Airframes & Systems 1

Fuselage, Wings and Stabilizing Surfaces

Definitions, Loads Applied to Aircraft Structures

Tension. A tension or tensile load is one which tends to stretch a structural member. Components designed
to resist tensile loads are known as ties.
Compression. Compressive loads are the opposite of tensile loads and tend to shorten structural members.
Components designed to resist compressive loads are known as struts.
Shear. Shear is a force which tends to slide one face of the material over an adjacent face. Riveted joints are
designed to resist shear forces.
Design Limit Load (DLL). This is the maximum load that the designer would expect the airframe or component
to experience in service. The standard DLLs are: For Transport Aircraft +2.5 and -1.0. For Utility Aircraft 4.4,
and for Aerobatic Aircraft, 6.
Design Ultimate Load (DUL). The DUL is the DLL × the safety factor. The minimum safety factor specified in
design requirements is 1.5. The structure must withstand DUL without collapse.
Safe Life. The safe life of an aircraft structure is defined as the minimum life during which it is known that no
catastrophic damage should occur.
Aircraft life is based on; the number of pressurisation cycles, number of take-offs/landings and the differential
pressure (max).
Fail-safe or Damage Tolerant Structures. A structure in which a failure of a particular part is compensated for
by an alternative load-path provided by an adjacent part that is able to carry the loads for a limited time
period.
Fatigue. This is where a structure experiences continual reversals of loading and will fail at a load of less than
would be the case for a steadily applied load.
Station Numbers. A method of locating components on the aircraft must be established in order that
maintenance and repairs can be carried out. This is achieved by identifying reference lines and station
numbers for fuselage, wings, empennage, etc. Fuselage station lines are determined by reference to a zero
datum line (fuselage station 0.00) at or near the forward portion of the aircraft as defined by the
manufacturer. Station numbers are given in inches forward (negative and given a - sign) or aft (positive and
with a + sign) of the zero datum. Wing stations are measured from the centre line of the aircraft and are also
given in inches left or right of the centre line. Vertical position from a ground line or horizontal datum can be
known as a Water Line (WL), given as a dimension in inches from the horizontal datum.

Aircraft Structures (Fuselage)

Axial Stress. Axial/longitudinal stresses are set up in the fuselage of aircraft when pressurized and tend to
elongate the fuselage.
Hoop Stress. Hoop/radial stresses are set up in addition to axial stress and tend to expand fuselage cross
section area.
Fuselage Construction
Truss/framework. Type generally used for light, non-pressurized, aircraft.
Monocoque. Generally used for light aircraft. All the loads are taken by the skin with just light internal frames
or formers to give the required shape.
Semi-monocoque. More widely used on most other aircraft. This type of structure is now generally referred
to as Stressed Skin. Additional structural members known as stringers (stiffeners) and longerons were added
to run lengthwise along the fuselage joining the frames together. The light alloy skin is then attached to the
frames and stringers by riveting or adhesive bonding. Stringers stiffen the skin and assist the sheet materials to
carry loads along their length.
2 Airframes & Systems

Flight Deck and Passenger Windows

Flight Deck Windows. They are constructed from toughened glass panels attached to each side of a clear
vinyl interlayer. An electrically conducting coating, applied to the inside of the outer glass panel is used to heat
the window. Must be capable of continued safe flight and landing after impact with a 4lb (2kg) bird when
the velocity of the aeroplane is equal to VC (design cruise speed) at sea level, or 0.85VC at 8000ft, whichever
is the most critical.
Passenger Cabin Windows. These are designed to be ‘fail-safe’ and normally have two panes of acrylic plastic
mounted in an airtight rubber seal fitted into a metal window frame. The inner and outer panes are each
capable of taking the full cabin pressurization load.

Aircraft Doors
Aircraft doors may be side or top opening. All passenger doors on pressurized aircraft are now of the plug
type. When closed the internal pressure holds the door shut and locking pins engage with the frame structure
to ensure that it cannot open in flight.

Cantilever Monoplane
The mainplanes have to absorb the stresses due to lift and drag in flight and, if of cantilever design, their own
weight when on the ground. This will be achieved by building the wing around one or more main load bearing
members known as spars. These are constructed so that they will absorb the downwards bending stresses
when the aircraft is on the ground. However when the aircraft is in flight the wing not only has to have the
flexibility to bend upwards but needs enough stiffness to resist the torsional loads which will cause twisting.
Bending stress relief is also provided by using ‘Aileron Up-float’, mounting the engines on the wing and
positioning the major fuel tanks within the wing. During flight the fuel in the wing tanks is the last to be used.
Note: The maximum bending moment occurs at the wing root.
Spars. The mainplanes may be of single spar, twin spar or multi-spar construction. A conventional structure
would consist of front and rear spars, the metal skin attached to the spar booms, the ribs and stringers. These
four main component parts form the torsion box (carries all aircraft lift and weight loads).
Skin: takes the loads due to differences in air pressures and the mass and inertia of the fuel (if any) in the wing
tanks. It generates direct stresses in a spanwise direction as a response to bending moments and also reacts
against twisting (torsion).
Stringers. Spanwise members giving the wing rigidity by stiffening the skin in compression.
Ribs. These maintain the aerofoil shape of the wings, support the spars, stringers and skin against buckling
and pass concentrated

Flutter
An uncontrolled oscillation that can occur on fixed surfaces, such as the wing or on control surfaces such as the
ailerons or elevators. Flutter is caused by the interaction of aerodynamic forces, inertia forces and the elastic
properties of the surface or structure and can lead to the catastrophic failure of the structure.

Stabilizing Surfaces
The horizontal surfaces, which are known as the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer, provide longitudinal stability
by generating upwards or downwards forces as required.
The vertical surface(s), vertical stabilizer or fin, generate sideways forces as required. Longitudinal control is
provided by the elevators or moving tailplane with directional control provided by the rudder.
Both the tailplane and the fin are subject to both bending and torsional stresses.
 Airframes & Systems 3

Materials Used
Aluminium. The most widely used metals for structural use due to a good strength to weight ratio with
‘duralumin’ type alloys predominating due to their good fatigue resistance.
Steel. Only used where strength is vital and weight penalties can be ignored.
Titanium. Much lighter than steel and can be used where fire protection is required e.g. firewalls. It has good
strength and retains this and its corrosion resistance up to temperatures of 400°C.
Magnesium. Has an excellent strength to weight ratio. The elastic properties of magnesium are not very
satisfactory so its use in primary structures is limited.
Composites. Made of at least two elements to produce a material with properties that are different to those
of the original elements. Nearly all composites consist of a bulk material, this is called the matrix and some
form of reinforcement. This reinforcement is used mainly to increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix
and is usually in a fibre form. Composites have good resistance to corrosion but their fatigue behaviour is
different to that of conventional metal alloys and is not generally a consideration at stress levels below
approximately 80% of ultimate stress.

Sandwich Construction
This is used extensively on aircraft of all types, typically for flight control surfaces, flooring, fuselage panels,
empennage skin and sound proofing for engines. It is a laminar construction that uses a honeycomb core with
skins of composite material (GRP or CFP) or aluminium alloy, and it can be used to provide rigidity and
strength. It has a good strength to weight ratio and is particularly strong in the direction of the honeycomb
openings. Parts made of a sandwich material need additional provision to carry concentrated loads.

Corrosion
May be regarded as the slow destruction of a metal by electrochemical action, electrolytic corrosion. With
corrosive attack the metal is converted into metallic compounds such as oxides, hydroxides, carbonates,
sulphates or other salts.

Rate of Corrosion Type of Atmosphere

High Tropical Industrial Marine
Moderate Temperate Suburban
Inland
Low Arctic Rural

Structural Limitations
Maximum Structural Taxi Mass. The structural limitation of the aeroplane mass at commencement of taxi (at
departure from the loading gate). The aeroplane would then burn fuel down to ‘Take-off Mass’ (TOM).
Maximum Take-off Mass (MTOM). This is the maximum permissible mass of the aeroplane including
everything and everyone contained in it at the start of the take-off run.
Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MSLM). The maximum permissible total aeroplane mass on landing in
normal circumstances.
Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM). The maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no usable fuel.
Bending moments, which apply at the wing root, are maximum when the quantity of fuel in the wings is
minimum. During flight, the quantity of fuel located in the wings decreases. As a consequence, it is necessary
to limit the weight when there is no fuel in the tanks.

Hard Time & On-condition Maintenance

Hard Time Maintenance. This is a procedure under which an item must be removed from service before its
scheduled maintenance period for inspection or repair.
On-condition Maintenance. Uses an inspection or functional check to determine an item’s performance. This
may result in the removal of an item before it fails in service.
4 Airframes & Systems

Hydraulics

Aircraft systems provide a means of power transmission through the medium of hydraulics i.e. transmission of
power through an incompressible fluid via pipelines and actuators. Hydraulic systems provide the power for
the operation of components such as landing gear, flaps, flight controls, wheel brakes, windshield wipers and
other systems that require high power, accurate control and rapid response rates.
Pascal’s Law. If a force is applied to a liquid in a confined space, the force will be felt equally in all directions.

FORCE
FORCE = PRESSURE × AREA PRESSURE = FORCE PER UNIT AREA =
AREA

The WORK DONE by a machine = FORCE applied × DISTANCE moved

Passive Hydraulic System

A passive hydraulic system is one in which there is no pump and pressure is only produced when a force is
applied to a piston. E.g. light aircraft braking system.

Active Hydraulic System

A pump is required to deliver a flow of fluid into the system and restriction is provided by movable pistons
which travel backwards and forwards in cylinders (jacks/actuators). As the power required for operating
different services varies according to their size and loading, a “gearing” effect must be provided, achieved by
varying the size of the actuator pistons, while the hydraulic pressure remains constant. E.g. undercarriage,
flaps, spoilers, nose wheel steering.
Classified as low (up to 2,000psi) or high pressure (average 3,000psi) – high pressure systems = less
weight/space (actuator/pipes can be smaller with less fluid).

Hydraulic Fluid
Properties: • Good lubricating properties for metal and rubber
• Low viscosity with a high boiling point/low freezing point
• Non-flammable and chemically inert
• Relatively incompressible, so ensuring instantaneous operation

DTD 585 - a refined mineral based oil (Petroleum). Colour - red. Used with synthetic rubber seals (Neoprene).
SKYDROL - a phosphate ester based oil. Colour - Type 500A & B purple, Type 700 green. Used with synthetic
rubber seals (Butyl). Is fire resistant and less prone to cavitation because of its higher boiling point.
Cavitation. When the pumps are drawing fluid faster than it can be supplied. Can induce vapour into system.

Basic System
Reservoir. Delivers oil to the pump and receives oil from the actuators.
Pump. Either hand, engine or electrically driven.
Selector/Control Valve. To select the direction of the flow of fluid to the
required service and providing a return path for the oil to the reservoir.
Actuators/Jacks. To actuate the component.
Filter. To keep the fluid clean.
Relief Valve. A safety device to relieve excess pressure.

Open-centre System
Advantages: Simple.
Disadvantages: Only one system can be operated at a time.
Found in light aircraft (flaps/undercarriage).
 Airframes & Systems 5

Closed System
Operating pressure is maintained in that part of the system which leads to the selector valves, and some
method is used to prevent over-loading the pump.

Reservoir
Provides storage space for the system fluid, supplying a head of fluid for the pump and compensating for small
leaks. It also provides sufficient air space to allow for any variations of fluid in the system. Most reservoirs are
pressurized, to provide a positive fluid pressure at the pump inlet, and to prevent air bubbles from forming in
the fluid at high altitude.
A reservoir also contains a relief valve, to prevent over pressurization; connections for suction pipes to the
pumps, and return pipes from the system; a contents transmitter unit and a filler cap; and, in some cases, a
temperature sensing probe.

Filter
Filters are fitted in both suction and pressure lines i.e. both sides of the pump and sometimes in the return line
to the reservoir; a suction filter to protect the pump, and a pressure filter to ensure the cleanliness of fluid
during use. They remove foreign particles from the fluid, and protect the seals and working surfaces in the
components. Individual components often have a small filter fitted to the inlet connection, and constant
pressure pumps will have a “case drain filter” to help monitor pump condition.

Pump
Draws oil from the reservoir and deliver a supply of fluid to the system.
Pumps may be; hand operated, engine driven, electric, pneumatic (ATM), RAT, hydraulic (PTU).
In most cases the ATM, RAT or PTU is used to provide an alternate supply as part of the redundancy provision
for the safe operation of the aircraft.
Engine driven pumps (EDP) or electrically driven pumps may be classified as follows:
Constant Delivery (Fixed Volume) Type Pump. Usually a single or double stage gear pump giving a large flow
at a small pressure, typically up to 2000psi. Constant rate.
Constant Pressure (Variable Volume) Pump. Typically fitted in modern aircraft whose systems operate at
3000-4000psi. Variable volume and controls its own pressure.
Many transport aircraft have constant pressure or demand type hydraulic pumps.

Automatic Cut-out Valve

Used to regulate the pressure in the system between a high setting and a low setting when a constant volume
pump is used to power the hydraulic system. An accumulator maintains the system pressure when the pump is
in its ‘cut-out’ position.

Actuator (Jacks)
Convert hydraulic pressure into linear or rotary motion/movement.
Single Acting. Normally used as a locking device, the lock being engaged by spring pressure and released by
hydraulic pressure. A typical application is a landing gear downlock.
Double Acting Unbalanced. Hydraulic pressure moves them in both directions. The actuator will give
different forces of extension and retraction (landing gear/flaps).
Double Acting Balanced. Hydraulic pressure moves them in both directions. Actuator gives equal forces of
extension and retraction (nose wheel steering).

Accumulator
Fitted to: • Store hydraulic fluid under pressure.
• Provide an emergency supply of fluid to the system in the event of pump failure.
• Dampen pressure fluctuations.
6 Airframes & Systems

Hydraulic Lock
When there is no fluid movement (in or out of the actuator) the piston becomes locked in position.

Relief Valves
Safety devices to relieve excess pressure in the system back to reservoir. Used for:
Thermal Relief. Expansion
Full Flow Relief. Ultimate system protection
Flap Relief. Mechanical overload protection

Pressure Maintaining Valves/Priority Valves. If the pressure drops below a set limit, the PMV closes and
isolates the non-essential services. Remaining pressure will then go to the primary services.
Pressure Reducing Valves. Used to reduce main system pressure to a value suitable for operation of a service
such as the wheel brakes.
Brake Control Valves. A variable pressure reducing valve, which controls pressure in the brake system
according to the position of the pilot’s brake pedals, the anti-skid system and autobrake selections as required.

Flow Control
Non-return Valves. The most common device used to control the flow of fluid, which permits full flow in one
direction, but blocks flow in the opposite direction.
One Way Restrictor Valves (or choke). May be similar in construction to an NRV, but a restrictor valve is
designed to permit limited flow in one direction and full flow in the other direction.
Selector Valves. Used to direct fluid to the appropriate side of a jack and connect the other side to return.
Some are manually operated but on large aircraft they are operated remotely (mechanically or electrically).
Shuttle Valves. These are often used in landing gear and brake systems, to enable an alternate system to
operate the same actuators as the normal system. If the primary supply fails, the alternate supply will push the
shuttle across connecting the service to it.
Sequence Valves. Direct system fluid into one service ensuring its complete operation before the fluid can
enter the second service (landing gear doors then landing gear extension).
Modulators. A modulator is used in conjunction with the anti-skid unit in a brake system. It allows full flow to
the brake units on initial brake application, and thereafter a restricted flow.
Flow Control Valves. Used upstream of the hydraulic motors to ensure an even flow rate to maintain
constant speed.
Fuses. Fitted upstream of components to shut-off flow and prevent total loss of system fluid (leak). Wheel
brakes are invariably protected by fuse units.

Powered Flying Controls

A hydraulic sub-system for the operation of the flying controls, is often fed through a priority valve or pressure
maintaining valve, which ensures that fluid under pressure is always available; the sub-system may also have a
separate accumulator. Most modern aircraft will have alternate hydraulic supplies available for flight controls.
Two, three or even four independent hydraulic systems can simultaneously supply power for primary flying
controls.
 Airframes & Systems 7

Landing Gear

Functions. • To provide a means of manoeuvring the aircraft on the ground.

• To support the aircraft at a convenient height to give clearance for propellers/flaps,
etc. and to facilitate loading.
• To absorb the kinetic energy of landing and provide a means of controlling deceleration.

Fixed Landing Gear

Advantages: Simple, reduced maintenance, low initial cost
Disadvantages: High drag, reduced performance
Spring Steel Legs. Usually employed at the main undercarriage
positions. Consists of a tube, or strip of tapered spring steel, the
upper end being attached by bolts to the fuselage and the lower
end terminating in an axle on which the wheel and brake are
assembled.
Rubber Cord. When rubber cord is used as a shock-absorber, the
undercarriage is usually in the form of tubular struts, designed
and installed so that the landing force is directed against a
number of turns of rubber in the form of a grommet or loop.
Oleo-pneumatic Struts. Fitted to some fixed main
undercarriages, and most fixed nose undercarriages.
Use a combination of nitrogen (or sometimes compressed air) and
hydraulic fluid to absorb and dissipate shock loads on landing.
There are two telescoping cylinders, both of which are closed at
the external ends. The top cylinder is attached to the aircraft, and
the bottom cylinder is attached to the landing gear. The bottom
cylinder, typically called the piston, can also freely slide in and out
of the upper cylinder.
Under compression (e.g. when landing), the strut shortens and
fluid is forced through the gap between the piston orifice and the
metering rod, this restriction limiting the speed of upward
movement of the inner cylinder.
Spats can be fitted.
Spats. An aerodynamic fairing which may be required to
minimize the drag of the landing gear structure.

- An oleo-pneumatic strut

Retractable Landing Gear

Advantages: Low drag
Disadvantages: Increased weight, greater complication, additional maintenance

Retraction is normally effected by a hydraulic system, but pneumatic or electrical systems are also used. In
some instances power is used for retraction only, extension being affected by gravity and slipstream.
Retractable landing gear is also provided with mechanical locks to ensure that each undercarriage is locked
securely in the retracted and extended positions; devices to indicate to the crew the position of each
undercarriage; and means by which the landing gear can be extended in the event of failure of the power
source.
Means are provided to prevent retraction with the aircraft on the ground, and to guard against landing with
the landing gear retracted. Undercarriage wells are normally sealed by doors for aerodynamic reasons.
Large aircraft (Boeing 747) have the ability to turn part of the main gear to assist with steering during tight
turns by reducing the turning radius. When the nose wheels are turned the main wheels turn in the opposite
direction.
8 Airframes & Systems

Main Undercarriage
Loads Sustained:
• Compressive (static and on touchdown)
• Rearward bending
• Side (crosswind landings/take-offs/taxiing)
• Forwards (during push back)
• Torsional (ground manoeuvring)

Nose Undercarriage
Usually a lighter structure than a main unit since it carries less weight and is usually subject only to direct
compression loads. It does, however, carry the attachment for the towing equipment and so must withstand
shear loads as well.
Several Requirements:
• Castoring. The ability of the nose wheel to turn to either side in response to the results of differential
braking or aerodynamic forces on the rudder.
• Self-centring. If the nose gear is not in a central position prior to its retraction severe damage can be
caused.
• Nose Wheel Steering. Light aircraft use a simple steering system, where the nose wheel is mechanically
linked to the rudder pedals; larger aircraft require powered steering arrangements. Within a power steering
system, the nose wheel is rotated by electric, pneumatic, or most commonly, hydraulic power.
This last type of system would include a cockpit steering wheel or tiller, a control valve, steering cylinders to
turn the nose gear, a mechanical feedback device to hold the steering at the selected angle and a power
source, normally the aircraft hydraulic supply fed from the engine driven pumps.
Some form of quick-release pin is often provided to enable the steering jacks to be disconnected so that the
nose wheel may be turned through large angles during ground servicing.
• Nose Wheel Shimmy. Due to the flexibility of tyre side walls, an unstable, rapid sinusoidal oscillation or
vibration is induced into the nose undercarriage. Worn or broken torque links, wear in the wheel bearings and
uneven tyre pressures can all increase the tendency to shimmy.
Can be reduced by: Fitting a hydraulic damper/ Double nose wheels/heavy self-centring springs.

Multi-wheeled Units
Advantages:
• Weight. The greater the number of wheels, the lighter the unit can become as the wheels are smaller.
• Ease of Servicing. Although the whole unit is more complex, the changing of wheels or brake units is easier .
• Safety Factor. In the event of a burst tyre there will be one or more serviceable wheels remaining to carry
the load.
Disadvantages:
• Large footprint area, which causes the unit to crab whilst turning (increased turning radius).
 Airframes & Systems 9

Landing Gear Operation on Contaminated Runways

If it is absolutely essential that you take off in such poor conditions, then you are advised to cycle the gear just
after take-off, selecting the gear UP, DOWN, and then UP again. It is considered that the shocks inflicted on
the gear during this cycle should be sufficient to remove any deposits from it.

Gear Position Indication

An electrical indicating system is used to provide a positive indication to the crew of the operation of the locks
and of the position of the landing gear. The system usually consists of microswitches on the uplocks and
downlocks, which make or break when the locks operate, and which are connected to a landing gear position
indicator on the instrument panel.
Many large aircraft also have main gear door lock indicators to confirm the doors are locked in their correct
position.

Gear Selector Lock

To prevent inadvertent retraction of the landing gear when the aircraft is resting on its wheels, a safety device
is incorporated which prevents movement of the selector lever. This safety device consists of a spring-loaded
plunger which retains the selector in the down position and is released by the operation of a solenoid.

Ground Locks
Ground locks or landing gear locking pins are a further safety feature which is intended to prevent collapse of
the gear when the aircraft is unpowered on the ground.
They will usually consist of pins or metal sleeves which interfere unpowered with the operation of the gear in
such a way that it is impossible for the gear to move when they are in position.
They are fitted with warning flags which should prevent the crew from getting airborne with them still in
position on the gear.

Warning Devices
To guard against landing with the landing gear retracted or unlocked, a warning horn is incorporated in the
system and connected to a throttle operated switch.
If one or more throttle levers are less than approximately one third open, as would be the case during
approach to land, the horn sounds if the landing gear is in any position other than down and locked.
GPWS. Will be inhibited below 500ft only if the gear is locked down and the flaps are in the landing position.

VLO - Maximum Velocity (V) for Landing (L) gear Operation (O).
VLE - Maximum Velocity (V) with Landing (L) gear Extended (E).
When the landing gear is fully retracted or fully extended it is locked into position and is more resistant to
damage from high airspeeds.

Emergency Lowering Systems

On some aircraft the uplocks are released mechanically or electrically by manual selection. The landing gear
‘free falls’ under its own weight (gravity) and the downlocks are engaged mechanically.
On other aircraft the landing gear is extended by an emergency pressure system which often uses alternative
pipelines to the jacks. Pressure for the emergency system may be supplied by a hydraulic accumulator, a hand
pump, a pneumatic storage cylinder, or an electrically powered pump.
10 Airframes & Systems

Aircraft Wheels

Loose and Detachable Flange Wheel

Made with one flange integral with the wheel body,
and the other loose and machined to fit over the
wheel rim.
Loose Flange. Retained by a locking device on the
wheel rim
Detachable Flange. Secured to the wheel body by nuts
and bolts. May be a single piece, or two or three
pieces bolted together.

The Divided Wheel (Split Hub)

The divided wheel consists of two half wheels,
matched up and connected by bolts which pass
through the two halves, the bolts are fitted with stiff
nuts, or, if one half of the wheel is tapped, each bolt
is locked with a locking plate.
This wheel is designed to be used with a tubeless
tyre.
When used with a conventional tyre, the wheel
inflation valve is removed to enable the tube
inflation valve to be fitted through the rim.

Wheel Material
Aircraft wheels are cast or forged, then machined and ground to the required finish.
They are made of: • Aluminium alloy
or • Magnesium alloy - Electron
After initial machining has been carried out, an anti-corrosive treatment is applied.

Wheels for Tubeless Tyres

Wheels for tubeless tyres are similar in construction to non-tubeless but have a finer finish and are
impregnated with Bakelite to seal the material. ‘O’ ring seals are used between the parts of the wheel to
prevent leakage. Unlike tubed wheels, the valve is built into the wheel itself and is thus not affected by creep
though creep may still damage the tyre.

Prevention of Creep
Knurled Flange. The inner face of the wheel flange is milled so that the side pressure of the tyre locks the
beads to the flange.
Tapered Bead Seat. The wheel is tapered so that the flange area is of greater diameter than at the centre of
the rim. When the tyre is inflated, the side pressure forces the bead outwards to grip the rim.
Creep Marks. Creep can be detected by misalignment of two matched white lines one painted on the wheel
and one on the tyre.

Fusible Plugs
Under extra hard braking conditions the heat generated in the wheel, tyre and brake assembly could be
sufficient to cause a tyre blowout. To prevent a sudden blowout fusible plugs are fitted in some tubeless
wheels. These plugs are held in position in the wheel hub by means of a fusible alloy, which melts under
excessive heat conditions and allows the plug to be blown out by the tyre air pressure.
Made for 3 different temperatures: • Red - 155° • Green - 177° • Amber - 199°
 Airframes & Systems 11

Aircraft Tyres

Aircraft wheels are fitted with pneumatic tyres which may be tubeless or have an inner tube (older/light
aircraft). Usually inflated with nitrogen which absorbs shock and supports the weight of the aircraft, while the
cover restrains and protects the tube from damage, maintains the shape of the tyre, transmits braking and
provides a wearing surface.

Tyre Covers
Consists of a casing made of rubber which is reinforced with plies (fitted in pairs) of cotton, rayon or nylon
cords. The casing is retained on the rim of the wheel by interlocking the plies around inextensible steel wire
coils to form ply (ply rating = strength of tyre) overlaps, this portion of the cover is known as the bead.

Regions of the Tyre

The tread of the tyre is situated in the crown and shoulder section. The most popular tread pattern is that
termed Ribbed, which has circumferential grooves around the tyre to assist in water dispersion and to help
prevent hydroplaning. The grooves also help to improve traction and contact grip between the tread and the
runway surface.
Nose wheel tyres, particularly those fitted to aircraft with the engines mounted on the rear fuselage may have
a chine moulded onto the shoulder. This is to direct water away from the engine intakes and so prevent
flameouts due to water ingestion.

Tubeless Tyres
These tyres are similar in construction to that of a conventional cover for use with a tube, but an extra rubber
lining is vulcanized to the inner surface and the underside of the beads. This lining, which retains the gas
pressure, forms a gas tight seal on the wheel rim.
Advantages over Tubed: • Penetration by a nail or similar sharp object will not cause rapid loss of pressure
because the unstretched lining clings to the objects and prevents loss of nitrogen.
• Gas pressure is maintained over longer periods because the lining is unstretched.

Creep (Slippage)
When tyres are first fitted to a wheel they tend to move slightly around the rim. After the tyres settle down
this movement should cease. In service, the tyre may tend to continue to creep around the wheel. If this creep
is excessive on a tyre fitted with an inner tube, it will tear out the inflation valve and cause the tyre to burst.
Creep is less of a problem with tubeless tyres, as long as the tyre bead is undamaged and any pressure drop is
within limits. Less likely to occur if the tyre air pressure is correctly maintained.

Hydroplaning
A phenomenon caused by a wedge of water building up under the tread of the tyre and breaking its contact
with the ground. The possibility increases as the depth of the tread is reduced.

HYDROPLANING SPEED = 9 √P (P = tyre pressure - psi)

or
HYDROPLANING SPEED = 34 √P (P = tyre pressure kg/cm2 , bar)

Tyre Damage
Cuts. Cuts in the tyre cover penetrating to the cords render the tyre unserviceable and must be repaired.
Bulges. May indicate partial failure of the casing (if failed, i.e. the fabric is fractured, renew the cover).
Creep. Must not exceed 1in for tyres of ≤24 in outside diameter and 1½in for tyres >24in outside diameter.
Wear. Over-inflation will cause excessive wear to the crown of the tyres whilst under-inflation is the cause of
excessive shoulder wear.
12 Airframes & Systems

Aircraft Brakes

Function by using friction between a fixed surface and a moving one to bring an aircraft to rest, converting
kinetic energy into heat energy.

Plate/Disc Brakes
This system uses a series of fixed friction pads, bearing on or gripping, one or more rotating plates operated by
hydraulics.
No. of friction pads/rotating plates used: • Light aircraft - Single • Large aircraft - Multi-plate unit
Multi-plate Unit. The physical size of the braking area has been increased by employing multiple brake plates
sandwiched between layers or friction material. The harder the brake pedal is applied the greater the braking
force applied to the pressure plate by the pistons.
The friction pads are made of an inorganic friction material and the plates of ‘heavy’ steel with a specially case
hardened surface. – In case of a brake fire, use dry powder extinguisher.
Carbon is also used for manufacturing brake units because it has much better heat absorbing and dissipating
properties (also lighter than steel units).
Brake Fade. When brakes become too hot they cannot absorb any further energy (cannot slow the aircraft).

Anti-skid Systems
An anti-skid system will reduce the braking distance on both take-off and landing.
Note: Take-off is prohibited with an inoperative anti-skid system on a wet runway.
Mechanical. The use of the inertia of a flywheel as a sensor of wheel deceleration.
Electronic. The electronic system gives approximately a 15% improvement over the mechanical unit with the
advantage that it can be tested prior to use. Comprises; A sensor, a control box and a servo valve.
Adaptive Pressure Bias Modulation Circuit can help prevent skid and hydroplaning monitoring wheel speeds
and releasing pressure to the brake as necessary to prevent lock-up.

Typical Wheel Brake System

The brakes are powered by one of the aircraft hydraulic power systems (system 1) with automatic switch over
to an alternate system (system 2) in the event of low system 1 pressure. When normal and alternate brake
hydraulic sources are lost, an accumulator is automatically selected to maintain parking brake pressure.

Autobrakes
This system permits automatic braking when using the normal brake system during landing rollout or during a
rejected take-off (RTO). Depending on the aircraft, three or five landing deceleration rates may be selected.
Anti-skid protection is provided during autobrake operation. Below 85 knots autobrakes are not activated.

Parking Brake
The parking brake handle operates a shut-off valve in the return line to the reservoir from the anti-skid valves.
To apply the parking brake depress the foot pedals, apply the parking brake lever, then release the foot pedals.
Hydraulic pressure is now trapped in the brakes because the return line from the anti-skid valves is closed.

Brake Kinetic Energy Graph

The graph is entered with an all up weight and a brake application speed and then factored for head or
tailwind component, number of serviceable reversers and airfield altitude.
The end result is the amount of kinetic energy absorbed, but more importantly, three zones
(Normal/Caution/Danger) into which the situation has fallen, each of which will determine the course of action
to be taken.
 Airframes & Systems 13

Flight Control Systems

The movement of the flying control surfaces in response to the movement of the controls may be achieved:
• Mechanically. Connected directly to the cockpit controls by a system of cables, rods, levers and chains.
• Hydraulically. Moved by hydraulic power. The control valve may still be operated mechanically.
• Electrically. Movement of the cockpit control sends an electrical signal to the control surface. The
movement of the control may be achieved hydraulically.

Primary Controls
Primary controls rotate the aircraft about its three axes and thereby cause a change in the aircraft’s flightpath
and/or attitude. Consist of elevator, rudder and ailerons plus roll control spoilers.
Manually Operated. Reversible. A force applied to the cockpit control will move the control surface, and also,
a force applied to the control surface will cause the cockpit control to move. This means that the air pressure
on the control surfaces is felt by the pilot through the cockpit controls.
Fully Power Operated. Irreversible. A load applied to the control surface cannot move the cockpit control,
and the system has no natural feel. Feel is introduced artificially.

Backlash
Control systems should be free of backlash. Backlash is free or ineffective movement of the cockpit control
when the direction of movement is reversed. It may indicate worn or incorrect components in the control
system.

Take-off Configuration Warning

Armed when the aircraft is on the ground and the forward thrust levers are advanced for take-off.
An intermittent take-off warning sounds if some or all of the following conditions exist:

• The stabilizer trim is outside the safe range.

• The trailing edge flaps are not in the take-off position.
• Leading edge high lift devices are not in the take-off position.
• Speed brake lever not in the down position.
• All doors are not fully locked.
• Flight controls are not fully unlocked (aircraft fitted with internal control locks)

The warning indication is cancelled when the incorrect setting is corrected.

A steady warning horn alerts the pilots when the aircraft is in landing configuration and any landing gear is not
down and locked. The landing gear warning horn is also activated by flap, speed and thrust lever position.

High Lift Devices

Increase the lift coefficients (CL) to enable the aircraft to generate large amounts of lift at low speed for take-
off and landing, this reduces the stall speed.

Trailing Edge Flaps – Increased CL with Lower AoA

Operation of the flight deck selector produces an input to the slat/flap computers (2 of) which control, monitor
and test the operation of the flaps. An electrically controlled hydro-mechanical power unit drives the
transmission which moves the flaps. The position of the flaps is indicated on the cockpit display and the flaps
are protected against asymmetric operation, runaway, uncommanded movement and overspeed. Torque
limiting brakes are fitted to stop the operation if excess torque is sensed.
Load Relief System (LRS). Retracts the flaps to an intermediate position if the airspeed exceeds a
predetermined speed and automatically returns them to the selected position if the airspeed drops below its
predetermined limit.
14 Airframes & Systems

High Lift Increase of Angle of basic

Design aerofoil at Remarks
Devices maximum lift
max lift

Effects of all high lift devices depend on the

Basic Aerofoil 15°
basic shape of the aerofoil.

Increase camber. Much drag when fully

Plain/Camber
50% 12° down. Nose down pitching moment.
Flap
Most popular for light aircraft.

Increase camber. Even more drag than Plain

Split Flap 60% 14°
Flap. Nose down pitching moment.

Increase camber and wing area. Much drag.

Zap Flap 90% 13°
Nose down pitching moment.

Control of boundary layer. Increased

Slotted Flap 65% 16°
camber. Stalling delayed. Not so much drag.

Double Same as above only more so. Treble slots

70% 18°
Slotted Flap sometimes used.

Increased camber and wing area. Best flaps

for lift. Complicated mechanism. Nose down
Fowler Flap 90% 15°
pitching moment.
Widely used on large transport aircraft.

Leading Edge Devices – Increased CL with Higher AoA

Leading Edge Flaps. Hinged surfaces that extend by rotating downward from the lower surface of the wing
leading edge. CL increases. AoA higher. Prevents early airflow separation. E.g. Kreuger flaps.
Slats. Sections of the wing leading edge that extend forward to form a sealed or slotted leading edge
depending on the trailing edge flap setting. CL increases. Nose up pitching moment.

The leading edge flaps and slats are

retracted when the trailing edge flaps are
retracted. The leading edge flaps extend
fully and slats extend to the midway
position (depending on aircraft type)
when the trailing edge flaps move into
the intermediate position, and when the
trailing edge flaps are fully lowered, the
slats extend fully. The sequence is
reversed when the flaps are retracted.
 Airframes & Systems 15

Speed Brakes
Speed brakes may consist of flight spoilers and ground spoilers. Ground spoilers operate only on the ground,
due to a ground spoiler shut-off valve which remains closed until the main landing gear operates a ‘weight on’
switch.
If the engine thrust levers are opened up again on the landing run, the actuator will sense the aborted landing
and will lower the flight and ground spoilers.

Flight Spoiler System

The spoiler is a device for reducing the lift of an aerofoil, by disturbing the airflow over the upper surface. It is
used to give lateral control by reducing the lift on one wing but not on the other.
Two flight spoilers are located on the upper surfaces of each wing. The outboard spoilers are powered by one
hydraulic system, whilst the inboard spoilers are powered by a second system. Hydraulic pressure shut-off
valves are controlled by the two flight spoiler switches.
The flight spoilers are hydraulically actuated in response to movement of the aileron controls. A spoiler mixer,
connected to the aileron control system, controls the hydraulic PCUs on each spoiler panel to provide spoiler
movement proportional to aileron movement. Flight spoilers rise on the wing with the ‘up-going’ aileron and
remain retracted on the wing with the ‘down-going’ aileron.
16 Airframes & Systems

Flight Controls

Purpose of Controls
For steady flight the aircraft must be in a state of balance (zero moments around the axes) and the controls
enable this to be achieved for all possible configurations and CG positions. Secondly the controls will be
required to manoeuvre the aircraft around its three axes.

Movement around the Axes

Longitudinal Axis. ROLL. Ailerons, spoilers, or by a combination of the two. Secondary effect: Yaw.
Lateral Axis. PITCH. Controlled by the elevators, or by a moving tailplane.
Normal Axis. YAW. Controlled by the rudder. Secondary effect: Roll.

Hinge Moment
If an aerodynamic force acts on a control surface, it will tend to rotate the control around its hinge, in the
direction of the force. The moment will be the force multiplied by the distance from the hinge to the control
surface centre of pressure. The force may be due to the angle of attack of the aerofoil or the deflection of the
control surface.

Mass Balance
Mass balance is a weight attached to the control surface forward of the hinge. Most control surfaces are mass
balanced. The purpose of this is to prevent control surface flutter.
Flutter. Is an oscillation of the control surface which can occur due to the bending and twisting of the
structure under load. If the centre of gravity of the control surface is behind the hinge, its inertia causes it to
oscillate about its hinge when the structure distorts. In certain circumstances the oscillations can be divergent,
and cause failure of the structure.

Adverse Aileron Yaw

The increased lift on the up-going wing gives an increase in the induced drag, whereas the reduced lift on the
down-going wing gives a decrease in induced drag. The difference in drag on the two wings produces a yawing
moment which is opposite to the rolling moment, that is, a roll to the left produces a yawing moment to the
right. Methods to reduce adverse yaw include:
Differential Ailerons. The aileron linkage causes the up-going aileron to move through a larger angle than the
down-going aileron. This increases the drag on the up aileron, and reduces it on the down aileron.
Frise Ailerons. Has an asymmetric leading edge. The leading edge of the up-going aileron protrudes below the
lower surface of the wing, causing high drag. The leading edge of the down-going aileron remains shrouded
and causes less drag.
Aileron-rudder Coupling. The aileron and rudder systems are interconnected, so that when the ailerons are
deflected the rudder automatically moves to counter the adverse yaw.
Roll Spoilers. Used to augment the roll rate obtained from the ailerons, they will reduce the adverse yaw, as
the down-going wing will have an increase in drag due to the raised spoiler.

Inboard Ailerons
To reduce bending and twisting loads the ailerons can be mounted further inboard. Alternatively, two sets of
ailerons may be fitted, one set at the wing tip for use at low speeds when the forces involved are low, and one
set inboard for use at high speeds when the forces are greater and could cause greater structural distortion.
 Airframes & Systems 17

Flaperons
For good take-off and landing performance the flaps need to be as large as possible, and for a good rate of roll,
the ailerons need to be as large as possible. However, the space available is limited, and one solution is to
droop the ailerons symmetrically to augment the flap area. They then move differentially from the drooped
position to give lateral control.

Spoilers
Raising the spoiler will disturb the airflow over the wing and reduce the lift. To function as a lateral control, the
spoiler is raised on the wing which is required to move downwards, and remains in its retracted position on
the other wing.

Speed Brakes
Speed brakes are devices to increase the drag of an aircraft when it is required to decelerate quickly or to
descend rapidly. The drag resulting from the operation of speed brakes is profile drag, and so will not only
increase the total drag but will also decrease Velocity Minimum Drag, VMD. This is advantageous at low speeds
as the speed stability will be better than with the aircraft in the clean configuration.

Excessive Rudder Deflection

With high speed aircraft, while it is necessary to have large rudder deflections available at low speed, when
flying at high speed, full rudder deflection would cause excessive loads on the structure.
Rudder Ratio Changing. The rudder pedals move through their full range at all speeds but the rudder
deflection reduces with increasing IAS.
Variable Stop Systems. Movement of the rudder is directly proportional to pedal travel. The movement of
both pedals and rudder are reduced with increasing IAS.

Trimming
An aeroplane is trimmed when it will maintain its attitude and speed without the pilot having to apply any load
to the cockpit controls. Methods of trimming include:
Trimming Tab. A small adjustable surface set into the trailing edge of a main control surface. Its deflection is
controlled by a trim wheel or switch in the cockpit.
Fixed Tabs. Some trimming tabs are not adjustable in flight, but can be adjusted on the ground, to correct a
permanent out of trim condition. Usually found on ailerons.
Variable Incidence Tailplane. This system of trimming may be used on manually operated and power
operated tailplane-elevator controls. The main advantage of this system is the drag is less in the trimmed
state, as the aerofoil is more streamlined.
Spring Bias. In the spring bias trim system, an adjustable spring force is used to replace the pilot’s holding
load. No tab is required for this system.
CG Adjustment. The out of balance pitching moment can be reduced by moving the CG nearer to the centre
of pressure, thus reducing the balancing load required and therefore the drag associated with it. CG
movement is usually achieved by transferring fuel between tanks at the nose and tail of the aircraft.
Artificial Feel Trim. When a control surface is moved the artificial feel unit provides a force to resist the
movement of cockpit control. To remove this force (i.e. to trim) the datum of the feel unit can be adjusted so
that it no longer gives any load.

Mach Trim
The wing centre of pressure moves rearward as aircraft approach high subsonic speed and this produces large
nose down pitching moments known as “tuck under”. The system senses speed increases above a datum Mach
number and, through a servo system produces the appropriate movement of the horizontal stabilizer or a
centre of gravity shift to maintain the trimmed flight position.
18 Airframes & Systems

Powered Flying Controls

On some modern aircraft, the flying controls are subjected to heavy loads due either to the movement of large
control surfaces or by the operation of the controls at high speeds.
To reduce the stick forces created by these heavy air loads, hydraulic or electric power is used. The majority of
powered flying controls are hydraulically operated and, depending on the degree of assistance required, will
be either powered or power assisted.

Power Operated Controls

The essential components of a simple power
operated control system are:

• A hydraulic actuator
• A servo or control valve
• An artificial feel unit

The above components must also incorporate

some form of control ‘follow up’ or ‘feedback’ to
ensure that the control surface movement is proportional to the amount of selection made and some form of
feel which is proportional to the air loads on the control surfaces.
When the flying controls are power operated, some form of control unit duplication becomes necessary to
guard against system failure. This is often accomplished by having power operated control units duplicated
either in parallel or series.

Artificial Feel Units

Hydraulic actuators are used to operate the controls, hydraulic pressure moves the control surfaces thus
removing from the pilot’s control any control feel. Artificial feel units are fitted to these systems which are
designed to give the pilot control feel which is proportional to the speed of the aircraft and to the amount of
control surface movement made.
A fully powered flying control unit is irreversible, and requires an artificial feel system.
A power assisted flying control unit is reversible, allowing feedback to the cockpit controls, and does not
require an artificial feel system.
‘Q’ Pot System. This unit contains a simple piston which is connected through a double linkage to the control
column so that whichever way the control column moves, the piston will be pulled forward against pitot
pressure which is admitted to the forward side of the pot. The rear side of the pot is open to static to enable
the pressure on the front side of the piston to measure dynamic pressure which ensures that control feed is
proportional to aircraft speed. These units are used in conjunction with a hydraulic spool valve selector which
supplies hydraulic fluid to the piston.
 Airframes & Systems 19

Fly by Wire (FBW) Systems

A powered flying control system that uses electronic inputs to a solenoid operated servo valve rather than the
mechanical inputs on conventional power controls. Pilot control input operates transducers which convert the
mechanical input into an electrical output which is amplified, processed by computers with the processed
command signal providing the input to the servo valve which controls the movement of a hydraulic actuator.

Main Control Architecture

Pitch. Elevator – Electrical
Roll. Ailerons/Spoilers – Electrical
Yaw. Rudder – Mechanical Yaw Damping/Turn Co-ordination/Trim – Electrical

Electrical control is by three types of computer:

ELAC (Elevator Aileron Computer)

There are two of these computers which control the ailerons, elevators and stabilizer.
SEC (Spoilers Elevator Computer)
There are three of these computers which control the upper wing surfaces and the standby elevator and
stabilizer.
FAC (Flight Augmentation Computer)
There are two computers for electrical rudder control.

FBW Advantages and Disadvantages

Weight. Lighter than a conventional system (does not require heavy control cables/less fuel consumption).
Reliability. Conventional systems tend to fail slowly. The loss of a flight computer would result in a loss of
control immediately. Redundancy is required (additional computers/mechanical/hydraulic).
Pilot Workload. Can be reduced by computers making many of the inputs and through support including
automatic control features such as turn co-ordination and auto trim.
Flight Envelope Protection. Will prevent the pilot pitching the aircraft beyond the stalling angle of attack. It
will also allow the pilot to operate the controls positively up to the 2.5g limit without fear of overstressing the
aircraft.
20 Airframes & Systems

Pneumatic Systems

Stores energy in the form of compressed air which is used like a fluid. Not as precise as hydraulic systems (used
more in slower aircraft).

Advantages: • Reservoir not required

• Fewer opportunities for leaks/contamination/fire
• Less weight
Disadvantages: • Non-lubricant
• High pressure air explosive

Uses: • Air Conditioning

• Pressurization
• Aerofoil and Engine Anti-icing
• Flaps/Slats

Most of these systems use high volume low pressure airflow bled from the compressor stages of a gas turbine
engine. Other sources of supply are engine driven compressors or blowers, auxiliary power unit bleed air and
ground power units.

Air Conditioning Systems

The air conditioning or environmental control system is fitted to an aircraft to regulate the temperature,
quantity and quality of the air supply to the passengers and crew. This conditioned air is also used, with
additional components, for ventilation and pressurization of the aircraft.

Systems (Non-pressurized Flight)

Ram Air Systems. Ambient
atmospheric air is introduced to the
cabin through forward facing air
intakes. Some of this ram air can be
heated by exhaust or combustion
heaters and then mixed with the
cold ambient air in varying
proportions to give a comfortable
cabin temperature. It is of extreme
importance that the supply (ram)
air does not come into contact with,
or is contaminated by, the exhaust
gases or the air used for
combustion.

Combustion Heater. The fuel used

in the heater is normally that which is used in the aircraft’s engines and the heater works by burning a fuel/air
mixture within the combustion chamber. Air for combustion is supplied by a fan or blower and the fuel is
supplied via a solenoid operated fuel valve. The fuel valve is controlled by duct temperature sensors but can be
manually overridden. The system is designed so that there is no possibility of leaks from inside the chamber
contaminating the cabin air.
 Airframes & Systems 21

Systems (Pressurized Flight)

Engine Driven Supercharger (Blower) Systems. When a supply of air from the compressor of a gas turbine
engine for air conditioning or pressurization is not available, cabin air supply may be provided by blowers
driven through the accessory gearbox or by turbo-compressors driven by bleed air.
The blower must be capable of supplying the required mass flow of air under all operating conditions which
means that at sea level with the engine running at high speed too high a mass flow will be delivered, therefore
in order to prevent over pressurization of the supply ducts, a mass flow controller signals spill valves to vent
the excess air flow to atmosphere. This method is wasteful and is avoided where possible by using variable
speed drives.

Engine Bleed Air Systems. The most

widely used method in modern
aircraft. Hot pressurized air is supplied
to the bleed air duct from the LP/HP
compressor. A tapping is then taken
from the duct to supply the air
conditioning system. This air is passed
through a mass flow controller or a
modulated engine bleed air valve and
since the bleed air supply is always at
a higher temperature than that
required for passenger comfort a
means of cooling this air is
accomplished by the air conditioning
pack.

Turbo-compressor (Bootstrap)
Most popular air cycle system in
current use being used where
high pressure bleed air is not
available or its use is
undesirable as in the case of
aircraft using high bypass ratio
or small turbo-propeller
engines. The low pressure bleed
air (or air from a blower) is pre-
cooled in the primary heat
exchanger and then has its
pressure boosted by the
compressor. This is done in
order to make the energy
conversion (i.e. heat and
pressure to work) process
across the turbine more
efficient. Between the
compressor and the turbine is
the secondary heat exchanger
which serves to remove any excess temperature rise across the compressor.
22 Airframes & Systems

Pressurization Systems

Modern aircraft are pressurized for the following reasons:

• The aircraft can fly at an altitude where it can operate efficiently, economically and avoid the worst of the
weather conditions whilst maintaining cabin pressure at a comfortable level.
• Aircraft can achieve high rates of climb and descent with small corresponding rates of cabin pressure
changes.
Cabin pressurization systems are designed to produce conditions equivalent to those of approximately
8,000ft (2.6km) or less.

Aircraft Structure
The difference in pressure between the inside and outside of the pressurized areas of the aircraft or
differential pressure produces hoop stresses which are applied cyclically every time the aircraft is pressurized
and de-pressurized causing fatigue which can, ultimately, lead to structural failure. Keeping the maximum
differential pressure to its lowest practical value reduces the hoop stress.
The passenger cabin, flight deck and cargo compartments are normally pressurized with the undercarriage
bays, tail and nose cones unpressurized.
Differential Pressure Limits. Turboprop: 5 – 6 psi Transport Jet: 7 – 9 psi

System Control
Cabin Pressurization is controlled by having a constant mass flow of air entering the cabin and then varying the
rate at which it is discharged to atmosphere. The constant mass flow of air is supplied by the air conditioning
system via the mass flow controller and is discharged to atmosphere by the discharge or outflow valves.
Closing the valve reduces the outflow and increases the pressure, opening the valve increases the outflow and
reduces the pressure.
Pressure Relief Valve. Fitted to relieve positive pressure in the cabin when the maximum pressure differential
allowed for the aircraft type is exceeded i.e. prevents the structural max. diff. being exceeded.
Inwards Relief Valve. Fitted to prevent excessive negative differential pressure.
The outwards and inwards relief valves must be duplicated.
Dump Valve. A manually operated component, the Dump Valve, will enable the crew to reduce the cabin
pressure to zero for emergency depressurization.

Cabin rates of climb and descent should be carefully monitored and should not normally exceed 500ft/min
during the climb or 300ft/ min in the descent in order not to cause too much discomfort for the passengers.

System Instrumentation
The minimum indications required for a pressurization system are:
Cabin Altimeter. This gauge reads cabin pressure but is calibrated to read this in terms of the equivalent
altitude of the cabin.
Cabin Vertical Speed Indicator. This indicates the rate at which the aircraft cabin is climbing or descending.
Cabin Differential Pressure Gauge. This indicates the difference in the absolute pressure between the inside
and outside of the aircraft cabin and is generally calibrated in psi.
In the event of a malfunction of the pressure controller or outflow valve, this instrument would indicate that
the safety valves were controlling the cabin pressure at the structural (emergency) maximum pressure
differential.
There must be both AURAL and VISUAL warnings when the cabin altitude exceeds 10,000ft. These will take the
form of a horn and red light on the Centralized Warning Panel or warning caption on the appropriate EICAS or
ECAM display.
 Airframes & Systems 23

Ice & Rain Protection

Effects of ice on aircraft: • Loss of lift (disturbed airflow)

• Increase in weight
• Flight controls jammed
• Loss of engine power
• Pitot/static tubes blocked

Icing on aircraft in flight is caused primarily by the presence of super-cooled water droplets in the atmosphere.
If the droplets impinge on the forward facing surfaces of an aircraft, they freeze and cause a build-up of ice
which may seriously alter the aerodynamic qualities. This applies particularly to small objects, which have a
higher catch rate efficiency than large ones, as small amounts of ice will produce relatively bigger changes in
shape.

Protected Components: • Engine - Intakes - IGVs - Struts or Webs

• Oil cooler intakes, fuel system filters.
• Ram air intakes
• Aerofoils - Wing and tail leading edges. Slats - Propellers.
• Airframe - Aerials - Instrument Systems - Pitot heads and probes.
• Cockpit windows.

Anti-icing. Is the application of continuous heat or fluid. The object is to prevent any ice accumulation.
De-icing. Is the intermittent application of fluid, heat or mechanical effort. Ice is allowed to accumulate prior
to being removed.

Detection Devices and Warnings

Ice Detector Head (Accretion principle). Ice is allowed to accumulate on the head to give a visual indication
of ice accretion.
Mechanical Ice Detector (Accretion principle). Either vibrating of rotating detectors which when ice has
accumulated reduces their speed/frequency to a predetermined limit will then give a warning in the cockpit.
Element Ice Sensing Unit (Inferential principle). Ice can only be formed when there is a combination of
moisture and freezing temperatures. These two conditions are detected separately and, therefore, icing
conditions are detected rather than actual ice formation (wet and dry sensing bulbs).
Beta Particle Ice Detection Probe. Two probes, mounted perpendicularly from the forward fuselage, plus a
relay and the flight deck warning constitute the basic system. Under nil ice conditions the forward probe, an
emitter, will emit Beta particles which are detected by the rear probe, a detector. Beta particles are absorbed
by ice so that, in icing conditions, fewer particles are sensed by the detector.

Mechanical ‘De-icing’
Pneumatic De-icer Boots. Piston/Turboprop aircraft.
Consist of layers of natural rubber and rubberized fabric between which are disposed flat inflatable tubes
closed at the ends. Located on the leading edge of the wing/tailplane.
The tubes in the boot sections are inflated by air from the pressure side of an engine-driven vacuum pump,
from a high-pressure reservoir or in the case of some types of turbo-propeller aircraft, from a tapping at an
engine compressor stage.
When the system is switched on, pressure is admitted to the boot sections to inflate the tubes. The inflation
weakens the bond between ice and the boot surfaces, causing the ice to break away. At the end of the
inflation stage of the operating sequence, the air in the tubes is dumped to atmosphere through automatic
opening valves and the tubes are fully deflated by the vacuum supply.
When the system is switched off vacuum is supplied continually to all tubes of the boot sections to hold the
sections flat against the wing and tail leading edges thus minimizing aerodynamic drag.
De-icing by the ‘Boots’ method must not be initiated until a specific depth of ice has built up.
24 Airframes & Systems

Thermal ‘Anti-icing’ and ‘De-icing’

Hot Air Systems. Transport aircraft.
Generally engine bleed air. Heated air is
ducted to the wings and tail units and passes
into the gap between leading edge and an
inner skin, providing sufficient heat in the
outer skin of the leading edge to melt ice
already formed and prevent further ice
formation.
The heated air can be supplied from various
methods including bleeding of air from a
turbine engine HP compressor, heating of ram
air by passing it through a heat exchanger
located in an engine exhaust gas system, and
combustion heating of ram air.
In an engine hot air system the air is bled from the compressor and is fed via ducting into the air intake nose
cowl, through the inlet guide vanes of the engine and also, in some engines, through the nose bullet. After
circulating the intake cowl and guide vanes, the air is exhausted either to atmosphere or into the engine air
intake. The flow of hot air is regulated by electrically operated control valves which are actuated by control
switches on a cockpit panel.
Use of bleed air from the HP compressor reduces engine thrust (reduces mass flow/warm air has a lower
density).
A general rule for engine protection is to apply it when the IOAT is +10°C or below, and the air contains visible
moisture. Airframe protection is generally applied at the onset of indicated icing.
Electrical Heating Systems. Turboprop aircraft.
Heating elements either of resistance wire or sprayed metal, are bonded to the air intake structure. The power
supply required for heating is normally three-phase alternating current. Both anti-icing and de-icing techniques
are employed by using continuously heated and intermittently heated elements respectively.

Fluid Systems
Weeping Wing. Business jets.
Prevents the adhesion of ice on surfaces by pumping freezing point depressant fluid (FPD - Glycol) to panels in
the leading edge of the aerofoil, and allowing the fluid to be carried over the surface by air movement.
The fluid is supplied from the storage tank to the pump through an integral filter.
There are two types of distributor for use with the system, i.e. strip and panel. The panel distributors cover a
large area of the aerofoil leading edge, and are more economical and efficient than strip distributors.
 Airframes & Systems 25

Windscreen Protection
Windscreen Wipers. Independent two speed wipers are usually provided for both pilots. They may be
electrically or hydraulically powered. They should not be operated on a dry windscreen.
Rain Repellent System. Consists of four valve/timer nozzles, two for each screen and a manifold which stores
and distributes the fluid (silicone based) to the nozzles. It is charged with repellent fluid from an aerosol type
disposable container which screws into the manifold.
Electrical Anti-icing System. This system employs a windscreen of special laminated construction heated
electrically to prevent, not only the formation of ice and mist, but also to improve the impact resistance of the
windscreen at low temperatures. The film-type resistance element is heated by alternating current supplied
from the aircraft’s electrical system.

Propeller Protection Systems

Ice formation on a propeller blade produces distortion to the aerofoil section, causing a loss in efficiency,
possible unbalance and destructive vibration.
Protection is provided either by an anti-icing fluid system, or by an electrically powered thermal de-icing
system.

Smoke Detection

Smoke detection systems are employed where it is not possible to keep a bay or compartment (for example
cargo or electrical equipment bays) under constant physical surveillance. As a general rule a system of
detectors is employed in each compartment/bay which can give remote warnings of smoke, can be tested
from the flight deck, and can be re-set when a warning is received in order to verify it.
Light detection system. Designed to respond to a change in visible light or a change in infrared radiation.
Uses a photoelectric cell positioned so that it can monitor the surrounding area producing a change in current
to activate a warning circuit when a change of light or infrared radiation striking the cell occurs.
Activated by an open flame.
Light refraction system. Uses a photoelectric cell which is shielded from direct light from a projection lamp
directed into a detection chamber. Air from the compartment is drawn through the chamber. When smoke is
introduced into the chamber light is reflected from the smoke particles and falls on the photoelectric cell. The
change of current flow caused by the change in conductivity of the cell activates a visual and aural warning.
Ionization. Uses a small piece of radioactive material to bombard the oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the
air inside a detection chamber. Ionization takes place causing a small current to flow across the chamber and
through an external circuit. When smoke is introduced to the chamber the smoke particles attach themselves
to the oxygen and nitrogen ions and reduce the current flow which is detected by the external circuit and
activates the aural and visual warning.
Note. Smoke detectors can give false warnings due to dust, dirt, gaseous emissions such as the discharge from
rotting fruit or condensation.

Smoke Hoods
Owing to the training required to use a smoke hood it is only worn by flight and cabin crews. The basic unit
provides protection against all forms of smoke generated in a ground or flight emergency. A rubber neck seal
ensures complete insulation for the wearer whilst oxygen is supplied via a self-contained system, the duration
being a minimum of 15 minutes. Oxygen expiry may be indicated by a resistance to breathing.

There are two types of smoke hood in airline use:

Cabox. Stowed at the appropriate crew station in a sealed container, this unit has a chemical oxygen
generator installed. Care should be taken to ensure the quickstart cord is intact before use.
Drager. Like the above unit it is stowed in a sealed container. No pre-flight check is required. It has a self-
generating oxygen system actuated by a start cord.
26 Airframes & Systems

Fire Detection & Protection

Fire Detection/Protection system must be fitted in engines, APUs and main wheel wells.
Such areas are defined as Designated Fire Zones and may be described as:
“Areas where a potential fire risk may exist following failure or leakage of any component or associated
equipment”.

In order to avoid the spread of fire in engines or APUs, fire zones are established i.e. a series of fireproof
bulkheads. A fire detection system must be capable of providing rapid detection of a localized fire or overheat
condition; however it must not automatically operate the fire extinguishers.

Fire Detection Systems

Melting Link Detectors. These are found in older aircraft and consist of a pair of contacts held apart by a
fusible plug. At a predetermined temperature the fusible plug melts allowing the contacts to close and a fire
warning circuit is made.
Differential Expansion Detectors. Operates on the principle of the differential rate of expansion of dissimilar
materials. They consist of a pair of contacts mounted on a spring bow assembly, fitted within an expansion
tube mounted on a base. When heat is applied the tube expands at a greater rate than the bow, drawing the
contacts together, so providing power to the Fire Warning Circuit. A subsequent drop in temperature will
cause the tube to shorten; the contact will open and cancel the warning.
Continuous Fire Detectors. These detectors are commonly known as Fire Wire Free From False Detection,
(FFFD) and operate on the principle of their elements having either a negative coefficient of resistance or a
positive coefficient of capacitance (one system has both). An element consists of a stainless steel tube, with a
central electrode insulated from the tube by a temperature sensitive material.
The resistance of insulating material in the resistive type will decrease with increase of temperature and
current flow (leakage) between the central electrode and the outer tube will increase until, at a predetermined
level, sufficient current will flow and the warning system will operate. If the temperature drops below a preset
value the system will automatically reset.
Fire wires are positioned around engine fire zones in a continuous double loop, both loops having to detect a
fire to initiate the warning. The system is AC supplied and has the ability to continue functioning with a single
wire break.
Gas Filled Detectors. This system consists of a continuous stainless steel tube containing a core gas absorbent
material. The tube is positioned strategically around the engine wherever a fire is likely to occur. Gas is forced
into the tube under pressure and partially absorbed by the core before the tube is sealed. When the tube is
heated the absorbed gas is released from the core material and the pressure in the tube builds up rapidly. This
increase of pressure is sensed by a pressure switch at the end of the tube and a signal, via a system control
box, will initiate a fire warning on the flight deck. This system also has the ability to detect an overheat within
the fire zones possibly caused by a hot gas leak from a bleed supply.

Note. Any fault within a fire detection system which may give rise to a false fire warning must be treated as a
real fire.

Fire Test
Before flight a means must be available to test the fire circuit. A fire
test selector is therefore provided on the flight deck. On selection the
indications identical to a real fire warning will be displayed on all
engines. This has tested circuit continuity. Should a break occur in a
Fire Warning System no fire test will be given for that particular
engine. Likewise a leakage in the gas filled system will negate a
warning. It may be designed that a warning is given to notify crews
that a single fire loop has failed, the system now operating on a
single loop. Depending on aircraft type limited leg operations may be
permitted in the single loop mode.
 Airframes & Systems 27

Fire Warning Indications/Drills

Flight deck indications of a fire warning must be attention getting rather than startling. To that end the format
for such a warning may take the form of:

• A klaxon or bell or continuous repetitive chime sounding

• A master warning caption (No. 1 engine fire)
• A steady red fire warning light in the appropriate engine display channel

On receipt of a fire warning the drill must be carried out in strict order. The following drill being
representative:

• A means of cancelling the aural warning

• A sequence to shut off fuel, bleed air, electrics and hydraulics to the engine
• A means of discharging the fire bottles into the engine fire zones.

Fire Protection
This system normally comprises fire bottles, usually
two per engine, connected via piping to the fire
zones. At the zones the piping forms a spray ring from
which the extinguishant is directed around the area.

A means of discharging the fire bottle is provided on

the flight deck and its operation may follow the
following sequence:

• Engine shutdown drill completed

• An electrical cartridge, situated between the
base of the fire bottle and the piping, is
armed (SQUIB illuminates an engine fire
panel).
• Pressing the AGENT selector fires the
cartridge allowing fire extinguishant, under
pressure, to enter the spray rings in the
engine
• Pressurized extinguishant operates a low
pressure electrical switch which illuminates
the DISCH caption on the AGENT selector.

Fire Compartments (EASA CS-25)

Class A and Class B. Cargo compartments accessible to a crew member (cockpit and passenger cabin).
Class C and Class D. Cargo compartments not accessible to a crew member (engines).
Class E. Cargo compartments on aeroplanes used only for the carriage of cargo
Class F. Cargo compartment located on the main deck and fitted with means to extinguish or control a fire
without requiring a crewmember to enter the compartment.
28 Airframes & Systems

Fire Extinguishants
Bromochlorodifluromethane (BCF)/Halon 1211
Container: Signal Red, Brown or Green
Use: Electrical and flammable liquid fires.
It is only slightly toxic, is colourless, non-corrosive and evaporates rapidly leaving no residue. It acts rapidly on
fires by producing a heavy blanketing mist which eliminates air from the fire source but more importantly it
interferes chemically with the combustion process.
Widely used in HRD (High Rate Discharge) fire extinguishing systems fitted to some gas turbine power plants.
Bromotrifluromethane (BTM)/Halon 1301
Container: Grey
Uses: APUs, power plants and cargo compartments.
It has similar characteristics to Halon 1211 except that it has a vapour spray and is more difficult to direct.
Water/Water Glycol
Container: Red
Uses: Passenger cabins for combatting fires involving domestic materials.
Hand held portable appliances. It must not be used on fires which involve electrical equipment or liquids; the
glycol is an antifreeze agent which permits operation of the extinguishers at temperatures as low as -20°C.
Dry Chemical/Dry Powder
Container: Red or Blue
Uses: Fires involving flammable liquids, wood, fabric and paper. Also brake and wheel fires.
The use of this agent in crew compartments or passenger cabins of pressurized aircraft is not permitted. The
agent is a non-toxic powder i.e. potassium bicarbonate, similar to talcum powder. As a powder it has no
cooling effect and this reduces the danger of wheel explosions or the distortion of the brakes or wheels.
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) – GROUND USE
Container: Red or Black
Uses: Most fires, particularly engine, wheel and brake.
Extinguishes the flame by dissipating the oxygen in the immediate area.
Foam – GROUND USE
Container: Red with cream colour band.
Uses: Flammable liquid fires and propane.
Blankets the flames by excluding oxygen.
Sand – GROUND USE
Useful for containing metal fires such as magnesium or titanium where liquids will make matters worse.

Hand Held Extinguishers

Maximum approved passenger seating configuration Number of Extinguishers

7 to 30 1
31 to 60 2
61 to 200 3
201 to 300 4
301 to 400 5
401 to 500 6
501 to 600 7
601 or more 8

At least two of the extinguishers in the passenger compartment of an aircraft with a maximum seating
configuration of 61 seats or more must be BCF. There must be at least one additional BCF hand extinguisher
conveniently located in the flight deck.
 Airframes & Systems 29

Aircraft Oxygen Equipment

Pressurized aircraft are therefore fitted with oxygen systems to provide the crew with oxygen:

• If the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 13,000ft, or more than 30 minutes at cabin pressure altitudes of
between 10,000ft and 13,000ft

• If hazardous fumes enter the flight deck, and

• If the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 15,000ft, to provide all the passengers with oxygen, above 14,000ft
30% of passengers and above 10,000ft 10% of passengers.

Available Systems
Portable oxygen sets are provided in addition for therapeutic use by passengers and for use by cabin staff
during emergencies. Special smoke sets may also be provided for crew use.
In unpressurized aircraft, oxygen equipment will be installed for the use of passengers and crew if the aircraft
is to fly above 10,000ft with portable oxygen sets being provided if no fixed installation exists.
Crew oxygen is stored in High Pressure gaseous form whilst passenger supplies may be of HP gas or be
chemically generated. Gaseous oxygen systems are generally of the diluter demand type for crew use and the
continuous flow type for passenger use.

Diluter Demand System

This type of system is provided in most aircraft for flight crew use and is separate and additional to the
passenger system. Oxygen is diluted with air and supplied as demanded by the user’s respiration cycle and the
oxygen regulator. There is a mask connection point for each crew member and the supernumerary crew
position.
With the oxygen supply ‘ON’ and ‘NORMAL’ oxygen selected, diluted oxygen will be supplied to the crew
member’s mask as he/she inhales. As the cabin altitude increases and cabin air pressure decreases the
percentage oxygen increases until, at 32,000ft cabin altitude, 100% oxygen is supplied.
30 Airframes & Systems

Continuous Flow Oxygen System

A type of oxygen system that allows a metered amount of oxygen to continuously flow into the mask. A
rebreather-type mask is used with a continuous-flow system. The simplest form of continuous-flow oxygen
system regulates the flow by a calibrated orifice in the outlet to the mask, but most systems use either a
manual or automatic regulator to vary the pressure across the orifice proportional to the altitude being flown.
The mask connection points may be of the normal plug-in type or of the drop out type where, in the case of
pressurization failure, the masks are presented automatically and oxygen flow will commence when the
passenger puts on the mask.

Emergency Regulating Oxygen System (EROS) Crew Oxygen Masks

These are combined masks and regulators fitted at each crew station to provide the flight crew with diluted or
100% oxygen. They are stowed in a panel mounted box in such a way that the regulator controls and the feed
hose protrude through apertures in the stowage doors.
It is a requirement that these quick donning masks must be provided for the flight deck crew on all aircraft that
have a maximum operating altitude above 25,000ft.

Passenger Oxygen System

This system provides an emergency oxygen supply to the passengers and cabin attendants and is of the
continuous flow type supplied either by a high pressure gaseous system or a chemical generator system. The
masks are stowed in the passenger service units (PSU), the doors of which will open automatically by a
barometrically controlled release mechanism if the cabin altitude reaches 14,000ft or by manual selection
from the flight deck by the crew at any altitude below this.
When the PSU doors open the masks drop to the “half-hung” position. Pulling the mask towards the face
initiates the oxygen flow.
Chemical Oxygen Generators. Relatively light self-contained devices and are located in each passenger, cabin
attendants and lavatory service units. Oxygen is generated by the chemical reaction of sodium chlorate
(NaClO3) and iron (Fe). Sufficient oxygen is supplied from the generator to meet the requirements of descent
in emergency conditions (min of 15 mins). There has now been developed a chemical generator which lasts for
a period of 22 minutes.
Portable Oxygen Systems. First aid and sustaining portable oxygen cylinders are installed at suitable locations
in the passenger cabin. They consist of a cylinder containing normally 120 litres of oxygen at a pressure of
1800psi in a carrying bag with straps. It is usually possible to set one of two flow rates depending on
requirement. These are Normal and High which correspond to flow rates of 2 and 4 litres per minute. At these
rates a 120 litre bottle would last 60 or 30 minutes respectively.
Oxygen cylinders are identified by their colour. American and European cylinders are green, and British
cylinders are black with a white neck.
 Airframes & Systems 31

Oxygen — Minimum requirements for supplemental oxygen for pressurised aeroplanes during and following
emergency descent

SUPPLY FOR DURATION & CABIN PRESSURE ALTITUDE

Entire flight time cabin pressure altitude exceeds 13,000ft and entire flight time cabin
pressure altitude exceeds 10,000ft but does not exceed 13,000ft after the first 30
minutes at those altitudes, but in no case less than:
All occupants of
flight deck seats on (i) 30 minutes for aeroplanes certified to fly at altitudes not
flight deck duty exceeding 25,000ft

(ii) 2 hours for aeroplanes certified to fly at altitudes more than

25,000ft
Entire flight time when cabin pressure altitude exceeds 13,000ft but not less than 30
All required cabin
minutes, and entire flight time when cabin pressure altitude is greater than 10,000ft
crew members
but does not exceed 13,000ft after the first 30 minutes at these altitudes
Entire flight time when cabin pressure altitude exceeds 15,000ft but in no case less
100% of passengers
than 10 minutes
Entire flight time when cabin pressure altitude exceeds 14,000ft but does not exceed
30% of passengers
15,000ft
Entire flight time when cabin pressure altitude exceeds 10,000ft but does not exceed
10% of passengers
14,000ft after the first 30 minutes at these altitudes
32 Airframes & Systems

Aircraft Fuel Systems

Piston Engine Fuels

AVGAS. The octane rating of the fuel is specified with the grade e.g. AVGAS 100 is a 100 octane fuel.
Higher octane fuels are used with high performance engines having high compression ratios.
The most popular grades of AVGAS readily available today are:

Grade Performance No. Colour Specific Gravity (Density)

AVGAS 100LL 100/130 Blue 0.72 Low Lead
AVGAS 100 100/130 Green 0.72 High Lead
AVGAS 115 115/145 Green 0.72 High Lead

MOGAS (Motor Gasoline). Can sometimes be used in certain airframe engine combinations, but only under
the conditions specified in CAP 747 GC2 because of its low octane rating. Because of its higher volatility
carburettor icing and vapour locking is much more likely.

Gas Turbine Fuels (Kerosene)

AVTUR (Aviation Turbine Fuel).
JET A1. Kerosene type fuel with a nominal SG of 0.8 at 15°C. A flash point of 38°C and a waxing point of -47°C.
JET A. Similar type of fuel with the same SG and flash point but has a waxing point of -40°C. (USA Availability).
AVTAG (Aviation turbine gasoline)
JET B. Wide-cut gasoline/kerosene mix with a nominal SG of 0.77 at 15°C, a flash point as low as -20°C, a
wider boiling range than JET A1, and a waxing point of -60°C.
JET B can be used as an alternative to JET A1 but it has a wider range of flammability.
Note. Turbine fuels are not dyed for identification. Can range between a straw yellow to completely colourless.

Jet Fuel Additives

FSII (Fuel System Icing Inhibitor). Prevents the formation of ice in fuel lines and fungal growth in fuel.
HITEC. Lubricity agent added to fuel to reduce wear in the system components (pumps, fuel control unit etc.).
Static Dissipater. Additives partially eliminate the hazards of static electricity generated by the movement of
fuel through modern high flow rate fuel transfer systems, particularly during refuelling and defuelling.
Corrosion Inhibitors. Protect ferrous metals in fuel systems (pipelines/storage tanks), from corrosion.

Water in the Fuel

Water Drains. If the fuel can be allowed to settle after replenishment then the water droplets, being heavier
than the fuel, will fall to the bottom of the tank and can then be drained off through the water drain valve.
Fuel Heater. A fuel heater is provided in turbine engine aircraft fuel systems to prevent water in the fuel
freezing and blocking fuel filters.
Atmosphere Exclusion. Once the fuel is in the aircraft fuel tanks, the main source of water contamination is
the atmosphere that remains within the tank. If the tanks are topped up to full then the atmosphere is
excluded together with the moisture it contains, thus minimizing the likelihood of fuel contamination.

Waxing
The depositing of heavy hydrocarbons from the fuel at low temperatures. The deposits take the form of
paraffin wax crystals which can clog the fuel filter and interfere with the operation of the fuel control unit.

Vapour Lock
As an aircraft climbs, the pressure on the surface of the fuel reduces and an increased likelihood that the fuel
will boil and form vapour in the pipelines. The vapour lock that this causes will effectively cut off the fuel
supply to the engine with the inevitable result that the engine will stop.
Fuel booster pumps fitted inside the tanks can overcome this problem by pressurizing the fuel in the pipelines
from the tank to the engine, pushing fuel towards the engine rather than engine driven pumps sucking fuel
from the tanks.
 Airframes & Systems 33

Aircraft Fuel Storage System (Tanks)

Integral. Where the inside of the wings and, depending on type, the centre section torsion box and horizontal
stabilizer, are sealed during manufacture to provide large volume fuel storage. The advantage of this type of
tank is that there is little extra weight added to the aircraft as the tank structure is formed by the structure
already required; all modern large passenger aircraft will have this type of tank.
Rigid. A sealed metal container mounted in the aircraft wing or fuselage. Simple but does add extra weight
and requires mounting structure. Most popular on light aircraft. This type of tank may be fitted externally, on
the wing tip for example, made of metal or a composite construction.
Flexible. Bags made of sealed rubberized fabric. This type of tank requires structure inside the aircraft to
attach and support it. They are typically mounted inside the wing or fuselage can be ‘self-sealing’ in the event
of damage occurring.

Single-engine Light Aircraft Pressure Fed Fuel System

The fuel is drawn from the tanks by a mechanical or electrical fuel pump through a tank selector and filter
before being delivered to the carburettor. Engine priming is achieved by use of a priming pump which takes
fuel from the filter housing and delivers it to the inlet manifold. The fuel system is monitored for contents and
pressure and the fuel drains allow any water to be removed before flight.

The system on Multi-engine light aircraft will include the following:

Vent system. Allows the air pressure above the fuel in the tank to equalize with the ambient pressure.
Filters (screens). To prevent any debris in the tank being drawn into the booster pumps.
Booster pumps. Normally fitted in pairs in each tank to pump fuel from the tank to the engine. They are a
necessity in high altitude aircraft to prevent cavitation of the engine driven pump. Typically centrifugal pumps
driven by AC induction motors providing low pressure (20 - 40 psi) and high flow.
Collector tank (feeder box). The booster pumps are fitted in a collector tank which always holds a measured
quantity of fuel to allow the pumps to be continually submerged in fuel thereby preventing pump cavitation
due to attitude changes of the aircraft which could cause the pumps to be uncovered.
Cross-feed/shut-off valves. To enable fuel to be fed from any tank to any engine and isolated in the event of
a fault or emergency.
High/low level float switches or level sensors. High level switches are used to automatically close the refuel
valve when the tank is full (automatic top off) during refuelling and the low level switches are used to maintain
a required minimum fuel in the main tanks during fuel jettison or dumping.
Fuel drains. Each fuel tank will have a fuel drain at the lowest point to allow water to be drained from tank.
Baffles. Fitted in the tanks to dampen rapid movement of fuel (surging/sloshing) during manoeuvring.
Overpressure relief valve. In the event of the fuel tank being over pressurized due to a malfunction a relief
valve may be incorporated to prevent structural damage to the tank.
34 Airframes & Systems

Aircraft Fuel Systems (Multi-engine)

The normal sequence of fuel usage after take-off would be to use the centre tank fuel first followed by the
wing tank fuel. This sequence helps to relieve the wing bending stress. When the booster pumps can no longer
pump fuel from the centre tank the residual fuel can be removed to the No.1 tank by use of the centre tank
scavenge system.

The cross-feed valve allows both engines to be fed from one side or one engine to be fed from both sides.
Suction valves in the tanks allow the engine to be fed by gravity or suction by the engine driven pump in the
event of both booster pumps failing in one tank.

The control panel shows selector switches for each pump accompanied by low pressure warning lights to show
pump failure or low fuel level. There is also a control switch and indicator light for the cross-feed valve. There
is a temperature sensor in the No.1 tank which will transmit the fuel tank temperature to an indicator on the
control panel.

The engine fuel shut-off valve is closed by the operation of the fire handle for that particular engine, in some
aircraft it is also operated by the selection of the fuel switch during the normal start or shutdown procedure.

The APU takes its fuel from the No.1 tank from a bypass valve if there are no booster pumps operating, but
could be fed from any tank if a booster pump in that tank was selected on. The APU shut-off valve is typically
operated by the automatic start or stop sequence.

Fuel imbalance in flight between the No.1 and No.2 tank can be corrected by selective switching of the booster
pumps and cross-feed valve (open the cross-feed and switch off the pumps in the tank with less fuel until the
correct balance is achieved by supplying both engines from the tank with more fuel). When the correct
balance is achieved switch on the booster pumps previously switched off and close the cross-feed valve. This
will restore the ‘tank to engine’ configuration (No.1 tank feeding No.1 engine and No.2 tank feeding No.2
engine).

The control panel also has indicators to show low pressure fuel filter bypass valve open (filter blockage). This
filter is the low pressure filter in the engine fuel system downstream of the fuel heater.

Note: Unusable Fuel

It is not possible to burn all the fuel in the aircraft fuel tanks. The fuel pickup is not at the absolute bottom of
the tank. This is done to leave fuel in the tank in case there is some water or sediment. This is what you are
checking for when you do a fuel contamination check. The amount of unusable fuel for each tank will be stated
in the aircraft manual.

Note: The wing tanks are split into two elements, outer and inner sections which are sometimes incorporated
to allow a certain amount of fuel to remain in the outer section until the inner has reached a pre-determined
level. Keeping fuel outboard in this manner helps to reduce wing bending stress and relieve flutter.

Fuel Jettison or Dump

This would be required if the maximum landing mass of the aircraft is significantly less than the maximum
take-off mass and landing at the higher mass would compromise the structural integrity of the aircraft or if the
aircraft could not satisfy the climb requirements of CS-25 and the discontinued approach requirements of CS-
25. In an emergency therefore fuel can be dumped to reduce the mass to its maximum landing mass.
Fuel dumping is accomplished by pumping fuel out of a dump master valve, typically one on each wing at the
trailing edge, well outboard to enable the fuel to be dumped safely with no danger of it entering the aircraft or
any of its systems.
The minimum amount is stipulated in CS-25 which states that the fuel remaining after jettisoning must be
sufficient to enable the aircraft to climb to 10,000ft and thereafter allow 45 minutes cruise at a speed for
maximum range.

CS: Certification Specification

Airframes & Systems 35
36 Airframes & Systems

Fuel Quantity Measurement

There are two methods of measuring fuel quantity:

• Measuring volume by varying a resistance by a float - normally restricted to light aircraft, is subject
to manoeuvring error and cannot compensate for variations of density.

•Measuring weight or mass by varying capacitance - essential on modern passenger aircraft - does
not suffer from manoeuvring error and can compensate for variations of density.

The capacitive method works by supplying the two plates of a capacitor with AC. The current that flows in the
circuit now depends on four factors, the level of voltage applied, the frequency of the supply, the size of the
plates and the dielectric constant of the material separating the plates. In our circuit three of these factors are
fixed and the fourth, the dielectric constant, is variable because the dielectric consists of fuel and air. The
higher the level of fuel in the tank the more fuel and less air will be in the capacitor probe, and vice versa.

The amount of current flowing in the circuit therefore depends on the amount of fuel/air between the plates
and in measuring this current we can have an accurate indication of the mass of fuel in our tanks.

Aircraft Refuelling
Before fuelling an aircraft, fuelling zones should be established. These zones will extend at least 6 m (20 feet)
radially from the filling and venting points on the aircraft and the fuelling equipment.

Within these zones the following restrictions apply:

•There should be no smoking.

• If the exhaust of an APU which is required during the fuelling operation discharges into the zone, then it
must be started before filler caps are removed or fuelling connections made.

• If the APU stops for any reason during fuelling, it should not be started again until fuelling has ceased and
there is no danger of igniting the fuel vapours.

• Ground power units, (GPUs) should be located as far away as practical from the fuelling zones and not be
connected or disconnected while fuelling is in progress.

• Fire extinguishers should be located so as to be readily accessible.

Precautions before Fuelling

Before fuelling commences, the following procedures should be carried out:

• The aircraft should be bonded (grounded) to the fuelling equipment using dedicated wires and clips. Reliance
must not be placed upon conductive hoses for effective bonding.

• When overwing refuelling, the hose nozzle should be bonded (grounded) to the aircraft structure before
removing the tank filler cap. Similarly, even funnels, filters and cans should be bonded to the aircraft. Plastic
funnels or pipes should never be used.

• When underwing pressure refuelling, the mechanical metal to metal contact between the aircraft fitting and
the nozzle end eliminates the need for a separate hose-end bonding cable.

Precautions during Fuelling

When passengers are embarking or disembarking during fuelling operations, they should do so under the
supervision of an airline official and their route should avoid the fuelling zones.