Human Growth

Module 3

Classical Conditioning Vs Operant Conditioning

Learning

 Learning the process of acquiring new & lasting information or

behaviors.
 There are two important parts to the classification of learning:
 the lasting change (note: a simple reflexive reaction is not
learning)
 the mental process involved in obtaining and maintaining
information
(it is much harder to observe and study the internal processes)

Our Life without Learning

 Learning is more than school, books and tests. Without learning our
lives would simply be a series of reflexes and instincts. We would not
be able to communicate, we would have no memory of our past or
goals for the future.

Learning’s Effects on Behavior

 We learn new behaviors by observing events & watching

others.
In humans, learning has a much larger influence on behavior than
instincts. Learning represents an evolutionary advancement over
instincts.

But how do we learn?

 We learn by association.
 Every second/minute/hour of the day that we are awake: our minds are
innately searching for patterns/trends/connections in what we can see & we
judge the stimulus of each detail surrounding us in order to determine our
response.
We can also learn indirectly through our common use of language skills in order to
learn from the experience of others, vicariously, based upon the information that
they share with us.
Types of Learning

Simple Learning, Complex Learning, CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, OPERANT

CONDITIONING

Simple Learning

 Habituation: an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with

repeated exposure to it.
 Ex: Car horns or emergency vehicle sirens while you’re
driving in the city
 how often do you pay attention to the morning
announcements?
How often do you look when a car alarm goes off?

 Mere Exposure Effect: A learned preference for stimuli to which

we have been previously exposed.
 Ex: a best friend’s voice vs. a random stranger
 Ex: in recent studies, 88% of the time, adults will go on
to purchase the exact same cleaning products/hygiene
products that their parents purchased while they were
children. This is a gradually developed generational
brand loyalty that is very hard to undo.
 Which do you prefer?
 Which did your parents drink when you were a little kid?

Complex Learning

 Behavioral Learning: Forms of learning, such as classical and operant conditioning

which can be described in terms of stimuli and responses.
 Stimulus ~ any event or situation that evokes a response

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

 One of most famous contributors in the study of learning is Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).
 Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov stumbled upon what has become
known as “classical conditioning” while he was experimenting on his dog.
 Classical Conditioning: A form of learning that
occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is
linked to another neutral stimulus and
therefore acquires the power to elicit a
consistent and innate reflex. Upon repetition,
the individual will come to expect this
response.
How do we learn?

Pavlov’s Findings Explained

Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired with a natural reflex-
producing stimulus, will begin to produce a learned response, even when it is
presented by itself.

Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior

to learning.

Pavlov’s Experiment
Components of Conditioning
 There are 5 main components of conditioning.
 Classical Conditioning always involves these parts. They are:
 Neutral Stimulus (NS)
 Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
 Unconditioned Response (UR)
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 Conditioned Response (CR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
 US: A stimulus that automatically-without conditioning or learning-
provokes a reflexive response.
 In Pavlov’s experiment, food was used as the US because it produced
a salivation reflex.
NOTE: Classical conditioning cannot happen without the US. The only
behaviors that can be classically conditioned are those that are produced by
unconditioned.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

UR: A response resulting from an unconditioned stimulus without prior

learning.
In Pavlov’s experiment, the UR was the dog salivating when its tongue touched
food.
Realize that the US UR connection involves no deliberate learning or
acquisition.

From Unconditioned to Conditioned

 During acquisition, a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus
(US).
 After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to elicit the same
response as the US.
 Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditioned response (CR) comes to be
elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS).

In the dog’s mind: A

 Conditioned Stimulus

A CS is the formerly neutral stimulus that gains the power to cause the response.
[In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell/tone began to produce the same response that the food
once did.]

Conditioned Response
A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with
the unconditioned stimulus.

Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as the response originally produced
by the US, we now call it a conditioned response because
the results can be duplicated

Spontaneous Recovery
 Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response, and the CR can occasionally
reappear during spontaneous recovery.
 Spontaneous Recovery: The response after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned
response.
 Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.
 Reinforcement Procedures
 What if we could not distinguish between stimuli that
were similar?
 The bell ending class vs. fire alarm
 The door bell vs. our cell phones
Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two
similar signals stimulus.

Examples of Classical Conditioning

If a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate school with fear. [This could
happen if a student is repeatedly humiliated or punished in class by a specific teacher.] It could
also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects for their entire
academic career, regardless of its actual difficulty.
On your way home from school there is a small “yippy” dog that always barks at you very
loudly. You start to feel uncomfortable when taking that route, so you take a new route home,
past a much bigger dog that only smiles and wags as you walk by him.
 Operant Conditioning

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to salivate, but you cannot teach it to sit up
or roll over. Why?
Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up and rolling over are far more complex
responses that we think of as voluntary.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in which the probability of a behavioral response is

changed by its consequences…that is, by the stimuli that follows the response.

HINT: An operant is an observable behavior that an organism uses to “operate” in its

environment.

Effects of Operant Conditioning

 Behavioral responses are strengthened when followed by a reinforcer:

…and diminished when followed by a punisher

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

B.F. Skinner became famous for his ideas in behaviorism
and his work with rats.

Edward Thornike’s
“Law of Effect”:
The idea that behaviors followed by favorable
consequences are more likely to happen again while behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
 Operant Chamber: a chamber with a bar or a key that an animal can manipulate
to obtain a food or water reinforce while an attached device records the animal’s
rate of bar-pressing or key turning.

Reinforcement
 A reinforcer is a condition in which the presentation or removal of a stimulus, that
occurs after a response (behavior), strengthens that response or makes it more likely to
happen again in the future.
 Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented after a response that increases the
probability of that response happening again.
 Ex: Getting paid for good grades or gaining privileges at home for good behavior
Negative Reinforcement
 Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant or averse stimulus that
increases the probability of that response happening again.
 Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.
 Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer stop.
 REMEMBER: When we are talking about reinforcers or punishers, the word “positive”
means add or apply; “negative” is used to mean subtract or remove.
Punishment
 A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus which occurs after a behavior, and
decreases the probability it will occur again.
Positive Punishment: An undesirable event that follows a behavior: like getting detention
after cheating on a test.
Negative Punishment: When a desirable event ends or when an item is taken away after a
behavior.
 Example: getting your cell phone taken away after failing multiple classes on
your progress report.
 Think of how parents give their kids a “time-out” (to take away time from a fun
activity with the hope that it will stop the unwanted behavior in the future.)
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
 Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administered consistently. Intermittent
punishment is far less effective than punishment delivered after every undesired
behavior. [In fact, not punishing every misbehavior can have the effect of rewarding
the behavior.]
 It is important to remember that the learner, not the teacher, decides if something is
reinforcing or punishing.
 For instance: Redi-Whip vs. Easy Cheese
Uses and Abuses of Punishment
 Punishment often produces an immediate change in behavior, which ironically reinforces
the punisher.
 However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons:
1. The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually disappears when the threat of
punishment is gone.
2. Punishment triggers escape or aggression.
3. Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning.
4. Punishment is often applied unequally.
Making Punishment Work
To make punishment work:
Punishment should be swift.
Punishment should be certain-every time.
Punishment should be limited in time and intensity.
Punishment should clearly target the behavior, not the person.
Punishment should not give mixed messages.
The most effective punishment is often omission training-negative punishment.

Reinforcement Schedules
 Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule under which all correct
responses are reinforced.
 This is a useful tactic early in the learning process. It also helps when “shaping”
new behavior.
 Shaping: A technique where new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that
are similar to the desired response.
 Dog training requires continuous reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement
 Continuous Reinforcement:
A schedule of reinforcement that rewards every correct response
given.
Where can you always get continuous reinforcement?
 Example: A vending machine.

Reinforcement Schedules
 Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of reinforcement schedule
by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced.
 Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective way to
maintain a desired behavior that has already been learned.
Operant and Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Behavior is controlled by the Behavior is controlled by

stimuli that precede the consequences (rewards,
response (by the CS and the punishments) that follow the
UCS). response.
No reward or punishment is Often involves rewards
involved (although pleasant and (reinforcement) and punishments.
averse stimuli may be used).

Through conditioning, a new Through conditioning, a new

stimulus (CS) comes to produce stimulus (reinforcer) produces a
the old (reflexive) behavior. new behavior.

Extinction is produced by Extinction is produced by

withholding the UCS. withholding reinforcement.

Learner is passive (acts Learner is active: Responses are

reflexively): Responses are voluntary. That is behavior is
involuntary. That is behavior is emitted by the organism.
elicited by stimulation.

B. Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory and Vicarious Learning

Bandura - Social Learning Theory

In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of
classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas.

1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational
learning.
Observational Learning
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during
the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).
Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many
influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within
their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe
and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.

Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a later
time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there
are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that
its society deems appropriate for its gender.
First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to
itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the same gender.
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either
reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are
rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior.
If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is
rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior
has been reinforced (i.e., strengthened).
Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants
approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy
about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way which it
believes will earn approval because it desires approval.
Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered
externally does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be positive or
negative, but the important factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.
Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding
whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the consequences of
another person’s (i.e., models) behavior, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being
rewarded for a particular behavior is more likely to repeat that behavior herself. This is known
as vicarious reinforcement.
This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding.
Children will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their
immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in
the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which
the individual would like to possess.
Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting)
observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.
The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related
to the Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting another
person’s behavior. However, during the Oedipus complex, the child can only identify with the
same sex parent, whereas with Social Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can
potentially identify with any other person.
Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted,
whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.
Mediational Processes
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (i.e., behaviorism) and
the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are
involved in learning.
Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and
think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences.
Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental
factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is
acquired.
Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it.
There is some thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called mediational processes.
This occurs between observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response)

There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:

1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a behavior to
be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis,
and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in
whether a behavior influences others imitating it.
2. Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed but is
it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore
that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those
cases. Even if the behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a
memory to refer to.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be able to
imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for
that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario
of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may
 appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because
she physically cannot do it.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow
a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the
perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by
the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the
observer, then they will not imitate the behavior.
Critical Evaluation
The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role
that they play in deciding if a behavior is to be imitated or not. As such, SLT provides a more
comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognizing the role of mediational processes.
However, although it can explain some quite complex behavior, it cannot adequately account
for how we develop a whole range of behavior including thoughts and feelings. We have a lot of
cognitive control over our behavior and just because we have had experiences of violence does
not mean we have to reproduce such behavior.

It is for this reason that Bandura modified his theory and in 1986 renamed his Social Learning
Theory, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), as a better description of how we learn from our social
experiences.

Some criticisms of social learning theory arise from their commitment to the environment as the
chief influence on behavior. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or
nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more
likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture
(environment).

Social learning theory is not a full explanation for all behavior. This is particularly the case when
there is no apparent role model in the person’s life to imitate for a given behavior.

The discovery of mirror neurons has lent biological support to the theory of social learning.
Although research is in its infancy the recent discovery of "mirror neurons" in primates may
constitute a neurological basis for imitation. These are neurons which fire both if the animal
does something itself, and if it observes the action being done by another.

The Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by
Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social
context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The
unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and
internal social reinforcement. SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and
maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform
the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which factor into
whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences reinforcements,
expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific
behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior,
but rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not
just initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how
people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed
behavior that can be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of
the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.

1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic
and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences),
environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve
goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior
through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a
person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of
their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior
conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through
"modeling" of behaviors. If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they
can also complete the behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior
that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can
be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative.
This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between
behavior and environment.
5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior.
Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the
consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated
consequences can influence successful completion of the behavior. Expectations derive
largely from previous experience. While expectancies also derive from previous
experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome and are
subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to
successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories
have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-
efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other individual factors, as
well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

Limitation of Social Cognitive Theory

There are several limitations of SCT, which should be considered when using this theory in
public health. Limitations of the model include the following:

 The theory assumes that changes in the environment will automatically lead to changes
in the person, when this may not always be true.
  The theory is loosely organized, based solely on the dynamic interplay between person,
behavior, and environment. It is unclear the extent to which each of these factors into
actual behavior and if one is more influential than another.
 The theory heavily focuses on processes of learning and in doing so disregards
biological and hormonal predispositions that may influence behaviors, regardless of past
experience and expectations.
 The theory does not focus on emotion or motivation, other than through reference to
past experience. There is minimal attention on these factors.
 The theory can be broad-reaching, so can be difficult to operationalize in entirety.

Social Cognitive Theory considers many levels of the social ecological model in addressing
behavior change of individuals. SCT has been widely used in health promotion given the
emphasis on the individual and the environment, the latter of which has become a major point of
focus in recent years for health promotion activities. As with other theories, applicability of all the
constructs of SCT to one public health problem may be difficult especially in developing focused
public health programs.

Vicarious learning also known as observational learning or learning through modeling occurs
when an individual learns something simply through observation without direct reinforcement or
punishment of the behavior, i.e., vicariously (Friedman & Schustack, 2012; Nicholle, Symmonds,
& Dolan, 2011). Bandura postulated that vicarious learning is dependent upon the positive or
negative consequences of the modeled behavior, as well as possible anticipated consequences
of the behavior which he termed outcome expectancy. For instance, if the initial behavior
observed is neither rewarded nor punished, but there is a strict rule in place against the
behavior, it is less likely the behavior will be imitated. An example is when a younger sibling
witnesses an older sibling successfully break a well-known rule. Although the older sibling was
successful in this particular instance, the younger sibling is aware of the negative consequences
should they be caught imitating the behavior.

Vicarious learning is dependent upon a variety of influences such as external perceptions of

the observed, internal attributes of the observer, as well as perceptions of the behavior
itself relative to its simplicity or complexity (Friedman & Schustack, 2012). For instance,
perceived similarities to the observed (age, gender, and competence) increases the
likelihood of imitation. In addition, the simpler the behavior to be imitated, the more likely
it is to be imitated. This may be directly and/or indirectly related to the observer’s
perceptions of their own attributes of self-esteem, self-efficacy and/or
competence. Individuals with lower self-esteem and less confidence in their abilities (self-
efficacy) are less likely to imitate modeled behaviors, especially complex behaviors.

Successful replication of modeled behavior is also dependent upon cognitive and physical
abilities such that the individual must correctly interpret and encode the behavior requiring
both attention and retention, as well as be capable of physically accurately reproducing the
behavior requiring both motivation to do so and motor reproduction (Groenendijk, Janssen,
Rijlaarsdam, & Van den Bergh, 2013).

Some aspects of personality are possible to acquire through vicarious learning, i.e., without
the requirement of direct reinforcement or punishment. For instance, numerous studies
indicate children who view too much violence tend to be more aggressive than their non-
violence viewing counterparts. On the other hand, if society directly punished such
aggressive behavior it should theoretically decrease. Rather, in many instances, aggressive
individuals have a tendency to get what they want, thus rewarding their ill-tempered
behaviors.

Kindness and morality may also be taught vicariously through the positive acts and deeds of
others. My son has witnessed me returning things to a store clerk who forgot to charge me
for them, as well as stopping to give money to a homeless person. Now that he is older he
often attempts to replicate these acts of kindness and morality, sometimes
inappropriately. For instance, a student at his school lost his cell phone and was very
unhappy. My son volunteered to purchase him a new cell phone. Of course, this required a
conversation regarding boundaries and parental responsibilities, but the intent was
kindness. On another occasion, a student did not have the required folders on the first day
of school and Gabriel happily gave her his. Although I needed to repurchase his set of
folders for the class, I was pleased he was so thoughtful to his schoolmate.

On the other hand, poor manners and attitudes may also be transmitted vicariously. Many
people can attest to hearing a five year swear like a sailor. In fact, my nieces have a very
bad tendency to speak disrespectfully to my sister because they imitate the way her
husband speaks to her. However, it should be noted, they do not speak to me or my
husband that way. Further, they have been scolded for speaking to my sister that way in
front of me so that the behavior has diminished in my presence. Unfortunately, I doubt the
behavior has diminished elsewhere.

Groenendijk et al. (2013) demonstrated that creativity may be enhanced through

vicarious/observational learning versus guided practice in a series of experiments with high
school students. In their experiments, the creative process was modeled for students while the
observed individual spoke aloud their thought processes as they worked. The researchers’
hypotheses was that students in the experimental condition (modeled behavior with cognitive
component) would demonstrate increased creativity represented by convergent and divergent
thought processes versus those students who participated in a guided instruction condition.
The results indicated a main effect for creativity, that is, the students in the experimental
condition produced more creative results than the students in the guided instruction condition,
particularly for students with a creative aptitude indicating the necessity for some competence
in the ability being observed.