatures

Outside conditions during cruise:

- Pressure: too low for survival
- Temperature: -56°C

The mechanisms of compensation in case of low

temperatures include among others the
vasoconstriction, the thermal shiver = increase of the
metabolic activity thus of the demand in oxygen

Hence a sensibility increased to hypoxia….

ATPL(A) 040 2.2 Man and environment : the
sensory system
 Man and environment : the sensory system

Man and environment : the sensory system

1. Central, peripheral and anatomic nervous
systems
2. Vision
3. Hearing
4. Equilibrium
5. Integration of sensory inputs
 Man and environment : the sensory system

• 5 senses:
o Sight
o Hearing
o Touch
o Smell
o Taste

• Multi-modal perception: describes how humans

form coherent, valid, and robust perception by
processing memory stimuli from various
modalities
Nervous system 1. Formation and functioning of nerve cell

1.1 Formation
Nerve cell = responds to a stimulus by a
modification of its membranes properties

2 types of nerve cells:

Neurons which pass on impulse

Muscle cells which responds to these impulse by

a contraction
Nervous system 1. Formation and functioning of nerve cell

Neuron = structural and functional unity of the

nervous system

Components:
- Cellular body or soma
- Nucleus
- Axon (transmitter)
- Dendrites (receivers)
Nervous system 1. Formation and functioning of nerve cell

Synapse = zone of junction between the axon and

another neuron
Transmission by chemical way mainly

At the level of an axon:

- Emission of a neurotransmitter
- Modification of the state of the receiving membrane

= Excitement of the receiving neuron polarized (one-

way)
Certain substances are stimulating or inhibitive (e.g.
drug)
Nervous system 1. Formation and functioning of nerve cell

Cellular membrane = insulator between 2 circles of

different Ionic compositions

➢ Electric potential between the inside and the

outside of the cell (-80 mV)

Nerve impulse = sudden chemical modification of the

wall > permeable cell in the ions (+-1 ms) => birth of
an electric current and inversion of polarity
Step by step propagation from 1 to 30 m/s
Nervous system 1. Formation and functioning of nerve cell

A few figures for the human brain:

• > 15 billions of neurons

• Each neuron: 15 000 to 50 000 connexions

• 3 systems:
o Central
o Peripheral
o Autonomic
Nervous system 2. Anatomy of the nervous system

Functional classification:

➢ Autonomic nervous system (or vegetative)

Regulate the internal functions, adapt them to the

needs for moment and controls the vegetative
functions of the body.

These activities escaping the control, is also called

autonomous nervous system
Nervous system 2. Anatomy of the nervous system

Functional classification:

➢ Central nervous system (CNS)

Components:

• The encephalon (1)

• The central nervous system (2)
• The spinal cord (3)
 Nervous system 2. Anatomy of the nervous system

Functional classification:
➢ Peripheral nervous
system

❑ Components:
• Lymph nodes
• Nerves
• Spinal cord

❑ Main function = To
circulate information
between organs and
central nervous system
(CNS)
Nervous system 2. Anatomy of the nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

Nervous system 3. Perception and treatment of stimulations

Only a small amount of information captured in the

environment becomes conscious to us

Various types of captured signals:

· electromagnetic for visual stimulations

· mechanics for tactile stimulations

· chemical for olfactive stimulations

Nervous system 3. Perception and treatment of stimulations

3 main characteristics of the perception:

1. Sensitivity: ratio between the physical value of

an input signal and its value of sensory perception
(ex of the dB A for the intensity of sound)

2. Threshold of perception: smallest stimulus

which will be capable to generate a sensation
(e.g.: the smallest luminous intensity which will
allow to say « there is a light »)
Nervous system 3. Perception and treatment of stimulations

3. Adaptability: capability to filter perceived

information that do not evolve > concentration
on changes

E.g.: capability to disregard a constant background

noise ; contraction of the pupil in case of exposure to
strong lights
Problem with the vestibular adaptation : sole perception
of the accelerations (impression of opposite turn when
wings come back to the horizontal)
Nervous system 4. Reflexes and biological control systems

Skin receivers
Skin sensitive to:
• Pressure
• Touch
• Vibrations
• Temperature
• Pain

To every type of stimulus corresponds a type of

receiver
Nervous system 4. Reflexes and biological control systems

Deep sensibility and proprioceptive reflexes

Proprioceptors:
• Detect the position of a joint
• Measure the length of a muscle

> Receivers of the deep sensibility

Their information is sent to the brain but reflex

actions are possible (spinal cord)
Nervous system 4. Reflexes and biological control systems

Deep sensibility and proprioceptive reflexes

Scrawny muscle stretched suddenly: stretching of

the neuromuscular spindles attached to the muscle

Stretched spindles = stimulation towards the spinal

cord which stimulates the neurons of the same
muscle to correct the stretching

Proprioceptive reflex: stimulation and answer

relates to the same organ
 Nervous system 5. Accidents

Cutaneous accidents

Appearance: decrease of atmospheric P (high

altitude)

Bubbles of inert gas under the skin:

- fleas: burning sensation or sting, itches (trunk or
upper limbs)

- Eruption with puffiness of the skin often around

the umbilical or lumbar
 Nervous system 5. Accidents

Osteo-articular accidents

Bubbles of gas in tendons near the insertions and in

medullary cavities

Appear from 30 minutes to several hours after the

ascent, in decreasing order: shoulder, elbow, knee,
hip, wrist, ankle.

Clinical signs: insidious pain becoming unbearable,

resisting the analgesic, gives in to the
recompression
 2. Vision Introduction

First sensory system used by the pilot:

80 % of the outside information captured by the

vision

Visual stimulus = electromagnetic radiations

Visible radiation: from 450 to 650 Nm; from X-rays

to infra-red and called light
 Vision Introduction

Photometry = Sensibility of the visual system to

light intensity, maximum intensity for λ = 555nm
(yellow green)

Colorimetry = Colour and its measure

Colour : no physical reality, human concept in two
components

PHYSICAL PSYCHOPHYSICAL
Dominant wavelength Tint
Luminance Luminosity
Colorimetric purity Saturation
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

- Eyeball: boorishly spherical,

diameter: from 13 to 25 mm
Support the cornea in front

• Weight: ≈ 7 g

• Consistency: firm
( Pressure of liquids that it
contains: between 10 and 20
mm of mercury)

• Surrounded by 6 ocular
muscles, allowing movements
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

3 concentric walls:

- Extern: mainly comprised of

the sclera and the cornea in
front

- Middle : the uvea, including

the choroid, the ciliary body
and the iris

- Intern: nervous: the retina,

composed of a visual posterior
part lining the choroid and an
anterior part, blind
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

The visual retina (visible in the "fundus oculi") is

constituted of:

- Macula (or fovea): Oval zone

depressed in its centre by the foveola

- The optical papilla: pinkish

white colour, zone where all
the nerve fibbers of the
retina gather to form the
optical nerve
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

Conjunctiva: can present

inflammatory phenomena, infectious,
allergic.

Its infringement entails an

embarrassment;
Red eye, secretions without
reduction in visual acuteness

Cornea: transparent porthole of 12

mm of diameter and 0.5 mm of
thickness
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

Iris: mobile portion which allows

the adaptation (variations of
luminosity)

Lens: biconvex lens of 10 mm of

height and 4 to 5 mm of
thickness. Variable thickness to
assure the accommodation
(sharpness of the image)
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy
Retina: sensitive zone of visual
perception

Components:
- Rods: 110 in 125 millions per
retina
• Night vision (as batman),
• Require a period of
adaptation to low lights

- Cones: 4 in 7 millions by retina

• Immediate answer to
stimulations
• Allow to see details and
colours
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

Work of the eye at three lighting levels:

· Scotopic · Mesopic · Photopic

➢ Scotopic vision : > low levels of illumination

(rods) > scotoma exchange from 1 to 2 °
• Sense of movement and spatial sense, the
reduction of the vision of colours

• Sensibility to very low luminance, but after a

time of adaptation

• Maximal sensibility to 500nm = blue-green

 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

➢ Photopic vision:
• Day time
• Depends on cones
• Vision of colours and shapes (visual acuity)
• Sensibility to dazzle
• Maximum sensibility: 560 nm = yellow-green

➢ Mesopic vision:
• Between scotopic and photopic vision
• Sunset or sunrise vision
• Rods and cones
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

Distribution of the photo receivers:

Fovea: contain only cones, in which the

concentration decreases towards the periphery

From 2 °on both sides of the foveola, the sticks, of

maximum concentration towards (30 °) then
decrease with the eccentricity
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

Blind spot
Situated approximately in 20 ° in the horizontal
plan and in the middle of the field of vision.
All the visual nerves leave the eye at this point
thus no receiver is present.
( See experiment in the textbook)

Problem of the monocular vision disappears when

both eyes are opened
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

Vision

Rays of light refracted and located by the cornea

and the lens: bright, clear and inverted image
projected on a part of the retina.

The photoreceivers transfers, via the optical nerve,

nerve impulses to the brain which reconstructs the
images
 Vision 1. Functional anatomy

Accommodation:

Adaptive eye modifications allowing to obtain the

sharpness of the images for different distances

Distortion of the lens (increase of the power of

refraction).

Thus clear vision on a certain depth of field

Visual quality information + information of distance

Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Visual field

Portion of perceptible space by a motionless eye

which looks straight ahead

Field of the look

Eyes move and head remains motionless

Field of vision
Eyes and head move
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Visual field

• Binocular field of vision: addition of both

monocular fields

• Includes a binocular portion (≈ 120 °) and 2

side monocular portions of 30 °

• Allows to locate one’s position in space,

particularly at night

• Particularly sensitive to accelerations and

hypoxia
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Central vision / peripheral vision

Fovea: centre of macula, contains only cones

and allows:

• Day vision (photopic)

• Vision of details

• Vision of colours

• The relative position of a stimulation according

to time
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Central vision / peripheral vision

Periphery: increasing concentration of rods

It allows:

• Scotopic vision

• Detection of movement

• Location in space (role of the vision in the blance

process but generation of sensory illusions)

• But require a period of adaptation

 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Monocular and binocular vision / spatial sense

Spatial sense = intervention of numerous processes

Acquisition of information via retina then treatment by

the brain > intervention of experience in the result

Monocular vision sufficient for the standard situations

but limited (latency of the treatment of the information)

= not compatible with flight safety

 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Monocular and binocular vision / spatial sense

Binocular vision: notable increase of visual capacities
Physiological conditions:
• Anatomical and dioptric integrity of globes; similar
images
• Oculomotor integrity + + +
• Harmonious functioning of both retinas; small
overlapping area of both retinas: the obtained
image is an intermediate product of both
sensations, with an impression of « 3D »
(Test of Ishihara for the vision of reliefs)
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Monocular and binocular vision / spatial sense

Acquired factors and depth perception (e.g. in a
picture):

• Fuzziness of outlines
• Overlap of outlines
• Projected shadows
• Linear perspectives or convergence of lines ad
infinitum
• An object seems bigger when it is closer

Reduction of the mobilized resources but risks of

illusions
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Monocular and binocular vision / spatial sense

Extrinsic factors which can disrupt the perception of

depth:

• Terrain configuration
• Bright atmosphere
• Speed, vibrations
• Hypoxia
• Fatigue
• I.Q.
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Night vision
Characteristics of the night vision

• Advantage: require only a small quantity of light.

Sensibility 10 000 times as low as in photopic vision:
flame of a candle visible from 27 km
• Max sensitivity after 30 min
• Sensitive to hypoxia and smoking
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Night vision
Characteristics of the night vision

Disadvantages :
• Period of adaptation of 20 minutes.

• Precarious: destroyed by the dazzle

• Shrinkage of the peripheral field of vision at 60 °

instead of 90 °

• Loss of performance of the photopic system;

cones
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Night vision
Characteristics of the night vision

Disadvantages :
• Reduction of visual acuteness to 1/10 in
paracentral vision
• Deterioration of the sense of movement and relief
notion
• Deterioration of the chromatic vision
• Night-near-sightedness from 1 to 1,58
• Autokinetic illusions of central origin
 Vision 2. Characteristics of the vision

Night vision
Aeronautical constraints

Fatigue and physical effort decrease the capacity of

adaptation to darkness.

Hypoxia: from level 5000 ft reduction of the night

vision capacity of 45 % (sensibility of the photo
receivers to the reduction of partial pressure in
oxygen).

The embarrassment may begin at 1500 ft

 Vision 3. Defective vision

Astigmatism
Defect of the optical systems which do not give for
a point a punctual image, but a spread image

The image is lacking sharpness.

Point => line

Circle => ellipse
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Long sightedness / Presbyopia

Disorder of the vision which makes the focus of the

vision difficult for a close work

Process of normal ageing of the lens which hardens

with age

Begins at about 40-45 years, evolves quickly until

65 years, then stable
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Long sightedness / Hyper myopia

• Often hereditary
• Shorter distance than normal between lens and
retina (image displayed behind retina)
 Close objects appear blurred
• Treatment: Convex-shaped eyeglasses
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Short sightedness / Myopia

• Often hereditary
• Greater distance than normal between lens and
retina (image displayed in front of retina)
 Distant objects become unclear
• Treatment: Concave-shaped eyeglasses
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Cataract

Partial or total opacification of the lens due to age

Responsible for a progressive reduction of vision, at

the beginning accompanied with embarrassment in
the light (photophobia)

Treatment made by surgery, temporary loss of

medical capacity but very good results in the
outcome
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Glaucoma

Degenerative disease of the optical nerve pulling a

progressive loss of vision
• Peripheral vision at first then central
• Disease often associated to a high intraocular
pressure; fibbers of the optical nerve damaged
• Loss of associated vision is permanent and
irreversible leading to blindness
• Insidious development
=> Simple treatment by eye drops, necessity of a
regular follow-up for prevention
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Colour-blindness

Anomaly in which one or several of three types of

cones of the retina are deficient.

Classified as a light infirmity.

Cause of inaptitude but possible derogation if correct

perception of normalized colours in aviation
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Blindness by lightning

Temporary disturbance of the vision, following an

exposure to a light source with strong intensity,
altering the capacity to locate or to distinguish a
visual target
 Vision 3. Defective vision

Dazzle

Total or partial blindness resulting from the presence

of a light source with strong intensity in the central
field of vision

Lasts only while the light source is present in the

field of vision of the exposed subject

No eye damage
 Vision 4. Visual illusions
80% of sensory information are visual
Visual illusions are very dangerous in aviation
(gap perception / reality)

General illusions
 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Illusions leading to errors in approach

Normal case

Runways with unusual length or width

- Particularly narrow runway: illusion
to be too high

- Particularly wide runway: illusion to

be too low
 Vision 4. Visual illusions
Sloping runways
- Rising slope: sensation of being too high The risk
is to correct wrongly to find itself finally too short

Too high?

- Downward slope: sensation of being too low

The risk is to correct wrongly and to find itself too
long
=> Interest of the standard plan = stabilization of the
approach)
 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Sloping ground under the approach

- Downward sloping ground under the approach:

the ground is unusually close to the plane, the pilot
corrects wrongly by going up, and to find itself too
long
Too low ?

- Rising sloping ground under the approach: the

ground is unusually taken away, pilot increases his
rate of descent and finds him/herself too short
 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Night approach: black hole effect

Night approach above big flat and dark areas

(water, desert)

Only the remote runway lighting is visible

Sensation to be closer to runway and too high

Risk of being too short (« landing » before runway)

 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Wet windscreen

The runway is seen lower than in reality

Feeling of a high approach

The use of the slope indicators systems (eg.

VASI/PAPI), is highly recommended during any
approach
 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Illusions during cruise

Error of horizon

Possibility to take a layer of clouds slightly tilted as

true horizon

Can also appear during flights at low altitude

towards a slightly sloping ground
 Vision 4. Visual illusions
Illusions during cruise

Autokinetic illusion

Appears at night when an isolated point of light is

fixed

In the absence of landmarks, the sensation is to see

the point moving, (errors of interpretation (e.g.: star
taken for another plane)

Solutions:
Move the look
Adjust the lighting of the cockpit correctly
 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Illusions during cruise

Estimation of the relative heights

Difficulties to estimate the relative heights of distant

objects, due to the lack of precise outside references
(mountain range, other aircrafts)

Generally objects seem higher than they are in reality

 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Illusions during cruise

Contrasting effects

Difficulty to estimate the speed and the size of

closing objects during flights by low visibility or
contrast (mist, snow, darkness),

- By low visibility (mist), overestimation of the

distances

- By very good visibility, underestimation of the

distances
 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Myopia of open field

The eye tends to take a rest position with

accommodation on an intermediate distance
(dreamy look)

The distant landscape becomes fuzzy, and it

becomes difficult to detect limited objects in
movement.

It is necessary to keep a mobile look

 Vision 4. Visual illusions

Flashing lights

Strobes can engender reactions of epileptic type, or

faintness and spatial disorientations

=> It is generally recommended to turn them off in

IMC, (reflection on clouds)
 Hearing

1. Functional anatomy

2. Noise pollution in aeronautics

3. Consequences of noise

4. Protections against noise pollution

 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

- Pinna
- External auditory canal
- Hammer
- Anvil
- Eardrum
- Eustachian tube
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

1. Transmission device

Outer ear: pinna and external auditory canal (

EAC)

• Locates
• Collects Sound wave
• Amplifies
Hearing 1. Functional anatomy
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

1. Transmission device

Middle ear:
• Eardrum: fibrous elastic membrane, 60 mm²
▪ Hammer (maleus)
▪ Anvil (ancus)
▪ Stirrup (stapes)

• Eustachian tube: connecting tympanic cavity with

the pharynx; serving for pressure equalisation
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Transmission device

The hammer, articulated with anvil, itself linked

thanks to a fragile articulation to the stirrup

The stirrup slides in the oval window, separating the

middle ear from the inner ear
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Perception device
Cochlea
- Organ of
Corti inside
Audition organ composed
of air cells

Transduction of signal
Meca Elec
then
Elec Nervous
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Physiology, Transmission

Pinna amplifies sounds

The tympana-ossicular system deals with the

transmission of the sound wave:

Transform the air variations into variations of

pressure in liquids of the internal ear

Leverage at the level of jacks ossicles, eardrum and

oval window = Pressure in the liquid = 22x Pressure
on the eardrum
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy
Physiology, Transmission

Internal ear
Mechanical movement of the deck of the stirrup =
beginning of internal vibration of compartments

In the cochlear canal, the basilar membrane, support

of the organ of Corti, is submitted to a wave which
causes movements of shearing
At the level of the lashes of the hair cells
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Physiology, Transmission

Sounds > 90dB: stapedial reflex; contraction reflex of

the hammer muscles (eardrum attracted inside) and
of the stirrup (stirrup attracted outside)

Increase of the rigidity of the ossicular chain

protecting the internal ear

But latent period of 100ms to be implemented

 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Physiology, Perception

In the organ of Corti:

Distortion of hair leads to bioelectric phenomena

Transformation of mechanical signal in nervous

signal
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Physiology, balance of pressures

Roles of the Eustachian tube:

• Protection of the physiological noises

• Function of drainage
• Function of balancing of the pressures between
the middle ear and the outside atmosphere
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Physiology, balance of pressures

The Eustachian tube

Normally closed, opens for the evacuation of the
secretions of the mucous membrane of the ear

• Climb: spontaneous opening (small perceptible

clicks)

• Descent: behaviour typifies non-return valve

Opening if gulp, or Vasalva manoeuvre

Risk of barotrauma otherwise (eardrum and

Eustachian tube stuck)
 Hearing 1. Functional anatomy

Physiology, balance of pressures

In case of cold or flu, Eustachian tubes are filled,

risks of barotrauma
No flight !

Vasalva manœuvre: Take your breath, plug your

nose, close you mouth and increase lung pressure
until Eustachian tubes open and eardrums rebalance
Can produce a small banging in ears
To make delicately, trauma otherwise !
Hearing 2. Noise pollution in aeronautics

Aeronautical environment aggressive for the organ of

hearing(audition) due to the fact that :

• Exposure to variations or pressure which can

engender damages of internal ear

• Noise pollutions (continuous noise)

Consequence: occurrence of deafness (most frequent

pathology for flying personnel)
 Hearing 2. Noise pollution in aeronautics

Physical parameters

Unit of sound: power/surface W/m2

Non linear impact: use of a logarithmic scale, one
talks about Bell or decibel
Doubling or sound power: + 3 dB
• Audible frequency range: [20Hz, 20kHz]
• Audible power range: [0, 120dB]
 Hearing 2. Noise pollution in aeronautics
Dose of noise
Measured by a sonometre
Sensibility of the ear variable according to frequency
= use dB A (A for audible)

Noise below < 80 dB A don’t represent any risk for

hearing

Time of exposure weighted by sound intensity:

- Not more than 90 dB A 8h/day, more than
5d/week without protection
- 93 dBA,4h/d, 5d/week
- 96 dBA, 2h/d
- 99 dBA, 1h/d
 Hearing 2. Noise pollution in aeronautics

Aeronautical noise

• Impulsive noise => explosive decompression

• Continuous noise => Aerodynamic, bound to the

speed of propulsion

• Mechanical: linked to means of propulsion

- Piston motor (Ultra light aircraft: 110 dB)
- Jet engine (maximal intensity 120 to 160 dB;
often between 1 and 10 KHZ)

• Radio: + 7 to - 12 dB A in LEQ compared with the

noise of the cabin
 Hearing 2. Noise pollution in aeronautics

Aeronautical noise

In cabin, 72 to 78 dB in the cabin passengers of a

DC8, and 90 in 104 dB in a Transall

Noise decreases with the square of the distance:

the closer to the source, the more the risk
increases
 Hearing 3. Consequences of noise

Extra-auditory consequences:

• Change of the quality of the sleep

• Decrease of attention

• Annoyance

• Effects on the vision: decrease of the field of vision,

the precision of appreciation of the depths, the
change of the night vision (exposure to a noise
from 98 to 100 dB, 50 to 5000 Hz)
 Hearing 3. Consequences of noise

Hearing consequences:

Mechanical damage: external then internal hair cells

Metabolic damage: release of glutamate at the

synapses level; toxin in great quantities

Hearing fatigue = temporary rise of the hearing

thresholds (total recovery in a few hours)

It can entail a reversible, if not irreversible deafness

 Hearing 3. Consequences of noise

Factors of “risk”:

· Exposure time: 250 flight hours auditory impairment

· The speciality: military pilots more affected than the

civilian pilots, pilots of helicopters are the most
affected

· The predispositions: big inter-individual variation

 Hearing 3. Consequences of noise

Hearing problems

Presbycusis: progressive hearing loss, age-related,

bilateral and symmetric, in the high frequencies

Acute sound trauma: sensation of plugged ears and

tinnitus; deafness of perception, centred on
frequencies from 4 000 to 6 000 Hz
 Hearing 3. Consequences of noise

Hearing problems

Professional deafness; 2 phases:

1. Hearing hole on 4000 Hz, which widens little by

little to nearby frequencies. Insidious phase

2. Phase of confirmed deafness: medium

frequencies affected: 1 000 to 2 000 Hz
 Hearing 3. Consequences of noise

Hearing problems:

Hearing fatigue and flight safety:

· No perception of audible alarms

· Confusions of the localization of the sound sources

· Communications problems

Obvious direct and indirect consequences (increase

of the level of fatigue => decrease of the global
performance level)
Hearing 4. Protections against noise pollution

· Noise reduction at source (position of engine,

reduction of vibrations)
· Sound insulation (but overload)
· Individual protection:
- Selection : any pre-existent deafness means
elimination
- Regular surveillance by audiogram to detect
individual susceptibility
- Training…
 Hearing 4. Protections against noise pollution

Protective measures:
- Shutters: cotton soaked with petroleum jelly (25 to
30 dB)
- Drilled earplugs: power of lower mitigation
- Not linear earplugs: especially for strong and
impulsive noise
- Passive headband: reduction of 35 dB
- Active headband: limited noise of a level > 90 dB
- Helmet with ANR technology, global reduction +
reduction focused on frequency ranges generating
fatigue
 Hearing 4. Protections against noise pollution

Every aircrew needs his/her hearing …

Barotrauma can also have an impact on hearing, in

more or less long term, if they are repeated

Noise pollution takes place inside aircrafts, but also

outside, on the tarmac (use of noise insulating
device)
Aircrew but also local residents are sensitive to
noise, take care of your ears, take care of yourself
(social impact)
=> Common sense in the choice of trajectories
Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus

Kinaesthetic perception: conscious perception of

the position or movements of the various parts of the
body

Proprioception: set of receivers, the nerves path

and centres involved in the deep sensibility, which is
the perception of oneself, conscious or not (position
of the various members, of their muscle tone in
connection with the situation of the body with regard
to the intensity of the Earth' attraction)
It can give false information to the orientation of the
body when the visual references are lost
Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus

➢ Presentation
Inner ear

Cochlea
Saccule
Utricle
Otholith organs
Semi-circular ducts
Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus
➢ Presentation

In pilot's terms,

The vestibular system is based on same types of

information as an inertial unit:
- 2 accelerometers (otolithic organs)
- 3 sensors of angular accelerations (semi-circular
canals)

=> capability to obtain spatial orientation

Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus

1.1 Hair cells

Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus

1.2. Otolithic organs

Utricle and saccule have an epithelium (uniform layer of cell)

endowed with sensory cells with cilia (≈ lashes), the macula

Lashes are stuck in a gelatinous layer on which stand otoliths

(carbonate of calcium)

These otoliths have a certain mass, which becomes "weight"

when there is gravity, which entails distortion of cilia

Weight is sensitive to accelerations, we have a system mass /

spring / shock absorber
=> Brain has access to direction and value of the acceleration
Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus

1.2. Otolithic organs

System masses/ spring / shock absorber
When the head is vertical, the sensitive axis of the
saccula is more or less vertical (sensitive to the linear
accelerations in the vertical axis), the one of the
utricula is more or less horizontal (sensitive to the
horizontal linear accelerations).

Coupled with the muscular information as a result, it

allows to create the perception of the vertical line
(perception often deceived by the movements of the
plane)
Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus

1.3. Semi-circular canals

Composed of a triedra among

which 3 axes are almost orthogonal

Every duct consists of a bow and a ampula (sensitive

part) close to the utricular

The functioning of these sensors is close to those

constituting the otolitic organ

We perceive angular accelerations

Brain cannot make the distinction between the beginning
of rotation in a direction and the end of rotation in the
opposite direction
Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus

1.4. Characteristic effects

➢ Properties of the sensors:
- Threshold effect : a minimum level of stimulation is
necessary for the brain to perceive acceleration

Horizontal plan: 0,06m/² during 10s a x t = 0,3 in

0,4m/(acceleration > 0,06m/²)
Vertical plan: min = 0,1m/²
Horizontal canals (the most sensitive) = 0,14 °/s ²
Other channels = 0,5 °/s ² or has x t> 2,5 °/s if t5s
Equilibrium 1. Functional anatomy of the vestibular apparatus
1.4. Characteristic effects
➢ Properties of sensors:

- Persistence: when the rotation stabilizes, the

perception of acceleration continues a few seconds

- Adaptation: the rotation stabilizes over a

consequent period, the impression of rotation
disappears

2 characteristics of the vestibular organ to be retained:

· not linear aspect: threshold effect, at the origin of the
absence of perception of certain movements
· adaptability, at the origin of the extinction of the perception
after a while
(Responsible for important errors of perception)
 Equilibrium 2. Motion-sickness
It is a kinetosis (= ensemble of symptoms induced by move)
Translated into dizziness, fatigue, nausea, if not vomiting,
provoked by the sensory solicitations resulting either
from: · the real motion of a means of transportation · Or
of the sensation of motion

Based on a sensory conflict, information resulting from

various sensors of equilibrium being perceived as jarring:

➢ Vestibulo-ocular conflict: no concordance between

visual and vestibular information
E.g. visual sensation of immobility while the vestibule is
requested to read during the travel, difference between
vision and vestibular system in the perception of the
visible speed (observation with binoculars during a flight)
 Equilibrium 2. Motion-sickness

➢ Intra vestibular conflict: information supplied by the

semi-circular canals do not match:
Coriolis effect (we tilt the head outside the plan of rotation
when we begin a turn), or during important phenomena of
pitch (horizontal semi circulars canals stimulated but not
working any more in agonist-antagonist couple)

➢ Conflict between otoliths and other sensors:

Suppression of gravity: tilt, rotation, linear motion will not
be perceived in the same way

Hyper gravity: inverse phenomenon. The intensity of the

solicitation does not correspond to the amplitude of the
movement recorded by the sensors
 Equilibrium 2. Motion-sickness

Conflict between otoliths and other sensors:

· Variations of the gravito-inertial vector: when
stimulations in the vertical direction are lower than
0,5 Hz, there are phase shift between the information
coming from otoliths and those of sensory and visual
sensors
Conflict between hearing and vestibular
information : we can start a kinetosis by making a
sound source turn around a subject …
Change of environment: persistent sensation of
movement when we pass of an unstable environment
to a stable environment (sailors" land-sickness")
 Equilibrium 2. Motion-sickness

Psychic causes can also exist : it is sometimes a

symptom of lack of motivation

Air-sickness supported by:

· Heat · Smells · Stress (eg. Learning to pilot) ·
Fatigue

Main symptoms: reduction of vigilance, interruption of

current class activities, drowsiness, yawns, paleness,
cold sweats, a hyper salivation, and sometimes
disorders of equilibrium
 Equilibrium 2. Motion-sickness
➢ Consequences:
Nausea and vomiting's · Prostration· Dizziness's with
disorders oculomotor and disorders of the driving
coordination

Medicine used in the treatment of air-sickness is

incompatible with flight crew functions (side effects:
slumber and disorders of the accommodation)

➢ Preventive actions:
· Medical patches (after medical consultation)
· Reduce the motion of the plane
· Fly at high altitude, to avoid turbulences
· Avoid the copious, heavy and alcoholic meals …
 Equilibrium 2. Motion-sickness

➢ Preventive actions:
• Make sure that you have good ventilation and air
conditioning of the cabin during stopovers
• Reduce apprehension of the passengers: role of
cabin crews, but also of pilots : pay attention to
the words used in messages
• Position close to the centre of gravity of the
plane for the people particularly sensitive to air-
sickness
• Training …
 2. 2. 5 Integration of sensory inputs

1. Physiology of spatial orientation

2. Pure visual illusions

3. Effects of accelerations

4. Psychophysiological and operational aspects

 Integration of sensory inputs Introduction

All the situations which delete or falsify a sensory information,

most of the time visual, will be source of sensory illusion
When we lose the visual references (horizon, ground), we lose
control in the MINUTE.
Visual references are fundamental:
The spatial orientation is deprived of fundamental information
and the other perceptions(collections) are stimulated >
erroneous perceptions(collections) > illusions of situation

Without outside vision act :

by using the instruments / artificial horizon
by disregarding sensations
 Integration of sensory inputs Introduction

- Spatial disorientation:
all the incidents which are connected to the failure
of the correct perception of the position, the
trajectory or the attitude of the plane compared
with the surface, the gravitational vertical line
(direction of the gravity)

- Incidents linked to disorientation:

10 to 20 % of the accidents (military and general
aviation)
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation
➢ Sensory seizure of the information

For orientation, 4 sensory information sources:

• Visual: 80 in 85 % of the aeronautical information
• Vestibular (equilibrium)
• Propioception (“seat-of-the-pants” sense)
• Hearing

Visual device:
• Central vision: cones (foveola). 7 millions per eye;
vision of what we aim by the look
• Peripheral Vision: sticks. 100 millions by eye; place us
in our environment, allow us to see him without looking
at him
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation

➢ Sensory seizure of the information

• Vestibular system:
• Saccule and utricule inform about the vertical and
horizontal linear accelerations
• Semi-circular canals inform us about the angular
accelerations

• Mechanical sensibility: The (superficial) cutaneous

sensibility and the deep sensibility (proprioception)
supply information on the environment, in particular on
the verticality.

• Ex: pressure on the zones of support (piloting “fly by feel”)

Muscular, tendinous and articular receivers
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation

Sensory seizure of the information

- Hearing: Limited role, but participates to the orientation

(localization of a sound source in the space)

Coordination of the various sensors

Vestibular-eye reflexes allow to coordinate the

information of visual and vestibular origin.

They allow the stabilization of the retinal image, the

head which can be considered a platform of acquisition
of visual information stabilized in the field of gravity by
the vestibular sensors of position.
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation

➢ Coordination of the various sensors - Vestibular-eye

reflexes

These reflexes are subdivided into three categories which

can harmonize:

• Eyes movements of vertical tilt of the other way around

of the direction of the acceleration (same direction as
inertia force)
• Side movement of eyes during a side acceleration
• Movement of rotation of eyes around their axis
anterior-posterior during a rocking movement of the
head in the frontal plan (around the axis X)
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation
➢ Coordination of the various sensors
• Postural reflexes: they allow to coordinate the information
resulting from the otolithic system and the peripheral
proprioceptors
• They allow, by action on the appropriate muscles, the
preservation of the posture and the balance (equilibrium).
They act on the muscles of the neck to stabilize the head
and on muscles chest expanders of the trunk and the
members, whose controlled contraction allows to support
the weight of the body.
• The sensory information sources thus allow to control these
3 platforms:
o EYES HEAD
o HEAD BODY
o BODY SUPPORT (anti-falls wrestling. Reflexes of
equilibration and posture controls.
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation

➢ Specific aspects of aeronautics

Vision:
Outside visual references:
• Horizon (not necessarily horizontal)
• Absence of "vertical" reference. We are disrupted if the
environment is tilted
• Absence of « vection » reference. Notion of relative
movement with regard to the environment (no clear
perception of our own speed, the vision gives us a
sensation of relative movement)

Instrumental visual references:

• Natural horizon: information from the peripheral vision
• Artificial horizon: information from the central vision
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation
➢ Specific aspects of aeronautics

• Accelerations
Linear and radial accelerations, and gravito-inertial resultant
(GIR)

Radial acceleration: γ = v2 / R b = a / cos α (a = 1g)

• At 60°: g load = 2g
• 70°: 3g
• 75°: 4g
• 80°: 5,8
Strength undergone in the « head to seat » direction = +Gz
(downward inertia)
Linear acceleration:
+ Gx: backward inertia
- Gx: forward inertia
Integration of sensory inputs 1. Physiology of spatial orientation

➢ Specific aspects of aeronautics

• Accelerations
Angular: rotation on an axis (yaw, pitch, roll)

Every time there is rotation around one of these axes, there

is angular acceleration at the beginning, and if the rotation
stabilizes there is not acceleration anymore. If the rotation
stops, there is acceleration again (the other way)

3 groups of illusions:
• Purely visual
• Linked to linear and radial accelerations = illusions due to
gravity
• Linked to angular accelerations = somatogyral illusions
 Integration of sensory inputs 2. Pure visual illusions

In cause in approximately 10 % of the cases of

spatial disorientation

Autokinetic illusion: at night, after the prolonged

fixation of a point of light and in the absence of
other reference element, impression to see it
moving
Bad appreciation of the horizon during flight at high
altitude (a part of the sky passing below the horizon
and being seen under the plane)
Bad appreciation of the marks of horizontality or
verticality and marks at the ground (distances)
 Integration of sensory inputs 2. Pure visual illusions

➢ Mechanisms of the evaluation of the distances:

Physical and physiological mechanisms
• Binocular Vision: moved in the frontal plan,
each eyes perceive a different image. The brain
compares these 2 images and draws an
information of relative position and distance
• Accommodation: adjustment of the eye on the
object cancels its fuzziness, the brain deducts
the necessary correction from it in terms of
accommodation. Thus he is informed about the
distance of the object, on which he ordered the
checking of the look
 2. Pure visual illusions
Integration of sensory inputs

➢ Mechanisms of the evaluation of the distances:

Cognitive mechanisms
• 3-dimensional effect: in a natural scene, the height in
our field of vision of 2 objects or characters and their
respective size inform us about their respective
distance.
Problems during change of configuration of the used
different runways, width / glide path
• Colorimetry: the steam absorbs a part of the visible
radiation and the distance of an object always entail a
degradation of its color, which is going to become
blurred in the bluish colors with the estrangement
In dry atmosphere (desert), reliefs can seem to us closer
than they are in reality. Also, problem of perception of the
plan in night arrival
 Integration of sensory inputs 2. Pure visual illusions

• Horizontality and verticality:

2 references are very early learnt in life.
We favor the vertical visual marks in the common life
We use rather the horizontal marks in aeronautics
(artificial horizon: central element of the dashboard)
The illusions come because certain marks are identified
as horizontal, but are not necessarily so(eg. cloud base)

At night, any isolated light is related to a celestial body, a

star, and hence indicates the vertical line.
If it is about a light on the ground, perceived during an
evolution under positive g load but during flight inverted, the
risk of piloting error is major
 Integration of sensory inputs 3. Effects of accelerations
➢ Effects of linear and radial accelerations
• Somato gravic illusions
• Illusion of climb / descent
Without outside visual references, when the plane turns, it
creates a load factor. The load factor during the turn is
perceived as an upward acceleration
No difference between this pilot and somebody in an
elevator
In a plane which turns, we feel that the plane climbs
because the appearing weight is in the axis of the body
The reaction will then be to push the stick
When we come out of turn , it is the opposite effect:
feeling to come down
 3. Effects of accelerations
Integration of sensory inputs

➢ Effects of linear and radial accelerations

• Somato gravic illusions
Confusion between perceived and true vertical, illusion of
nose-up.
Circumstance: + Gx acceleration
The direction of the GIR (gravitational-inertial resultant) is
assimilated to that of the gravity (true vertical), hence an
illusion of nose-up during a + Gx acceleration, even if not
very important.
The pilot seems to have tilted backwards because the
GIR is assimilated to the true vertical, he/she says "it is I
who tilted up", and pushes on the stick during the take-off
phase
In case of deceleration : feeling of diving (therefore pulls on
the handle).
 Integration of sensory inputs 3. Effects of accelerations

➢ Effects of linear and radial accelerations

• Somato gravic illusions

Illusion of inversion
Circumstances: + Gx associated with – Gz accelerations
Illusion of inverte flight, hence a maneuver to get back
"right" but this time he/she finds him/herself upside down

"G excess illusion"

Under load factor during a turn, and in case of head
movement, we have an illusion of wrong position, called
'G Excess illusion'
 Integration of sensory inputs 3. Effects of accelerations

➢ Effects of linear and radial accelerations

• Oculogravic illusions
When the eyeballs drop, you have the feeling that the
dashboard goes up
Circumstances: + Gz accelerations
The erroneous feeling that the dashboard rises is added to
the nose-up illusion
Similarly with +/- Gx, and with -Gz.
They are illusions of movement of the organism or the
airplane due to compensatory movements of the eyeballs
intended to stabilize the retinal image during the stimulation
of the otoliths.
 Integration of sensory inputs 3. Effects of accelerations

➢ Effects of angular accelerations

• Somatogyral illusions
Conditions: Flight without visibility, use of semi-circular canals
Illusion of rotation opposite to the stop of a rotation:
When one turns, after a few seconds, turning at constant
speed, there is no more acceleration therefore no more
stimulation of semi-circular canals.
If you come out of a corner, you feel an acceleration in the
other direction, with the impression of turning on the other side
Another example: the « death spin"
feeling to start a rotation in the opposite direction when exiting
the spin. The pilot then thrusts in the opposite direction to his
sensation, and gets back into a spin
 Integration of sensory inputs 3. Effects of accelerations

➢ Effects of angular accelerations

• Somatogyral illusions
Coriolis effect
During a turn, two semi-circular channels are already
stimulated.
If we tilt the head more, it generates a cross stimulation of
the 3 semi-circular canals, and a feeling of vertigo and
rocking = we no longer know where we are!
The Coriolis effect is related to the movement of the head
during a rotation
DURING TURNING PROCEDURES, THE PILOT WILL NOT
HAVE TO MOVE HIS HEAD
 Integration of sensory inputs 3. Effects of accelerations
➢ Effects of angular accelerations
• Effects of infra-liminal stimulations
= Illusion of flying with a bank turn while in horizontal
flight (the most widespread)

Semi-circular channels have a threshold for perception

(infra-liminal stimulations: excitation below the
detection value)
Principle of MULDER: for an angular acceleration to be
perceived it is necessary that:
Intensity x Application time ≥ 2.5 ° / s

▪ Acceleration of 5 ° / s² for < 0.5 s: no perception

▪ Acceleration of 0.25 ° / s2 for > 10 s: perception
 Integration of sensory inputs 3. Effects of accelerations

➢ Effects of angular accelerations

• oculogyric illusions
Involvement of vestibulo-ocular reflexes.
= illusion of apparent displacement of an object placed
before a subject who undergoes an angular acceleration

When turning, we follow the target with the eyes, causing

a jerky movement of the eyes, also blurring the eyesight
and impeding the reading of the instruments

It is often difficult to determine the precise mechanism of

illusions. (Often referred to as "vertigo"),
it is necessary to know that it exists sensory illusions
without vertigo (pure visual illusions)
Integration of sensory inputs 4. Psychophysiological and operational aspects

➢ Concept of sensory "conflict"

Illusion ⇒ lack of information ⇒ misleading

information, conflict with truthful information, conflict
+/- well solved and neurovegetative reaction
(kinetosis)
⇒ perception of the situation that does not correspond
to previous experiences.

Not consistent with expected perception.

When an illusion is detected, it is very stressful,

frightenizing
Integration of sensory inputs 4. Psychophysiological and operational aspects

➢ Prevention
How to limit the appearance of disorientation phenomena?
• Do not fly in case of degraded physiological
conditions (fatigue) or disease affecting the sensory
organs
• learn and train:
o Know the sensory illusions is fundamental to be able
to recognize them
o Believe the instruments and not one’s sensations
o Maintain visual dominance and vestibular suppression
• Apply strict control procedures: cross-check
instruments, do not move the head under certain flight
conditions
Integration of sensory inputs 4. Psychophysiological and operational aspects

➢ Prevention
How to limit the appearance of disorientation
phenomena?
- Improve ergonomics: position of instruments on dashboards,
lighting, heads-up display
- BELIEVE IN YOUR INSTRUMENTS, NOT IN YOUR
FEELINGS

Sensory illusions are a physiological phenomenon, touching

everybody!
No defense, no perfect technological solution to prevent them.
Only their knowledge and recognition will enable the pilot to
avoid the accident in the large majority of cases.
ATPL(A) 040 2.3 Health and hygiene
 Body rythm and sleep

1. Circadian rythm

2. Stages of a sleep cycle

3. Functions of sleep

4. Jetlag

5. Sleep and performance

Body rythm and sleep Circadian rythm

• Circadian rythm: person’s internal sleep-and

wake-related rythms that occur throughout a 24-
hour period
• Circadian pacemaker regulates:
o Sleep consolidation
o Sleep stage structure
o Electroencephalographic activities
Body rythm and sleep Circadian rythm

• Circadian rythm with normal day/night timers

Body rythm and sleep Circadian rythm

Time cues (aka: « zeitgebers »):

• Keep synchronisation
• Eg:
o Daylight/darkness
o Regular times fo meals
o Work/rest schedules
o…
Body rythm and sleep Circadian rythm

Melatonin:
• Hormon released during sleep
• Regulates body temperature and circadian
rythm
• Production inhibited
by light
Body rythm and sleep Stages of a sleep cycle

• 5 sleep stages
1. Sleepiness
2. Light sleep Orthodox sleep
3 & 4. Deep sleep
5. Paradoxal sleep

• 1-5 cycles
• ≈ 90 min/cycle
Body rythm and sleep Stages of a sleep cycle

5 sleep stages
1. Sleepiness (stage 1) is the stage of falling
asleep
• Reduction of:
- vigilance
- muscle tone
- heart rate.
• Slow muscular movements
• Normal sleep latency within 20 minutes,
insomnia beyond
• Phase of falling asleep never perceived,
unlike the awakening (falling asleep driving
or in class ...)
Body rythm and sleep Stages of a sleep cycle

5 sleep stages

2. Light sleep (stage 2)

• ≈ 50% of total sleep time.
• Subject drowsy, but still very sensitive to
external stimuli
• 50% of the good sleepers and 80% of the
bad sleepers think not to sleep.
Body rythm and sleep Stages of a sleep cycle

5 sleep stages
3. Deep sleep (stages 3 and 4):
• Electric activity: slow waves (delta waves)
• Vital signs slow down and becoming regular.
• In stage 3 persistence of weak muscular
activity, eye movements have almost
disappeared
• In stage 4, night terrors or somnambulism
can sometimes occur.
• Cell divisions
• ≈ 100 minutes. It tends to decrease with age,
in favor of stage 2.
Body rythm and sleep Stages of a sleep cycle

5 sleep stages
5. Paradoxical sleep
• Vey important electrical activity of the brain
and eyes (REM: Rapid Eye Movements)
• Almost total muscular atonia
• Neocortical activity is closer to that of
arousal than that of slow sleep. Breathing
is irregular, heart accelerates or slows
down
• Every 90 minutes, and duration lengthens
with the succession of sleep cycles,
(maximum at the end of the night)
• ≈ 20-25% of total sleep time sleep (stage 2)
Body rythm and sleep Functions of sleep

• Sleep necessary for survival

• Considerable variability (from 5 to 10 hours)
• Deep sleep
o Physical recovery
o Reconstitution of neuron energy reserves

• REM sleep
o Regeneration of mental functions
o Frequent interruptions harmful in the long term
Body rythm and sleep Functions of sleep

• Nap: (pre-planned cockpit) rest

o Improves in-flight sustained attention and
psychomotor response speed
o 20-30 min

• No sleep credit, only sleep debt

Body rythm and sleep Jetlag

• Circadian dysrhythmia
Effects similar to those of sleep loss or
deprivation
• Biological rhythm synchronises to the new time
zone in ≈ 1 to 1,5 hours per day
Body rythm and sleep Jetlag

Symptoms and effects

• Reduced vigilance
• Poor performance
• Disturbed sleep architecture
• Gastrointestinal disturbances
• Mood swings
• Increased fatigue
• Poor sleep
• Headache or irritability
• …
Body rythm and sleep Jetlag

Few tricks
• Traveling east makes the day shorter, and
adjustment is difficult
• Traveling west makes the day longer, and
adjustment is fairly easy
• Adjust sleep and activities to local time during
the layover based on:
o Number of time zones crossed
o Layover duration
o Timing of the return flight
 2. 3 Health and hygiene

Problem areas for pilots

1. Common minor ailments

2. Major ailments

3. Food hygiene

4. Tropical climates
 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

ENT disorder
➢ Cold

Viral infection of the upper airways leading to

inflammation of the mucous membranes and an increase
of secretions
Virus transmitted by direct contact, mainly by the hands

The risk of this benign condition is to obstruct the usually

open cavities: sinuses and tympanic membrane

= The re-establishment of the pressures can no longer be

made during the variations of altitude, resulting in a
BAROTRAUMATISM
 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

ENT disorders
➢ Cold

Risk: BAROTRAUMATIMS
Conventional course of the common cold: rhinitis (nasal
discharge) then thickening of the secretions then nasal
obstruction
Evolution very variable in time, the three stages
succeeding in a few days, a few hours, even a few
minutes; It is above all totally unpredictable
Any cold shall prevent you from flying

Transmission mainly by the hands, => wash your hands

(especially before meals)
 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

ENT disorders
➢ Influenza

Epidemic viral disease, the virus undergoes large

mutations approximately every 5 to 10 years, with small
variations between them
This virus transmitted by air is extremely contagious
(micro droplets emitted during sneezing, coughing or
speech), hence the risks in the cockpit, the environment
being relatively confined, for several hours.
- It is a disease often considered benign, potentially
serious: individuals regularly die
 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

ENT disorders
➢ Influenza
The great fear is the emergence of a mutant lethal to
man
There is no really effective cure. The usual treatments
are symptomatic, hence the importance of vaccination,
the only way to stop an epidemic and to limit the severity
of the cases
(As a pilot you will be able to contract viruses outside the
traditional exposure zones, eg flu in the West Indies in
December brought by passengers on long-haul flights.)
Specify your job to your doctor in case of problems)
 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

Gastrointestinal disorders
➢ Gastroenteritis

It is an inflammatory reaction of the intestines, usually

viral
In this case, it is transmitted by direct contact; mainly by
hands
Symptoms occur within hours, after a variable incubation
period, resulting in discomfort, chills, abdominal pain,
vomiting, diarrhea (all or part of the symptoms present)
 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

Gastrointestinal disorders
➢ Gastroenteritis

No fever when it comes to a virus. If the temperature

rises, there is a good chance that it is a gastroenteritis of
bacterial origin (salmonella, shigella, escherichia coli ...),
potentially much more serious.
Since the transmission of viral gastroenteritis is mainly
done by the hands, it is imperative to wash your hands:
O After going to the toilet
O Before eating

Diarrhea or vomiting contraindicates flight

 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

Gastrointestinal disorders
➢ C.T.F.I.
· Collective Toxi Food Infection, due :
- directly to a germ in food
- to a toxin produced by a germ in food
· It is due to these bacteria and toxins, resulting in
different symptoms, occurring within a few to 48 hours
after ingestion
· The most common symptoms are digestive (stomach
pain, vomiting, diarrhea)
 Health and hygiene Common minor ailments

Gastrointestinal disorders
➢ C.T.F.I.

· Severity on board an aircraft is of 2 orders:

- With regard to pilots, it causes a sudden incapacity to pilot,
which is all the more serious if the pilot is alone, or if both are
sick at the same time
- Concerning the passengers, it quickly raises the problem of
the insufficiency of the number of toilets ...

· For prevention, importance of:

- Perfect hygiene at the time of preparation of dishes
- Strict respect for the cold chain
- The 2 pilots shall consume different meal trays
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

➢ Loss of hearing

2 major causes of hearing loss related to aeronautical

activity:
· Sound trauma, occurring mainly on the tarmac
· Repetitive barotraumatic and serious ear infections

Pilots’ hearing loss has consequences:

· On safety:
- Poor perception of an alarm
- Poor understanding of radio messages
- Difficulties in crew communication

· And therefore on fitness ... (see standards)

 Health and hygiene Major ailments

➢ Loss of hearing

Flightcrew therefore have every interest in "limiting

the damage" by applying simple rules of prevention:

- Always use ear protection on the tarmac

- Never fly with a cold

 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Reduced visual acuity

➢ Presbyopia

With age, the lens loses its physical capabilities and

allows less accommodation for near vision. This can start
at around 40 years or later
=> Embarrassment when reading charts or
documents, but glasses can interfere with reading
instruments or for distance vision

There are glasses specifically designed to:

- myopia
- astigmatism
- hyperopia
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Reduced visual acuity

➢ Cataract
Always with age, but also with exposure to UV, the lens
will tend to opacify, causing a decrease in visual
capacities and a discomfort (glare) with the light
Wearing of suitable sunglasses is recommended, in order
to delay this UV effect

(Polarizing lenses in a glass cockpit environment will

generate reading problems from certain angles, it is
better to avoid them)
 Health and hygiene Major ailments
Cardiovascular problems
➢ Hypotension

Concerns 2 different cases:

- low blood pressure +/- permanent
- sudden drops of tension

Can be asymptomatic, it is not a disease but a

physiological state, resulting in the sensation of
fatigue or discomfort in the case of sudden
variations:
· When moving to the standing position
· During prolonged standing
· During extended + Gz accelerations
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Hypotension

Discomforts can also occur due to loss of adaptive

capacities of the cardiovascular system, certain
diseases (Parkinson), or when taking certain
medications (side effect).

Avoid self-medication + + +
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems
➢ Hypertension
Tension figures ≥ 140/90
Hypertension will slowly degrade the qualities of the wall of
the arteries, which will stiffen, causing embrittlement and
malfunction of the organs

The causes may be:

- genetics
- organic (renal disease, adrenal disease, hormonal problem
...)
- toxic (licorice, ginseng, alcohol, exciting products ...)
- cardiac
- respiratory (sleep apnea syndrome)
- unknown, most often
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Hypertension
The most affected parts of the body will be:
- the eye (retina)
- the kidney
- the heart
- the brain

With the following risks:

- retinal haemorrhage
- increase of hypertension due to renal failure
- myocardial infarction
- cerebral haemorrhagic stroke
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Hypertension
Means of prevention:
- regular physical activity (doubling heart rate 3 times /
week)
- avoiding regular / heavy consumption of alcohol
and of exciting products
- avoid overweight and overload (BMI> 25)
- avoid too salty foods

In a word, have a healthy lifestyle

 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Hypertension

When a treatment is necessary for the flight crew,

one must first observe its tolerance on the ground. If
the tension is normalized, if the treatment is well
tolerated (absence of side effect, in particular
absence of hypotension), and if the treatment is
compatible with an aeronautical activity (potential
side effects acceptable to flight safety), then an
aptitude by derogation may be requested
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Coronary artery diseases

Coronary arteries diseases affect the coronary wall

(arteries that feed the heart muscle in O2) causing an
alteration of their qualities: rigidity, reduction of
section, even obstruction

2 problems related to this pathology:

- myocardial infarction
- angina pectoris
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Coronary artery diseases - Heart attack

If an artery clogs, the downstream cardiac cells are
deprived of oxygen (anoxia) and suffer

The cells will undergo irreversible lesions, which are most

often manifested by atrocious andoppressive pain,
irradiating to the jaws and / or the left arm

It can also lead to syncope: anarchic contractions, called

"rhythm disorders", which can defuse the heart pump
with cardiac arrest and death. The risk is maximum in the
first hours, and increased by anything that can increase
heart rate (painful intensity, intense anxiety ...).
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Coronary artery diseases - Angina pectoris

If a coronary has simply a narrowing of its diameter or
rigid walls, the inadequacy of oxygen supply will only be
felt when exertion, when oxygen requirements and heart
rate increase.

Tissue suffering will cause pain of the same type as the

previous one, less intense, sometimes simple
oppression, interrupted when the effort stops.
Suffering can also be felt during a coronary spasm,
triggered by certain toxins, particularly certain
constituents of tobacco
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Coronary artery diseases - Angina pectoris

Risk factors for coronary heart disease (cardio-vascular risk
factors):

Hypertension Hypercholesterolemia
Inactivity Male sex (hormonal difference)
Smoking Very important physical activity
Diabetes

The severity of the symptoms greatly affects flights safety

Prevention requires a healthy lifestyle and the control of risk
factors
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Obesity
Normal weight = weight that shows good health and does not
cause pathological consequences
Determined by "Body Mass Index" (BMI)
BMI = weight / size2

Between 18.5 and 25: normal values

> 25: overweight
> 30: Beginning of obesity, in the more or less long term, the
excess weight causes an alteration of the health
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Obesity
Causes of obesity
They can come from a hormonal disruption (to be treated
before the weight problem)

In the vast majority of cases it is a poor lifestyle: lack of

physical activity and / or dietary errors (quality and / or
quantity of food)

Obesity builds insidiously:

+ 1 kg / month for 5 years = + 60Kg
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems
➢ Obesity

Consequences of obesity

Increased pressure on the Development of diabetes

articular cartilages of the lower
limbs, with premature aging and
osteoarthritis deformities
Hypertension Hypercholesterolemia
Hyper uricemia Malfunction of the liver
Altered kidney function Difficulty to breath

Predictable aviation medical fitness problem

 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Obesity

Prevention of obesity is of course the best solution:

- good food hygiene
- regular physical activity, especially those known as
"endurance" (moderate but prolonged activity)

However, when damage is already done, everything is

not lost, it is still possible to act but often a medical
support is necessary (nutritional monitoring)
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Type 1 diabetes

Insulin-dependent diabetes is a form of diabetes mellitus

that occurs most often in children or young adults
It manifests itself by excessive urine emission, intense
thirst and an abnormally increased appetite. It results in
weight loss despite heavy food intake, hyperglycemia
with occasional presence of acetone in the urine,
accompanied by a characteristic "rusty steel" breath
Type 1 diabetics must routinely control their glycemia,
inject insulin several times a day, and eat in a balanced
way
 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Type 2 diabetes

Non-insulin dependent diabetes is a metabolic disease

affecting glycoregulation eventually causing diabetes
mellitus

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by microangiopathic and

macroangiopathic lesions due to the effect of glucose in
the blood on organs. In case of hyperglycaemia for a long
period, the lesions may be numerous and severe

Limit of normal rate difficult to establish

 Health and hygiene Major ailments

Cardiovascular problems

➢ Type 2 diabetes

It is characterized by a resistance to insulin of the body

and a reactional hyperinsulinemia. The pancreas
produces more insulin until exhaustion, when the amount
of insulin is no longer enough to counteract the
resistances, the glucose level becomes abnormally high

Type 2 diabetes is generally asymptomatic for many

years, and its screening and diagnosis are based on a
specific biological examination (postprandial glucose or
induced hyperglycaemia)
 Health and hygiene Food hygiene
➢ Precautions
- Suitable quantity.
- Quality: proportion of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
vitamins, minerals ...
- Carbohydrates: avoid foods with high glycemic index,
resulting in insulin spikes and secondary hypoglycemia,
with cravings
- Lipids: promote vegetable or fish fats
- Protein: in sufficient quantity, but not too much (if not,
increase in uric acid)
- Salt to be limited
- Calcium
- Water to be preferred
 Health and hygiene Food hygiene

➢ Precautions
In practice :
· Try to eat meals at a fixed time
· Avoid saturated fats (fried foods)
· Pay attention to high energy foods
· Do not salt twice
· Avoid chocolate in the evening (oxalic acid crystals,
toxical substance beyond a certain dose)
· Consume dairy products in reasonable quantities
(Dairy products are less rich than cheeses)
· No snacking between meals
· Eat varied products, eat fruits and vegetables at all
meals
 Health and hygiene Tropical climates

➢ Specificities :

• Heat, UV

• Infectious diseases
 Health and hygiene Tropical climates

➢ Heat, UV
2 types of physiological reactions:
- Circulatory skin reactions; Heat exchange by blood,
vasodilatation phenomena, increased heart rhythm
- Sudation; Use of the latent heat of vaporization of
the water. Very effective thermal effect with low
humidity but limited in a very humid atmosphere.
Promotes rapid and insidious dehydration.
 Health and hygiene Tropical climates

➢ Heat, UV
When the adaptive capacities are taken in default,
accidents can occur:
· Heat Syncope
· Heat stroke, with cessation of sweating. It is a very
serious accident, which leads to rapid death. Obesity,
ingestion of alcohol and certain drugs (neuroleptics),
a febrile condition, or the practice of sports in a warm
environment are favorable factors
· Acute heat fatigue with decreased physical and
psychomotor performance
 Health and hygiene Tropical climates

➢ Heat, UV

Practically:

· Wearing ample clothing, allowing the evaporation of

sweat (2.5kJ / g of evaporated water) and covering
(best screen against UV)

· Protection of the head, visor, sunglasses

· Alcohol can lead to hypotension under these

conditions
 Health and hygiene Tropical climates

➢ Infectious diseases

Transmitted via 3 modes:

- By insects

- By food and water

- Through the ground

 Health and hygiene Tropical climates
➢ Infectious diseases
Practically:
- Protect yourself from insects by using covering
clothes, repellents sprayed on clothes and on the skin,
use mosquito nets
- Consume encapsulated beverages and avoid ice
cubes, consume boiled beverages (tea)
- Consuming cooked, boiled, peeled foods "peel it,
cook it, boil it, or forget it"
- WASH HANDS before any meal
- Avoid direct contact with the ground: do not walk
barefoot outside, do not lie on the floor. Microscopic
parasitic larvae can cross the skin
 Health and hygiene Tropical climates

➢ Epidemics

Some rules in case of epidemics:

1. know the mode of transmission (eg. chikungunya
...) in order to implement effective protection
2. know the preventive measures recommended by
the health authorities, and by the airlines
3. prevention: be vaccinated whenever a vaccine
exists (influenza, meningococcal meningitis, Japanese
encephalitis ...)
4. get regular information: WHO website: www.who.int
 Intoxications
Intoxications
1. Caffeine

2. Tobacco

3. Alcohol

4. Drugs

5. Self-medication

6. Toxic materials
 Intoxications 1. Caffeine
Benefits: Increases vigilance and shortens reaction time,
delays sleep

Undesirable effects:
- decreases or delays sleep (REM sleep)
- increases the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular
risk for predisposed persons
- can cause cardiac extrasystoles or increase their
frequency
- may favor the appearance of abnormal traces of the
electro-encephalogram with waves that may look like
those of epilepsy
- The immoderate consumption of caffeine can produce
ECG and EEG traces that will worry the physicians
experts…
 Intoxications 1. Caffeine

Absorbed on an empty stomach, caffeine passes into

the blood in 10 minutes, peaks before 30 minutes
and persists for 2 to 4 hours.
The undesirable effects of caffeine appear from the
absorption of a dose of 200 mg.
A normal dosage of caffeine is 50 mg / 100ml
(standard coffee), 65 mg (1 espresso), 30 mg / 100
ml (tea, coca)
Caffeine is present in a number of drugs, to counter
the effects on somnolence of certain active
ingredients
 Intoxications 2. Tobacco

It is both a toxic and a drug, which leads to a physical

and psychic dependence

Tobacco contains nicotine, which has an anxiolytic

awakening effect and appetite suppressant. Tobacco
products are made up of additives and their
combustion creates new components: carbon
monoxide, tars harmful to health
 Intoxications 2. Tobacco

All of these components act in particular on (1):

➢ Cardiovascular function. It increases blood

pressure, accelerates heart rate, and in the
medium and long term, leads to a premature
aging of the arteries, due among other things to
free radicals, with the coronary risks already
mentioned. It causes coronary spasms

Deaths from myocardial infarction are twice as high

for smokers. Vascular risks also affect the arteries of
the brain and limbs (arteritis)
 Intoxications 2. Tobacco
All of these components act in particular on (2):
➢ Respiratory function: It has an action at the
respiratory cells level, blocking the vibrating eyelashes
charged to evacuate the dust and microbes inhaled. It
irritates the respiratory tract permanently, and ends up
causing a more or less permanent inflammatory state,
resulting in " chronic bronchitis ". It also increases the
risk of lung cancer. It favors the pneumothorax, by
embrittlement of the alveolar walls

➢ The digestive function: Nicotine increases gastric

acid secretion

➢ The nervous system: nicotine has an effect on the

central nervous system, well known
 Intoxications 2. Tobacco

Risk of cancer
Of all cancers, one in four is associated with tobacco.
These include, in particular, cancers of the bronchi,
lungs, oral cavity, oesophagus, bladder, cervix and
stomach
 Intoxications 2. Tobacco

➢ Effects on flight
Tobacco limits the supply of oxygen to the brain and
muscles, causing:
- headache
- vertigo
- decreased resistance to exercise (release of carbon
monoxide which binds to hemoglobin in place of oxygen)
- increased effects of altitude hypoxia, especially fatigue,
but also impairment of night vision ...

Blood oxygen saturation in a smoker can drop to 92%,

instead of 100% normally

It is strongly advised not to smoke before a flight ...

 Intoxications 3. Alcohol

It is a toxic, metabolized (transformed) by the liver and

also a drug

Immediate effects:

· On the behavior (and therefore on the crew...)

· On the nervous system: increase of reaction time

· On the vascular system: vasodilation of the

peripheral veins
 Intoxications 3. Alcohol
➢ Medium and long-term effects:
• Impaired hepatic function, liver damage, including
hepatitis, and even cirrhosis with coagulation
disorders
• Alteration of the pancreas: acute or chronic
pancreatitis
• Cardiovascular action: increased heart rate and blood
pressure
• Nerve alteration: polyneuropathy, optic neuritis with
loss of vision, loss of memory
• Tolerance and dependence with the need to increase
doses to have the same effects and onset of
withdrawal symptoms
• Degradation of paradoxical sleep
 Intoxications 3. Alcohol
➢ Some orders of magnitude:
• Blood alcohol: (amount of alcohol absorbed / body
weight) x 0.6 (woman) or x 0.7 (male)
o 1 drink for a man => blood alcohol concentration of
0.15g / L
o 1 drink for a woman: 0.2g / L
• Amount of alcohol absorbed in grams = number of
degrees x quantity (in ml) x 0.8 / 100
• Amount of alcohol in the body m = blood alcohol
content x body weight x solvent space
• Theoretical elimination: after the first hour, the body
eliminates 0.8g of alcohol / hr and the blood
concentration decreases by 0.15g / L per hour
 Intoxications 3. Alcohol

For concentrations from 0.30 to 0.8 g / L, the

occurrence of disorders is noted, with successively:
- Extension of reaction time;
- Decreased glare resistance;
- Reduction of visual field;
- Errors in the estimation of distances;
- Removal of inhibitions.

From this we can deduce the aeronautical

consequences…..
 Intoxications 4. Drugs
Although commonplace, cannabis is still a drug and a
toxic, whose effects are far more harmful than tobacco
The active substance is tetrahydrocannabinol, on the list
of narcotic drugs

The main physical effects of cannabis, depending on the

person and the amount consumed:
- Increased pulse (palpitations)
- Decrease in salivation
- Vasodilatation
- Sensation of nausea
- Difficulties of concentration
- Disturbance of visual and temporal perception
- Immediate memory disturbance
- Psychic addiction
 Intoxications 4. Drugs

The risk of cannabis in acute consumption is mainly

the occurrence - completely unpredictable - of
behavioral disorders of acute delusional type which
can not
Be treated as inpatient hospitalization

Cannabis is therefore completely incompatible

with the navigational functions
 Intoxications 5. Self-medication

Drugs are not only beneficial,

They are genuine toxic, even drugs, whose navigator
must constantly be wary because of the side effects
potentially incompatible with the flight

Are allowed :
· Paracetamol, in case of fever or pain (DAFALGAN,
DOLIPRANE, EFFERALGAN)
· Doxycycline as chemoprophylaxis of malaria
(TOLEXINE, VIBRAMYCIN)
 Intoxications 5. Self-medication

Are allowed :

· Medicines having no effect, mainly:

▪ On vigilance and the nervous system;
▪ On the inner ear (vertigo);
▪ Blood pressure (voltage drops);
▪ Blood glucose (hypoglycaemia and malaise);
▪ On the view (vision of colors, visual acuity);
▪ Blood coagulation (risk of haemorrhage);
▪ On the digestive tract (vomiting, diarrhea)
 Intoxications 5. Self-medication

Apparently innocuous medications, such as anti-

inflammatory drugs used in the treatment of colds
(ADVIL), can have dangerous side effects in aeronautics
such as dizziness.
> They are contraindicated with flight

A medication as common as aspirin is not recommended

with flight because it can cause very significant
nosebleeds

It is therefore better to systematically see a doctor,

qualified in aeronautical medicine
 Intoxications 6. Toxic materials

Multiple toxic substances exist in the aviation industry:

▪ Aviation fuels: carcirogens, effects on liver, bone
marrow and Central Nervous System
▪ Hydraulic fluids: toxic ester-based additives =>
cough, runny eyes and nose, nausea and vomiting,
vertigo….
▪ Incomplete combustion by-products: HbCO, SO2
▪ Solvents: Toluene, TCE
▪ Lubricants: relatively non-toxic
 In-flight incapacitation

• Frequent occurrence
• All ages, all phases of flight
• From death to (subtle), partial loss of mental or
physical performance
• Last fatal accident: loss of consciousness of both
pilots after a failure in cabin pressurisation system
• Most dangerous: subtle incapacitation
• Major cause: acute gastrointestinal disorders
 In-flight incapacitation

• Regular use of CRM tools for early recognition

• Crucial to identify and correctly assess symptom

Symptoms Possible causes

Severe stomach cramps Acute gastroenteritis or
gastritis, kidney stones,
gallstones
Paleness, yawing, nausea, Fainting due to insufficient
drowsiness, sweat attacks, perfusion of brain
unconsciousness…
Heart trouble (cramps or pain), Coronary insufficiency, angina
with a state of anxiety and pain pectoris, heart attack
radiating towards the left
shoulder and/or arm region
 In-flight incapacitation

Solutions
• Different meals for 1st officer and captain
• Call a Designated Aviation Medical Examiner
(DAME)
• If one pilot incapacitated:
o Take over controls
o Engage auto-pilot
o Declare emergency
o Consider help from other pilots or crew
members
ATPL(A) 040 3. Basic aviation Psychology
 Human performance and limitations

I. Humans factors: basic concepts

II. Basic of flight physiology

III. Basic aviation psychology

 Human performance and limitations

I. Humans factors: basic concepts

II. Basic of flight physiology

III. Basic aviation psychology

 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information Processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III.1. Human information processing

1. Human information processing

a) Attention and vigilance

b) Perception

c) Memory

d) Response selection
 III.1.a) Attention and vigilance

1. Human information processing

a) Attention and vigilance

b) Perception

c) Memory

d) Response selection
 III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
• Vigilance:
Readiness to detect a stimulus imperative to
safety
• Attention:
Ability to focus and maintain interest
o To concentrate on a single object at a time
o Special and conscious effort
o Driven by the significant events occurring
around us (alarm,...)
o Stress limits the division of attention
=> Tunnelling
 III.1.a) Attention and vigilance

• Selective attention:
o Focusing on a specific stimulus,
ignoring all others (cocktail party)
o Example: Flight crew are talking together, as
soon as they recognise their own call sign on the
radio, their attention is diverted
• Divided attention:
o Ability to respond simultaneously to multiple
tasks
o Necessary to read instrument display in IFR flight
o Require the full capacity of consciousness
 III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
• Hypovigilance:
o Refers to the failure of maintaining attention
over a long period of time
o State of reduced, relaxed vigilance
o Factors causing hypovigilance:
- Monotony
- Tiredness
- Motivation
- Feeling uncomfortable
- After meal
 III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
o Prevent hypoviligance during flight:
➢ Healthy lifestyle
➢ Regular resting periods
➢ Active and open dialogue between crew
members
 III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
• Signs of reduced vigilance:
o Somnolence
o Yawn
o Painful eyes

• Factors affecting level of attention:

o Time on task
o Environment
o Temperature
III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
III.1.a) Attention and vigilance
 III.1.b) Perception

1. Human information processing

a) Attention and vigilance

b) Perception

c) Memory

d) Response selection
 III.1.b) Perception
• Perception process:
o Subjective process
o Allows us to make a representation of the world
o Interpretations built from:
- Sensory information
- Our past experiences (from our memory)
- Our expectations (world as we would like it
to be)

• Perceptional illusions are normal and can be

prevented by trusting the instrument read-out
 III.1.b) Perception
• Top-Down process:
o Cognitive process mainly based on internal sources
o Utilizes information that resides in the memory
banks
o Directed and influenced by expectations, knowledge
and experience
Example: searching the face of a friend in the crowd or
a particular symbol on a screen

• Bottom-Up process
o Cognitive process manly based on external data
Example: a bright flash of light, a loud noise, being hit
by an object
 III.1.b) Perception
• Subjective process:
o Having certain expectations representing a
significant source of interference
=> Consequences for judgement and
decision-making
o Personal motives, attitudes, emotions may
hinder from creating a personalised mental
model
o A less experience pilot will believe a hypothesis
from the captain and not criticise it
=> Captain become over-confident
=> Making decision causing catastrophe
 III.1.b) Perception
• Perceptional illusions are normal and can be
prevented by trusting the instrument read-out
• Even a very well-informed and skilled test-pilot
can be fooled momentarily
• “Müller-Lyer Illusion”:
Bottom-up processing leads to incorrect percept of
reality
 III.1.b) Perception

Example:
- Looking at the figure initially on the bottom-up
method
- With this process we can only see black and white
structure
- The observer’s perceptual organisation change to
top-down processing : FLY can be read distinctly
=> How much information do we lose in flight
due to this perceptual characteristic?
 III.1.b) Perception

• Perception: decisive role in flight safety

o Flying in IMC or at night: pilots have developed
knowledge to have faith in instruments instead of
their own senses
o Working in a team: possibility to share tasks and
talk about contradictory perceptions

In some situation, it is hard not to get fooled

…
 III.1.b) Perception

• How persuasive and believable mistaken

perception are:
o Expectations: source of interference for cognitive
process
=> Consequences on judgment and decision-
making
o Humans tends to focus their attention on
aspects that confirm their expectations
III.1.b) Perception
III.1.b) Perception
III.1.b) Perception
 III.1.c) Memory

1. Human information processing

a) Attention and vigilance

b) Perception

c) Memory

d) Response selection
III.1.c) Memory
 III.1.c) Memory
• Three distinct types of memories:
o Sensory memory:
Very short term memory
Visual & auditory
Brain can draw immediate raw information
o Working/Short term memory:
Temporary: keeps the information for 10/20 sec
Able to memorize 5 to 9 unrelated
information
Sensitive to interruptions
 III.1.c) Memory
• Three distinct types of memories:

o Long-term memory:
Capacity that seems unlimited
Retains information indefinitely
Difficult to access
Important to reactive it to make the
information available more quickly
(briefings)
 III.1.c) Memory
• Short-term and working memories are
susceptible to interruptions
o Avoid any interference with the cognitive process
o If the pilot have been interrupted, the co-pilot
should remind him of his last action before
interruption
• Flying require short period information
o Allocated frequency
o Position and motion of an approaching aircraft
o Recall a clearance issued by air-traffic control
o Coordinating flow of information working on
checklist
o Calculating the kerosene demand
 III.1.c) Memory
• Increasing the store capacity: to chunk items on
group
=> Memorising a telephone number is based on
that

• Long-term memory
o Episodic memory: past events / our experience
=> Analysis of flight accident
o Semantic memory: everything we have learned
=> Can birds fly?
o Procedural memory: stores action programmes
 III.1.c) Memory
• Amnesia: Inability to recall past events
o Can results from physical trauma (accident)
o Can results from psychological problems: seen in
victims of horrible events such as violent crimes,
murder, war ... They protect themselves by
blocking the memory
• Problem with memorisation:
Important
Informations
Short-term Long-term
memory memory
 III.1.c) Memory

• Problem with memorisation:

o The more the information is repeated or used,
the more it will end up in long-term memory
o Trouble in remembering something can be
caused by:
- Improper encoding
- Unable to retrieve the information at
present
- Long-term memory is affected by age
 III.1.c) Memory
• Common problems:
o Long-term memory is influenced by experience,
repetition, suggestion, desires, expectations
o Main limitation of the long-term memory is to be
accessed (need to be recalled regularly)
o Long-term memory is affected by age

• Methods to counteract the problems:

o Permanent learning
o Rehearsal the procedures
o Perfect encoding of information during storage
III.1.c) Memory
III.1.c) Memory
III.1.c) Memory
 III.1.d) Response selection

1. Human information processing

a) Attention and vigilance

b) Perception

c) Memory

d) Response selection
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Learning: Acquisition of new knowledge or skills

• Forms of learning:
o Classical and operant conditioning: modification of
voluntary behaviour by positive/negative
reinforcement
o Learning by insight (cognitive approach):
Acquisition of knowledge and skill by mental or
cognitive processes.
o Learning by imitation: Humans are able to learn
from experiences of the others. They expect the
same behaviour will have the same
consequences.
 III.1.d) Response selection
o Examples:
“Made a mistake. You will remember that mistake and
will do things differently when the situation comes up
again”
=> Operant conditioning
“If you are an experienced pilot and want to fly a loop,
read the instruction”
=> Cognitive learning
“I suggest you visit the next air show to watch how
professionals are flying such a manoeuvre”
=> Observational learning
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Promote learning quality:
o Creating mental pictures of a situation
o Building mnemonics
o Giving meaning
• Facilitate the memorisation:
o Mnemonics: helps to increase the retention
- Same context for storing and retrieving
information
- Same mental task for retrieving information as
the one used for receiving it
- Embed information into images / movies
- Build acronyms for memorising multiple items
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Facilitate the memorisation:
o Mental training: visualisation of a task and all
related aspects
- Concentration and relaxation at the same time
- Shorten the learning process
- Increase performance
- Ensure that complex sequences of events run
more smoothly
- Improve storage of information in long term
memory
- Helpful in every department of flying at all levels
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Skills: special ability in a task, acquired by training

• Three phases of learning a skill (Anderson):

Develops understanding but needs to
Cognitive think over every single action of the
process

Repeats the components of the

Associative procedure until whole functional routine
becomes self-controlled

The procedure is perfected until it is

Autonomous executed smoothly without any
conscious control
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Motor programme / mental schema: complex
movement runs smoothly, without conscious control
o Exact, fast, automatic, effortless
o Need practise for not being attenuate
o When skills run fully automatically, the load on
working memory is reduced by 90%.
 III.1.d) Response selection
o Advantages:
- Enable us to store the core meaning of new
information without details
- Help to understand new information more readily
o Disadvantages:
- Influence and slow down the uptake of new
information
- Multiple conflicting schemata can be applied to the
same information
- Information that doesn’t fit with the existing
schemata may be forgotten or ignored
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Rasmussen model: model of performance in
operational tasks/demand
3 levels of performance :
- Skill-based behaviour
-> Autonomous phase
- Rule-based behaviour
-> Associative phase
- Knowledge based behaviour
-> Cognitive phase
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Rasmussen model: model of performance in
operational tasks/demand
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Problems associated with Rasmussen model:

o Slips (=routine errors): errors related to the

control of skill-based-behaviour (individual trying
to become more aware of an automated routine
action or procedure = flight instructor)

o Automated procedures are difficult to modify

o Errors related to the selection of procedures

occur, caused by choosing the wrong procedure,
even if executing it correctly
 III.1.d) Response selection

o In the process of decision-making, humans have

a tendency to do:
- Alter risk perception according to their
personal experience
- Adhere to a decision even if the facts
contradict it
- Ignore information indicating the decision is
poor
- Favour simple theories as opposed to the
complex ones
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Acquisition of automated behaviour: progressive
process involving the investment of time and effort
o Cognitive phase: the performer must determined
the objective of the movement ; should know
what to do and have an insight about how to do it
o Associative phase: emphasis of practice ;
performing the skill by continuous repetition ;
more and more complete and stable sequences
will be stored in long-term memory
o Automatic phase: characterised by the ability to
automatically execute the skill ; able to attend
other cues while giving little thought to how to
perform the skill
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Motivation definition: internal state, activating
behaviour
“Motivationreflects the difference between what
a person can do and what he will do”
Frank Hawkins

• Different types of motivation:

o Extrinsec motivation: from outside, involve
rewards (money, trophies,…)
o Intrinsec motivation: from within the individual
(doing a complicated puzzle, solving a
problem,…)
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Components of motivation:
o Activation: decision to initiate behaviour
o Persistence: continue effort toward the goal even
though obstacles exist
o Intensity: concentration and vigour into pursuing a
goal
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Source of motivation : “Model of human needs” by
Maslow
Theory that identifies the primary motivators of human
behaviour and represents them as a pyramid of needs

Need for safety: linked to the

conservation over time of acquired
knowledge of the dangers

Physiological needs: related to the survival

of individuals (hunger, thirst, sexuality, ...)
 III.1.d) Response selection

Need to be fulfilled: to exceed material conditions, to

participate in the improvement of the world

Need for esteem: prolongs the

need of belonging, to be part of a
group and to be inescapable in this
group

Need to belong: Social dimension of the

individual ; to feel accepted (Family, work,
association)
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Relationship between motivation and learning:
o Intrinsic motivations is derived from a self-
concept, beliefs, internal needs. They are additive.
o The efficiency of human is determined by the
agility of every individual to align personal needs
with reality
o People whose motivation is based in intrinsic
factors work more effectively
o First and foremost motivation of pilot: passionate
desire to fly
 III.1.d) Response selection
• Problems of over-motivation:
o Too-high or too-low level of motivation =>
negative repercussions on human performance
in aviation
o Unmotivated trainee pilot is incapable of learning
o Overambitious people have stress and a
negative impact on performance
o Excessive motivation to succeed can also result
from fear of losing the job (pressure on a captain
to continue the approach due to an important
business meeting)
III.1.d) Response selection
III.1.d) Response selection
III.1.d) Response selection
III.1.d) Response selection
III.1.d) Response selection
III.1.d) Response selection
 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III.2. Human error and reliability

2. Human error and reliability

a) Reliability of human behaviour

b) Mental models and situation awareness

c) Theory and models of human error

d) Error generation
 III.2.a) Reliability of human behaviour

2. Human error and reliability

a) Reliability of human behaviour

b) Mental models and situation awareness

c) Theory and models of human error

d) Error generation
 III.2.a) Reliability of human behaviour

Factors which influence human reliability?

Reliability = Fiabilité
 III.2.a) Reliability of human behaviour
• Factors which influence human reliability:
o Qualifications to fly the aircraft
o Leadership qualities
o Operational conditions
o Ergonomic design
o Flight safety culture
o Organisational conditions
o Environmental conditions
o Technical conditions
o Social conditions
 III.2.b) Mental models and situation awareness

2. Human error and reliability

a) Reliability of human behaviour

b) Mental models and situation

awareness

c) Theory and models of human error

d) Error generation
 III.2.b) Mental models and situation awareness
• Humans make mental pictures to identify and give
meaning to objects in order to construct a mental
model of the world
• Situation awareness: perception of the elements
in the environment within a volume of time and
space
• The loss of situation awareness will leave clues:
o No one watching or looking for hazards
o Use of improper procedures
o Failure to meet planned targets
o Unresolved discrepancies
o Ambiguity
 III.2.b) Mental models and situation awareness
• To regain a situation awareness:

o Making others aware when the team deviates

from standards procedures
o Monitoring to the performance of other team
members
o Provision of information in advance
o Identification of problems
o Invitation of all crew members to clarify
expectations and doubts
o Communication of a course of action to follow as
needed
 III.2.b) Mental models and situation awareness

• Influencing situation awareness factors:

o Attention: information overload, task complexity,
multiple tasks quickly exceed aircrews’ attention
o Working memory
o Stress: reduction of working memory
o System design: lack and too much information
o Complexity
o Automation: pilots will be slower to detect
problems and need extra time to proceed with
the problem
o Quality of the cooperation in the cockpit
 III.2.b) Mental models and situation awareness
• “Mental model” definition: Internal representation of
an external reality

• Advantages / disadvantages:
o Based on sensory information, past experience
and learning
o Once we have constructed it, we give big weigh
to information that confirm this model
o When piloting an airplane, our mental model
should be based on instrument data and clearly
represent reality
o Facilitate understanding of environment
 III.2.b) Mental models and situation awareness

• Cognitive illusions definition:

o Come up involuntarily, without specific
instruction
o Firmly convinced that they have judged or
decided to the best of their knowledge

• Pilots rely on “mental shortcuts” when there is not

enough time to make complex decisions
=> Producing cognitive illusions and
errors
in judgement
 III.2.c) Theory and models of human error

2. Human error and reliability

a) Reliability of human behaviour

b) Mental models and situation awareness

c) Theory and models of human error

d) Error generation
 III.2.c) Theory and models of human error
• Error: difference between intentions and outcomes

• Error chain: Accident due to several system

failures and triggered by human error
=> Accident are frequently the result of a series of
events in an error chain, and not a single one
• Main types of error:
o Slips: Certain action fail to be executed
according to plan
o Faults: Errors related to storing and processing
of action sequence
 III.2.c) Theory and models of human error
o Omission: Missing out a process
o Violations: Deliberate illegal actions
• Active errors: actions that have an immediate
adverse effect
Associated with line personal (pilots, controllers, etc)
Examples: omission of check list item – wrong
response to emergency – visual illusions

• Latent error: concealed errors

Associated to management level, personal selection,
maintenance
Examples: Training deficiencies - poor planning
 III.2.d) Error generation

2. Human error and reliability

a) Reliability of human behaviour

b) Mental models and situation awareness

c) Theory and models of human error

d) Error generation
 III.2.d) Error generation
• Internal factors of errors:
o Mistaken perception
o Experimentation
o Faulty memory
o Fatigue

• External factors of errors:

o Ergonomic
o Economic
o Social environment
 III.2.d) Error generation
• Errors in motoric programmes: common if the
pilot is distracted
o Environmental capture: occurs if a task is
mentally linked to a specific location
o Habit reversion: occur when a behaviour has
been established
• Error generation in the cockpit:
- Ergonomics
- Economics
- Social environment
 III.2.d) Error generation
• Error generation in the cockpit:
- Ergonomics: Design cockpit and flight desk
to suit a population
The seat must have a wide range of
adjustability
- Economics: the goal is to achieve a profit
from the safe carriage
- Social environment: creation of goal
conflicts on the flight deck that increase
decision difficulty
• Aviation industry tries to counter with fallibility of
humans by ergonomic design systems
 III.2.d) Error generation

• Error tolerance: Ability of a system to perform its

function even in the presence of internal faults
 Increase the dependability of a system

1st step : understand the nature of error

1st method: to improve error detection
2nd method: to build more error tolerance
 III.2.d) Error generation
• Strategies for the reducing of human errors:
o Error prevention: avoiding error – possible only in
some specific cases
o Error reduction: minimising the likelihood and
magnitude of the error
o Error detection: making errors apparent as fast
and clear as possible
o Error recovery: making it easy to rapidly recover
the system to its safe state
o Error tolerance: making the system as tolerant as
possible
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
III.2. Human error and reliability
 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III.3. Decision making
• Deciding: to determine an outcome, arbitrary, based on
emotion
• Decision-making: incremental process followed to reach
a balanced decision
• The value of the decision depends on how deeply the
situation is understood
• Decision-making is based on:
o External conditions (aircraft, weather, destination)
o Internal factors (personal experience, goals, motives)
o Attitude toward flight safety
• Simple rules, shortcuts, based on prior experience
 III.3. Decision making
• Conformation of Bias: Tendency to search for
information in a way that confirms their
understanding of the situation
o Won’t be aware that they are suffering from that
o Method to avoid that: deliberately look for
information that will falsify the hypothesis
• Main error sources and limits:
o Attention: distraction, overstress, channelized
attention
o Stress: effect on physical and mental capabilities
o Lack of experience: slow-down the decision
making process
 III.3. Decision making
• Risk assessment is based on subjective perception
and evaluation of situational factors.
Subjective perception for risk assessment:
o Commitment: degree of being bound to a
solution
o Time pressure cause stress, impairing the
retrieval of information from memory

• Limitations of human attentional capabilities:

channelized attention, distraction, overstress,
mental overload
 III.3. Decision making
• The general tendency of a group involves a higher
risk or increased precaution depends on the
individual decisions
• DECIDE model:
o Detect: deviation occurs and needs to be
addressed
o Estimate: estimate the deviation from the norm
o Choose: course of action ensuring safety
o Identify: the risks related to the chosen option
o Do: do the specific option
o Evaluate: evaluate the action’s capacity to solve
the problem and ensure safety
III.3. Decision making
III.3. Decision making
III.3. Decision making
III.3. Decision making
III.3. Decision making
 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III.4. Cockpit management

4. Cockpit management

a) Safety awareness

b) Coordination (multi-crew concepts)

c) Cooperation

d) Communication
 III.4. Cockpit management

4. Cockpit management

a) Safety awareness

b) Coordination (multi-crew concepts)

c) Cooperation

d) Communication
 III.4.a) Safety awareness
• Safety awareness: maintain a level of flight safety,
reduce the possibility of harm to persons
• Don’t feel well => DO NOT FLY (“I’m safe” check)
Don’t feel well during flight => Talk to the others !
• Aircrew’s contribution to the safety of flight
operations:
o Check skills, knowledge & attitude
o Countermeasures:
- Workload assignment & management
- Monitoring & crosschecking
- Enhance assertiveness
 III.4. Cockpit management

4. Cockpit management

a) Safety awareness

b) Coordination (multi-crew concepts)

c) Cooperation

d) Communication
 III.4.b) Co-ordination
• Coordination: advantage of team work to collect
highly skilled individuals.
It includes:
o Wide range of knowledge
o Skills and attitude including communications
o Situational awareness
o Problem solving
o Decision-making
o Team work
 III.4.b) Co-ordination
• Standard Operating Procedures “SOPs”:
o Reference for crew standardisation
o Provide the working environment required for
efficient crew coordination and communication
o Procedure appropriate to the situation
o Procedure practical to use
o Effective training is conducted
o Procedural consistency
o Proven routines from witch pilots shouldn’t
deviate
 III.4.b) Co-ordination

• Briefings: means of flight preparation

o Opportunity to introduce captain’s intention

towards the crew members
o Should be short, precise, standardised
o Emphasise on particular requirements
o Before take-off, briefing must be done to refresh
memory of crew members and coordination
actions
 III.4.b) Co-ordination
• Checklists:
o Whenever possible, panel scan sequence must be
done
o Made with various typefaces to emphasis critical
items
o Mustn’t be executed simultaneously with other
activity
o Assist the pilot’s attention toward specific tasks
needing to be accomplished successively
o Important to use it when flying an unfamiliar aircraft
• Communication: Connective element in a team
o Smooth and free exchange are crucial
o More communication improve flight operation
 III.4. Cockpit management

4. Cockpit management

a) Safety awareness

b) Coordination (multi-crew concepts)

c) Cooperation

d) Communication
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Co-operation: ability to work effectively in a crew
Process in which individuals coordinate their actions
• Co-action: Refers to working parallel to achieve
one common objective
• Group: two or more individuals who are connected
to one another by social relationships.
Interdependence is one of the forces impacting a
group dynamic:
o Communicate frequently
o Take notice of suggestions
o Help other crewmembers
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Benefices of teamwork:
o Groupe decision is higher quality than individual
one
o Flight safety is enhanced
o Work stress is reduced
o Decision making is improved

• Disadvantages of teamwork:
o Interpersonal tension and conflicts
o Increased time period for the decision-making
process
o Conformity pressure
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Synergy: Coordinated effort of all crew members
towards a common objective – collective
performance is more than individual one
- Reducing failure rate
- Distributing workload
- Social reinforcement through teamwork

• Cohesion: act or state of uniting together – pursuit

of common goal while satisfying personal
imperative
- Social relationship between group members
- Task motivation
 III.4.c) Cooperation

• Groupthink: mode of thinking that people engage

in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-
group.
Typical behaviour of people affected by groupthink:
- Overestimation of abilities of the group
- Underestimation of abilities of other groups
- Illusion of unanimity
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Essential conditions for good teamwork:
o Common goals and plans
o Good leader ship style
o Defining expectations
o Clear distribution of roles and responsibilities
o Positive work environment

• Norms organise the interaction and behaviour

between members of a group. Crucial for a group
cohesion: uniformity of thinking and acting
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Role patterns occur in a group situation:
o Persuasion: individuals are persuaded toward
the group’s point of view => influence individuals’
views & behaviour in positive or negative ways
o Conformity: individual doubts and counter-
arguments overlooked, maintaining conformity to
the group
o Compliance: individuals will act according to the
wishes of more dominant group members, due to
fear to be excluded
o Obedience: following orders without question
because they come from a legitimate authority
14.
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Behaviour can be affected by those factors in order
to become integrated into a team, recognised as the
leader, avoid conflict
• Role: functions that must be performed by
individuals
Status: privilege of a hierarchical position
=> Division of work, flight organisation, behaviour
• Conflicts:
o Role assigned with conflicting expectations
o New role
o Junior captain with senior co-pilot
=> Status/Role conflict
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Leadership: goal-oriented process ; refers to the
ability of accomplishing tasks with others
Followership: willingness of supporting an
accepted leader through effective teamwork

• Leadership styles:
o Autocratic:
- captain makes lone decisions, doesn’t consider
objections, doesn’t delegates, tense climate
- Captain with low self-esteem
- Crew isolate themselves, co-pilot reacts
aggressively
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Leadership styles:
o Laissez-faire:
- captain acts passively, allows decision, choices
& actions, promotes a relaxed and pleasant
working environment

o Synergistic: The ideal one

- Leads by example, motivates to the crew
- Expresses his intentions and expectations
clearly
- Makes decisions with the help of crew
- Delegates tasks & responsibilities
 III.4.c) Cooperation
• Positive leadership style: some qualities increase
the chances of successful leadership
o Decision-making qualities
o Persuasive power
o Durability and tenacity
o Emotional stability
o Competence in aviation and management
qualities
 III.4. Cockpit management

4. Cockpit management

a) Safety awareness

b) Coordination (multi-crew concepts)

c) Cooperation

d) Communication
 III.4.d) Communication
• The function of information is to achieve a certain
behaviour, decision or outcome
Worthless if after being received nothing change
• Communication: select word and clearly express ideas
Most basic components of interpersonal communication:
- Source
- Message
- Encoder
- Channel
- Receive
- Decoder
 III.4.d) Communication
• One-way communication: information shared without
requiring feedback (fast but ambiguous)
Two-way communication: information shared requiring
feedback (effective but need more time)
 Two-way communication ensures the understanding
and execution

• “One cannot not communicate” by Watzlawick

 Impossible for individuals not to communicate
 III.4.d) Communication
• Verbal communication is based on description
• Non-verbal communication is based on acquaintance &
description. Multiple functions:
o Substitution for speech
o Repeating the verbal message to emphasis or clarify it
o Accenting a particular point in a verbal message
Aspects: Gesture, posture, body language, eye contact,
voice, sounds
Non verbal comm is interpreted differently in cultures
 III.4.d) Communication
• Explicit communication: unmistakable
Implicit communication: ambiguous, misapprehended, by
nonverbal channels

• Professional language: using a restricted and specific

language to minimised misunderstandings
o Reducing of ambiguity
o Communication issue: using English with international
flights and local language with domestic flights
o Controllers & pilots need ICAO Level 4 English language
 III.4.d) Communication
• Major obstacles of effective communication:
o Encoding obstacles: lack of sensibility to receiver, lack
of basic comm skills, insufficient knowledge of the
subject, information overload
o Transmitting obstacles: noise, physical distractions
(something making noise), conflicting messages,
channel barriers, long comm chain
o Decoding obstacles: lack of interest, lack of knowledge,
emotional/physical distractions
o Feedback: do not use negative, redundant or
aggressive phrase,
o Time pressure: disregards sensitivity to the receiver
 III.4.d) Communication
• Aircraft accident due to poor communication:
1,100 passengers & crew died in accidents where
language played a role
 III.4.d) Communication
o Controller: “… are cleared for descent two-four-zero-
zero”
Pilot: “OK four-zero-zero”
The aircraft descended to 400ft instead of 2,400ft

o While flying a go-around, the commander asked the co-

pilot to “take-off power”. He misinterpreted and
reduced the engine power instead of increase it. They
crashed …
 III.4.d) Communication
• Interpersonal conflicts: conflicts between individuals
Intrapersonal conflicts: contradictory wishes or actions in
one and the same individual

• Escalation levels in human conflicts:

o A problem to be solved
o A difference comes to light
o Confrontation
o Fight-or-Flight
o Deadly combat
 III.4.d) Communication
• Consequences of conflicts between crew members:
o Neglect their duties & back out of obligations
o The error rate increases & willingness decreases
=> When conflicts happen: point out the problem,
reconcentrate on duties, clear the matter (debrief)
• Strategy to manage conflicts:
o Inquiry: Inquiring assist to understand the different
points of view
o Active listening: recipient dedicates full attention to the
sender
o Advocacy: discussing controversial issues
 III.4.d) Communication

• Strategy to manage conflicts:

o Feedback: contains how we perceive, experience &
understand the message
o Metacommunication: interpersonal communication,
how persons agree in principle to interact
o Negotiation: finding joint solutions capable of meeting
situational and individual needs ; use constructive
means of negotiation
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
III.4. Cockpit management
 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III.5. Human behaviour

5. Human behaviour

a) Personality, attitude and behaviour

b) Individual differences in personality and

motivation

c) Identification of hazardous attitudes

(error proneness)
 III.5. Human behaviour

5. Human behaviour

a) Personality, attitude and behaviour

b) Individual differences in personality and

motivation

c) Identification of hazardous attitudes (error

proneness)
 III.5.a) Personality, attitude and behaviour
• Human behaviour is determined by biological
characteristics, social environment and cultural influences:
o Genetics: biology dealing with heredity
o Attitude
o Social norms: influence of social pressure
o Perceived behaviour control: believe how easy/difficult
will it be
o Sense of basic trust and role perception: religion, family
o Survivor instinct
 III.5.a) Personality, attitude and behaviour
• Personality: organisation of characteristics which
determine the behaviour of an individual, stable over a
long time
Attitude: Evaluation of people, events, activities, …
Tendencies to respond to people, institutions or event
Behaviour: Reaction of an individual to a specific situation,
product of an individual’s attitudes
 III.5.a) Personality, attitude and behaviour
• Personality refers to psychological characteristics
Attitude are made over the years
• Behaviour can form good and bad habits.
• Personality is the organisation of characteristics,
determining => standard behaviour.
Attitude is the product of person experience => Specific
situation behaviour
• Attitudes and behaviour play a role on flight safety:
o Important assessment of personality during selection
o Need to determine desirable/undesirable personality
 III.5. Human behaviour

5. Human behaviour

a) Personality, attitude and behaviour

b) Individual differences in personality and

motivation

c) Identification of hazardous attitudes (error

proneness)
III.5.b) Individual differences in personality and motivation

Today’s ideal pilot

 III.5.b) Individual differences in personality and motivation
• Self-concept: refers to the mental image of one’s
personality (personal attributes, abilities, preferences,
feeling and behaviour). Components:
o Memories
o Ideal-self (what an individual would like to be)
o Possible self (mental anticipation of changing)
o Self perception

Tendency to defend our self-concept

Example: someone with low self-esteem promoted captain
is commonly becoming aggressive
 III.5.b) Individual differences in personality and motivation

• Self-discipline: correction of regulation of oneself for the

sake of improvement
Adequate and disciplined behaviour in pursuance of these
responsibilities should include the following:
o Behaviour in accord with rules of conduct
o Behaviour and order maintained by training and control
o Willpower and ability to operate safely
 III.5. Human behaviour

5. Human behaviour

a) Personality, attitude and behaviour

b) Individual differences in personality and

motivation

c) Identification of hazardous attitudes

(error proneness)
 III.5.c) Identification of hazardous attitudes

• Hazardous attitudes contribute to poor pilot judgement

o Anti-Authority: “Don’t tell me what to do”
Tendency to disobey rules and procedures
o Impulsiveness: “I must act now”
Feeling of being forced to decide quickly, tendency to
choose the simplest alternative
o Invulnerability: “It won’t happen to me”
Possibility of being personally affected is repressed or
not considered seriously
 III.5.c) Identification of hazardous attitudes

• Hazardous attitudes contribute to poor pilot judgement

o Machisma: “Watch this, I’m better than you”

Risk-taking behaviour to impress others
o Resignation: “What’s the use ?”
Feeling of being nothing & incapable leads to
resignation and letting others decide
 III.5.c) Identification of hazardous attitudes

Ideal attitude and behaviour of crew member?

 III.5.c) Identification of hazardous attitudes
• Ideal attitude and behaviour of crew member:

o Strong performance and professional motivation

combined with confidence in personal capabilities
o Adequate risk behaviour, knowledge of dangers, correct
self-assessment
o Capacity to endure stress without letting it affect
performance
o Leadership (task & employee oriented)
 III.5.c) Identification of hazardous attitudes

• Flight accidents are related to:

o Carelessness (use of checklist, …)
o Lack of flying skills
o Lack of conscientiousness or discipline
III.5. Human behaviour
III.5. Human behaviour
III.5. Human behaviour
III.5. Human behaviour
 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III.6. Human overload and underload

6. Human overload and underload

a) Arousal

b) Stress

c) Fatigue and stress management

 III.6. Human overload and underload

6. Human overload and underload

a) Arousal

b) Stress

c) Fatigue and stress management

 III.6.a) Arousal

• Before taking off, pilots need to clarify their physical,

mental and emotional state
• Arousal: psychophysiological state of pre-tension ; various
from deep sleep to extreme excitement.
• Arousal has direct effect on performance:
 III.6.a) Arousal

• Mental underload is at least as serious an issue as

overload. Factors to performance problems are:
o Fatigue
o Vigilance
o Trust
Underloading processing limitations in the future.
 III.6. Human overload and underload

6. Human overload and underload

a) Arousal

b) Stress

c) Fatigue and stress management

 III.6.b) Stress

• Homeostasis: Maintenance of internal equilibrium face to

external stimulations
• Stress: mechanism by which an individual can respond to
situations that have to face ;
 the degree of stress is based on the type and intensity
of demands and available performance potential

• ‘Fight or flight’ response: the brain prepare the muscles to

violent actions in presence of threatening stimulus
o Increase blood pressure
o Increase heart rate
o Higher concentration of adrenaline
 III.6.b) Stress

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): running all automatic

functions of the body (breathing, heart rate, digestion, …)
During stress, brain initiates the stress response prepare
the body for fight-or-flight
=> Stimulate the adrenal gland to release its
stress hormones
 III.6.b) Stress

• Arousal and stress depend on each other

• Moderate level of stress => Positive impact on perfo.

Excessive stress => Weakens performances
 III.6.b) Stress

• Stressor: Internal/external stimulus perceived as stressful

• Major environmental sources of stress in cockpit:

o Noise
o Vibration
o Turbulence
o Acceleration
o Extreme temperature
o Changes in cabin pressure altitude
o High / low humidity
III.6.b) Stress
 III.6.b) Stress

• Principal causes of domestic stress:

o Death of a family member
o Loss of partner
o Loss of job
o Change in residence
o Birth of baby

• Stress reactions differ from pilot to pilot

• Factors leading to differences of stress level:
Social support – Hardiness – Optimism – Reactivity
 III.6.b) Stress

• Factors influencing the tolerance of stressors:

o Physical fitness
o Good health and condition
o Mental balance
o Experience
o Knowledge
o Skills
o Character
o Self confidence
o Resources
III.6.b) Stress
 III.6.b) Stress

• Anxiety: emotional state in which nervousness, worry and

apprehension are associated with arousal of the body,
causing stress
• Anxiety increases => Physiological arousal increases
=> Performance drops

• General effect of acute stress:

o Heart rate increases
o Muscles tighten
o Blood pressure rises
o Speed up reaction time
 III.6.b) Stress

• 3 phases of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):

o Alarm phase: During a few seconds – acceleration of
blood and pulse pressure – increase rate of breathing
o Resistance phase: Adaptation to the stressors – large
secretion of hormones
o Exhaustion phase: body needs time to recover from
stress and eliminate the waste products
 III.6.b) Stress

• Chronic stress:
o Cause blood-clotting & elevate blood cholesterol levels
=> heart disease / stroke
o Weaken the immune system => More vulnerable to
infections
o Permanent stress in the cockpit, losing motivation to fly
• Psychological: Refers to the mind or spirit
Psychosomatic: mental and emotional stressors can be
manifested in physical reactions
Somatic: refers to the human body as distinguished from
the mind or spirit
 III.6.b) Stress

• Common symptoms of human overload:

o Affected attention, concentration, perception,
information processing, memory functions
o Dry mouth, hyperventilation, cramps, increased
breathing rate
o Panic, resignation, frustration
• Effects of stress on human behaviour:
o Signs of aggressiveness
o Avoiding social contact
o Inappropriate gesture
o Fast speech and high-pitched voice
 III.6.b) Stress

• Accumulation of stress is comparable with error chain ; the

cumulative effect causing human error.
Memory store retain stress information and transfer stress
from one situation to another.
• Self-confidence increases acquiring more knowledge
=> Stressful landing, next time will be easier
• Effect of human underload/overload in the cockpit:
o Rational behaviour is pushed back
o Attentional and cognitive functions are affected
o Declining effect on performance
 III.6.b) Stress

• Sources and symptoms of human underload: performance

and attention are degraded in low-demand tasks
(automation)
 III.6. Human overload and underload

6. Human overload and underload

a) Arousal

b) Stress

c) Fatigue and stress management

 III.6.c) Fatigue and stress management

• Fatigue: Physiological state of reduced mental or physical

performance capability
o Chronic fatigue: may be caused by inadequate
recuperation from periods of acute fatigue
o Acute fatigue: decrease in skilled performance related
to duration or repetitive use of that skill
• Symptoms & effects of fatigue:
o Slowed reactions
o Long-term memory access problems
o Tiredness
o Low motivation to perform optional activities
 III.6.c) Fatigue and stress management

• Strategies to prevent fatigue & hypovigilance:

o Planning energy use (napping, physical activity,…)
o Active coping
o Communicating with other crew
o Drinking coffee
• Coping strategies: behavioural and psychological efforts to
tolerate and reduce stressful events
o Problem-solving strategies: to do something active
o Emotion-focused coping strategy: to regulate
consequences
 III.6.c) Fatigue and stress management

• Short-term methods of stress management: be able to

keep the balance between actual demands and personal
recourses available
o Practising and learning regularly
o Anticipation
• Long-term methods of stress management: maintenance
of stable regulation of actions
o Increase psychophysiological effort
o Sufficient rest and relaxation
III.6. Human overload and underload
III.6. Human overload and underload
III.6. Human overload and underload

27.
III.6. Human overload and underload
III.6. Human overload and underload
III.6. Human overload and underload
III.6. Human overload and underload
III.6. Human overload and underload
III.6. Human overload and underload
 III. Basic Aviation Psychology

1. Human information processing

2. Human error and reliability

3. Decision-Making

4. Cockpit management

5. Human behaviour

6. Human overload and underload

7. Advanced cockpit automation

 III.7. Advanced cockpit automation

7. Advanced cockpit automation

a) Advantages and disadvantages

b) Automation complacency

c) Working concepts
 III.7. Advanced cockpit automation

7. Advanced cockpit automation

a) Advantages and disadvantages

b) Automation complacency

c) Working concepts
 III.7.a) Advantages and disadvantages

• Automation is a technical advancements ; pilots are now

assuming the role of system manager, planning,
monitoring and decision-making
• Advantages/disadvantages in the cockpit:
o Vigilance: reduce of vigilance which reduce readiness to
perform
o Attention: idem
o Decreasing work load
o Situational Awareness
o Crew coordination
 III.7.a) Advantages and disadvantages

• Advantages in automation:
o Execution of tasks exceeding human capabilities
o Performance aids where humans have limitations

• Disadvantages in automation:
o Workload reduces flying and navigating, but increases
at critical phases
o Low level of workload => Hypovigilance
 III.7. Advanced cockpit automation

7. Advanced cockpit automation

a) Advantages and disadvantages

b) Automation complacency

c) Working concepts
 III.7.b) Automation complacency

• Automation complacency:
o Complacency among the crew members is an
automated cockpit result
o Too much trust on automated systems
o Loss of situation awareness

• Definitions:
o Passive monitoring: insufficient simulation => watching
what it is doing instead of analysing and checking
o Blinkered concentration: breakdown in the monitoring
happening when crew are worry about something
 III.7.b) Automation complacency

• Definitions:
o Confusion: too much information on the screen will
confuse the crew
o Mode awareness: knowledge of how the system work,
insurance against mode error
• Counteract ineffective monitoring:
o Regarding the automatic system as an additional crew
member
o Don’t be so involved reading the reports
 III.7.b) Automation complacency

• Complacency:
Carelessness or unjustified self-confident
Pilot complacency have been implicated in numerous
aviation accidents and incidents
 III.7. Advanced cockpit automation

7. Advanced cockpit automation

a) Advantages and disadvantages

b) Automation complacency

c) Working concepts
 III.7.c) Working concepts

• Communication:
o With automation, crew communication tends to be
more visual and less verbal
o ATC doesn’t adequately allow for automated aircraft
capabilities
o ATC need to appreciate the difficulty and workload to
reprogram the FMS
 III.7.c) Working concepts

• How negative effect may be alleviated:

o Understanding pilot-system communication
o Understanding all mode transition
o If doubt, react immediately

• Automation and role safety:

o Allow more “thinking and monitoring” time
o Less fatigue
o Higher sens of “insecurity” during automation failure
III.7. Advanced cockpit automation
III.7. Advanced cockpit automation
III.7. Advanced cockpit automation
III.7. Advanced cockpit automation
III.7. Advanced cockpit automation