REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The chapter discusses the information gathered from local and foreign books,

publications, journals, online articles theses and websites to support the study about a

System Study on Gentri’s Best: General Trias Dairy Raisers Multipurpose

Cooperative.

Dairy Products and their Nature in Industry

Milk production takes place all around the world. Global demand continues to

increase in large part due to population growth, rising incomes, urbanization and

westernization of diets in countries such as China and India. Including this increasing

demand for milk, the stress on natural resources, with freshwater and soil are rising.

Millions of farmers worldwide tend approximately 270 million dairy cows to

produce milk. Milk production impacts the environment in various ways, and the

scale of these impacts depends on the practices of the dairy farmers and feed growers.

Dairy cows and their manure produce greenhouse gas emissions which

contribute to climate change. Poor handling of manure and fertilizers can degrade

local water resources. And unsustainable dairy farming and feed production can lead

to the loss of ecologically important areas, such as prairies, wetlands, and forests

(WWF, 2009).

Industry Structure and Trends

Dairy processing occurs world-wide; however the structure of the industry

varies from country to country. In less developed countries, milk is generally sold

directly to the public, but in major milk producing countries most milk is sold on a
wholesale basis. In Ireland and Australia, for example, many of the large-scale

processors are owned by the farmers as co-operatives, while in the United States

individual contracts are agreed between farmers and processors.

Dairy processing industries in the major producing countries have undergone

rationalization, with a trend towards fewer but larger plants operated by fewer people.

As a result, in the United States, Europe, Australia and New Zealand most dairy

processing plants are quite large. Plants producing market milk and products with

short shelf life, such as yogurts, creams and soft cheeses, tend to be located on the

fringe of urban centres close to consumer markets. Plants manufacturing items with

longer shelf life, such as butter, milk powders, cheese and whey powders, tend to be

located in rural areas closer to the milk supply. The general tendency world-wide, is

towards large processing plants specializing in a limited range of products. In Eastern

Europe for example, due to the former supply-driven concept of the market, it is still

very common for ‘city’ processing plants to be large multi-product plants producing a

wide range of products.

The general trend towards large processing plants has provided companies

with the opportunity to acquire bigger, more automated and more efficient equipment.

This technological development has, however, tended to increase environmental

loadings in some areas due to the requirement for long-distance distribution.

Basic dairy processes have changed little in the past decade. Specialized

processes such as ultra-filtration (UF), and modern drying processes, have increased

the opportunity for the recovery of milk solids that were formerly discharged. In

addition, all processes have become much more energy efficient and the use of

electronic control systems has allowed improved processing effectiveness and cost

savings (COWI, 2000).

 In New Zealand according to Jaforullah and Whiteman, they use Data

Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to measure the scale of the New Zealan dairy industry

and to examine the relationship between farm size and technical efficiency. DEA is

applied to a sample of 264 dairy farms. The results suggest that 19% of these farms

are operating at optimal scale, 28% at above optimal scale, and 53% at below optimal

scale. On average, the optimal size for New Zealand dairy farms is estimated at 83

hectares with a herd of 260 animals. Also, the average technical efficiency is

estimated at 89% (Jaforullah & Whiteman, 1999).

According to Reiner, Teller and Kotzab in 2013, they examine in-store

logistics processes for handling dairy products, from the incoming dock to the shelves

of supermarkets and hypermarkets. The efficient execution of the in-store logistics

related to such fast-moving, sensitive, and essential items is challenging and crucial

for grocery retailers’ sales, profits and image. Using DEA and simulation, they

facilitate process benchmarking. They identify ways of improving in-store logistics

processes by showing the performance impacts of different store formats; the hybrid

store format of the small hypermarket exhibits a comparatively worse performance in

the analyzed execution of in-store logistics processes.

Moreover, the process simulation analysis reveals that the strategic and

tactical design of in-store logistics processes lead to substantial service performance

improvements. The results also show marginal improvements in the performance

figures when delivery delays and damage to products are reduced (Reiner, Teller, &

Kotzab, 2013).
Benefits of Dairy Products

The information on the role of dairy products in human nutrition and the way

that investment in dairy industry development has changed. . It discusses the

implications of these findings for the future of the dairy sector, particularly in

developing countries. The book composed of nutrition and health, progress in

nutrition outcomes, and linking dairy agriculture and nutrition. It discusses the milk

availability, its current production and demand, and the medium-term outlook.

Moreover, it discusses also the milk and dairy composition, milk and dairy

products as part of the diet, dairy components, dairy products and human health, milk

and products safety and quality, milk and dairy programmes affecting nutrition, dairy

industry development programmes and their role in food and nutrition security and

poverty reduction and trends and issues in human nutrition and dairy development

(Muehlhoff, Bennett, & McMahon, 2013).

Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition

Milk is nature’s most complete food, and dairy products are considered to be

the most nutritious foods of all. Its traditional view of the role of milk has been

greatly expanded in recent years beyond the horizon of nutritional subsistence of

infants: it is now recognized to be more than a source of nutrients for the healthy

growth of children and nourishment of adult humans.

Containing its major proteins (casein and whey), milk contains biologically

active compounds, which have important physiological and biochemical functions and

significant impacts upon human metabolism, nutrition and health. Many of these

compounds have been proven to have beneficial effects on human nutrition and health

(Park, Y. W., 2013).

Milk Quality Standards and Controls

Because of the critical importance of food safety and public health, standards

of milk quality and quality control of milk and dairy products are strictly monitored

by various state and federal regulatory agencies in different countries. To assess milk

quality in terms of suitability for consumption and processing the milk for dairy

products, the total bacteria and somatic cell counts are used worldwide. To produce

high quality milk and dairy products, HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control

Point) is recommended for the management of commercial dairy farms and milk

processing plants. These control programs are aimed at avoiding abnormal and unsafe

milk and dairy products entering into food channels for human consumption. Many

factors affect composition, yield and safety of milk, its production, manufacturing and

marketing, and these are discussed in detail. Knowledge of epidemiology and

marketing etiology of intramammary infections is the major tool to control udder

diseases and to evaluate the effects on milk nutritional profiles. Differential somatic

cell counts as determined by the flow cytometric method offer advantages for the

assessment of the immunological status of the udder and are useful as predictors of

milk processing characteristics, even if changes in leukocyte populations in healthy

and infected udders may be different across dairy species (Park, Y. W. & … et al.,

2013).

Effects of Dairy Products Consumption on Health: Benefits and Beliefs

The review provides information for health professionals to enable them to

help their patients make informed decisions about consuming dairy products as part of

a balanced diet. The dairy products provide a package of essential nutrients that is
difficult to obtain in low-dairy or dairy-free diets, and for many people it is not

possible to achieve recommended daily calcium intakes with a dairy-free diet.

It concludes in this study that the dairy products may represent a valuable

dietary source of calcium due to their high calcium and nutrient contents, high

absorptive rate, availability and relatively low cost. It recommends for 3 servings of

dairy products for example, 1 glass of milk per day, 1 portion of cheese, 1 yogurt, an

amount that provides the recommended daily intake of calcium. To better

understanding, the accumulating scientific data in this area, health professionals can

play an important role in dispelling these beliefs surrounding dairy products

(Rozenberg et al. 2015).

Overview of Environmental Impact of Dairy Industry

 Potential environmental impacts of different dairy production systems in

Georgia

The biological and physical processes of an intensively-managed

rotational pasture-based dairy and a confinement fed diary in the southeastern

United States were simulated with the Integrated Farm System Model (IFSM)

to evaluate management effects on greenhouse gas emissions, soil carbon

sequestration, and carbon footprint, nitrate leaching ammonia volatilization,

erosion, phosphorus runoff, and phosphorus accumulation in the soil. Edge-of-

filed erosion and phosphorus runoff were less for the pasture-based dairy per

unit of land and per unit of milk produced, but nitrate leaching was greater.

Ammonia emissions were greater from the confinement dairy because of the

greater handling of manure. Greenhouse gas emissions per cow were greater

on the confined dairy, but with greater milk production per cow, the carbon
 footprint of milk produced was similar to that of the pasture-based dairy.

Considering the potential soil carbon sequestration following the conversion

of crop land to perennial grassland, the carbon footprint of the milk produced

by the pasture-based dairy was slightly less than that of the confinement dairy

(Belflower, J. B., 2012).

The results of this study were generally consistent with similar

simulation studies done in the northeastern US with variations due to regional

differencies in climate, soil typre, and agronomic practices. Simulated changes

in production practices predicted that increasing milk production through

improved animal management or feeding more corn decreased the footprint of

milk produced by the pasture-based dairy, while decreasing the inorganic

nitrogen fertilizer application rate or raising replacement heifers on the farm

had little effect. While on the confinement dairy, covering the manure storage

and flaring the biogas decreased the carbon footprint, using higher producing,

pure-bred Holstein cows or producing less forage on the farm increased the

footprint, and eliminating free-stall barns and placing all cattle on pasture had

little effect on the footprint. The IFSM was capable of adapting to the

southeastern US, but further improvements could be made to better represent

the cropping practices used in this region,

 The Environmental Impact of Dairy Production: 1944 compared with

2007

A common perception is that pasture-based, low input dairy systems

characteristic of the 1940s, and were more conducive to environmental

stewardship than modern milk production systems. A deterministic model

based on the metabolism and nutrient requirements of the dairy herd was used
 to estimate resource inputs and waste outputs per billion kg of milk. Both the

modern and historical production systems were modeled using characteristic

management practices, herd population dynamics, and production data from

US dairy farms. Modern dairy practices require considerably fewer resources

than dairying in 1944 with 21% of animals, 23% of feedstuffs, 35% of the

water, and only 10% of the land required to produce the same 1 billion kg of

milk. Waste outputs were similarly reduced, with modern dairy systems

producing 24% of the manure, 43% of CH(4), and 56% of N(2)O per billion

kg of milk compared with the equivalent milk production in 1944. To fulfill

the increasing requirements of the US population for dairy products, it is

essential to adopt management practices and technologies that improve

productive efficiency, allowing milk production to be increased while

reducing resource use and mitigating environmental impact (Capper, J. L.,

Cady, R. A., & … et al, 2009).

Encountered Problems Related to Dairy Products in Industry

Effects of Heat-Stress on Production in Dairy Cattle

South-eastern United States is characterized as humid subtropical and is

subject to extended periods of high ambient temperature and relative humidity.

Because the primary non-evaporative means of cooling for the cow (radiation,

conduction, convection) become less effective with rising ambient temperature, the

cow becomes increasingly reliant upon evaporative cooling in the form of sweating

and panting. High relatively humidity compromises evaporative cooling, so that under

hot, humid conditions common to the southeast in summer the dairy cow cannot

dissipate sufficient body heat to prevent a rise in body temperature. Increasing air
temperature, temperature-humidity index and rising rectal temperature above critical

thresholds are related to decreased dry matter intake (DMI) and milk yield and to

reduced efficiency of milk yield. Modifications including shade, barns which enhance

passive ventilation and the addition of fans and sprinklers increase body heat loss,

lowering body temperature and improving DMI. New technologies including tunnel

ventilation are being investigated to determine if the offer cooling advantages.

Genetic selection for heat tolerance may be possible, but continued selection for

greater performance in the absence of consideration for heat tolerance will result in

greater susceptibility to heat stress. The nutritional needs of the cow change during

heat stress, and ration reformulation to account for decreased DMI, the need to

increase nutrient density, changing nutrient requirements, avoiding nutrient excesses

and maintenance of normal rumen function is necessary. Maintaining cow

performance in hot, humid climatic conditions in the future will likely require

improved cooling capability, continued advances in nutritional formulation, and the

need for genetic advancement which includes selection for heat tolerance or the

identification of genetic traits which enhance heat tolerance (West, J. W., 2003).

The Effect of Seasonal Variation on the Composition of Cow milk in Van

Province

This research was performed to investigate the effects of seasonal variation on

changing of cow milk components in Van province. One hundred sixty (160) cow

milk samples in total were collected and examined from January to August of 2001;

these were obtained from 12 different local points of the Van province in Turkey. The

research carried out in two periods, the winter and the summer period covering

January-February-March and June-July-August respectively. Samples were collected

according to season, so that milk samples could be taken from the cows which had

been fed with hay in born in winter period (January-February-March) and from those

which had been fed with green grass on the Pasteur in the area in summer period.

According to the results paired t test, the fat content and titratable acidity of winter

and summer periods have been found significantly at p<0.05 level. Seasonal variation

effect was found significantly on the protein content rate and total solids, fat, titratable

acidity respectively levels of p<0.05 and p<0.01 (Ozrenk, E., & Inci, S. S., 2008).

Generally, the composition of Van dairy milk and its contents determined in

this research were in agreement with other studies’ results. The researchers identified

that the fat content of Van cow’s milk have been affected importantly by the seasonal

changes. According to the results obtained in this study, it is possible to say that when

the milk fat content was higher, protein and total solid percentages were the highest

during the winter and the lowest during the summer. In the northern hemisphere, the

lowest protein and fat percentages occur in the summer months (June-July-August),

and the highest percentage occurs between October and December (Sargeant et al.,

1998). For this reason during the summer season, strategies for reducing the impact of

high heat loads on lactating cows, such as shading, increased ventilation, changing the

time of feeding to the late afternoon, and an appropriate administration of mineral

elements with the feed rations are necessary to prevent deterioration of cheese yield

and quality.

Nutrition is the more important sources of variation in the yield and

composition of milk, but climatic conditions and seasonal variation and regional

differences can also play an important role. Also the quality and the composition of

the milk are of the most importance to the dairy industry and human health because

milk composition is related to milk process ability. At the point when the milk has
higher protein content it ought to be handled to cheese. On the off chance that it has

more elevated level fat, at that point it ought to be utilized to deliver margarine.

Production Planning in the Milk Industry Using Integer Linear Programming

The milk industry in northern region in Thailand is one of the major regional

economic activities. Due to market competitions, there is a strong need to find a

decision tool to manage the milk manufacturing plan in order to maximize the total

profit. In milk industry, the planner must manage whole raw milk available and find

the best production-mix plan (Ritvirool, A. & Leewattanayingyong, K., 2007).

This research developed a mathematical model for milk production industry’s

problem. The integer linear programming model has been formulated to determine the

optimal solutions for each case study. The integer linear programming model is tested

using industrial cases and solved by using standard software packages. The results

showed that the total profit can be increased about 4% by using production plan from

the model compared with the manual plan. The planning horizon for this model is

daily plan. For further work, the time frame in the model should be considered as a

shift including three shifts a day to make the model more realistic case.

Biofilm Formation in Milk Production and Processing Environments: Influence

on Milk Quality and Safety

Bacteria in milk have the ability to adhere and aggregate on stainless steel

surfaces, resulting in biofilm formation in milk storage tanks and milk process lines.

Growth of biofilms in milk processing environments leads to increased opportunity

for microbial contamination of the processed dairy products. These biofilms may

contain spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Bacteria within biofilms are

protected from sanitizers due to multispecies cooperation and the presence of

extracellular polymeric substances, by which their survival and subsequent

contamination of processed milk products is promoted (Marchand et al, 2012).

As a result of this study, biofilms are one of the main recontamination sources

of milk. It has been established that for each planktonic bacterium detected, there

might be close to 1000 organisms present in biofilms. In the dairy industry, mono- as

well as multispecies biofilms can occur. Pathogenic bacteria can coexist within a

biofilm with other envirionmetal organisms. Biofilms are difficult to remove from

milk processing environments due to the production of EPS materials and the

difficulties associated with cleaning complex processing equipment and processing

environments. It is important that research results in this area are thoroughly

communicated with the industry. The objective “cleaning efficiency measuring

system” should be developed, which in the end can lead to the issuance of directives

for economical and technical optimization of existing CIP systems. Biofilm control

relies in the end on the design of storage and processing equipment, effective cleaning

and sanitizing procedures, and the correct implementation and application. Also the

management of these factors is important to ensure safe and good-quality milk and

dairy products.

Sustainability of the US dairy industry

The US dairy industry in over past century has realized tremendous

improvements in efficiencies of production (Martin and Mitra, 2001), achieved in part

by investing in technology and productive assets, and paid for by economies of scale.

The intensification of the industry is such that farms with more than 500 milking cows

now account for 63% of the milk supply in the United States (USDA-NASS, 2012a),
up from 39% a decade ago (USDA-NASS, 2002). According to Godfray, 2010a and

Parker, 2011, regarding the world’s population growth when combined with concerns,

potential pressures and associated challenges with food security, economic growth,

social concerns, and environmental issues (Steinfeld et al., 2006), urgent need exists

for a critical assessment of the sustainability of the US dairy industry.

The review was performed by a group of individuals representing many

aspects of the dairy industry, who met for three 2-d meetings in June 2011, January

2012, and June 2012. They recognize that many groups are attempting to address this

issue. The goal is to offer insights and possible conclusions so that others may build

upon our efforts.

Generally, the researchers have identified and presented several major factors

affecting the future sustainability of the US dairy industry, including climate change,

rapid scientific and technological innovation and advances, globalization, failure to

integrate societal values, and lack of multidisciplinary research initiatives.

Sustainability is more than economic profitability. It als relates to environmental and

societal concerns, including the quality of life of workers and the animals in dairy

farms. It will require a major paradigm shift on the part of the US dairy industry to

collaboratively develop a path to ensure the long-term sustainability of the industry.

Consistent engagement between and among producers, various sectors of the industry,

consumers, and citizens will be essential to recognize and implement more sustainable

practices.
Overview of Industrial Engineering Tools and its Application to Industry

 Pareto Charts

As defined by Webber and Wallace (2011), Pareto charts is a

commonly used graph for presenting frequency distributions, which illustrates

how often distinctive value in a set of data occurs. The Pareto chart provides a

method to determine the root cause and helps tract efforts where there can be

significant impact. Also the Pareto chart provides a method that helps organize

and group data in a way that time and resources are focused on the problem

that matters the most.

 Cause-And-Effect Diagram

Cause-and-effect diagram also called the Fishbone Diagram is a cause

analysis tool which considered one of the seven basic quality tools. The

fishbone diagram identifies many possible causes for an effect or problem. It

can be used to structure a brainstorming session. It immediately sorts ideas

into useful categories.

 Why-Why Analysis

Why-why analysis is a method of searching for and finding the root

causes of the problem. It comes from the main question asked during the

analysis: Why? The method is an evaluation of Fist diagram created by Kaoru

Ishikawa. The why-why analysis is used mainly in Six Sigma, however it can

be used in every organization. The idea of 5 whys come from Genichi

Taguchi, who once said that to find the real causes you need to ask why five

times. Dealing with real causes prevents the problem from happening again

(Wawak, 2019).
  DMAIC ( Define-Measure-Analyze-Improvement-Control)

DMAIC stands for Define-Measure-Analyze-Improvement-Control. In

order to improve, optimize and stabilize a business process, DMAIC process

should be use. The process is consists of five steps. The first step is Define

where it seeks to define the occurring problem(s). Second is Measure step

where the purpose of this step is to establish the important aspects of the

current process to collect relevant data. The third step is Analyze wherein the

data collected is analyzed. It seeks to identify the root cause of the problems.

The fourth step is Improvement where the current process is to improve by

using techniques and solutions. The last step is the Control where the main

focus is to control and monitoring the implementation of the solution that

leads to sustainable improvements and long term success (Mulder, 2013).

Quality Improvement through Six Sigma DMAIC Methodology

According to Rumana and Desai, this paper was an attempt to review the six

sigma methodology studied by various researchers. And it is in a way of learning six

sigma concepts and DMAIC in more detail. Sigma has been widely publicized in

recent years as a powerful methodology to combat quality-related problems and to

achieve customer satisfaction. It has been considered as a strategic approach to

improve business profitability and to achieve operational excellence through effective

application of both statistical and non-statistical tools/techniques. The application of

Six Sigma is growing almost every day moving from the manufacturing industry to

service, transactional, administrative, R&D, sales and marketing, healthcare, and

software-development industries. It is a measure of process performance and a

process operating at 6-Sigma quality has a defect rate of 3.4 parts-per million
opportunities. Ultimate objectives of the methodology to solve problems, improve the

quality, profitability and customers satisfaction. Six Sigma is the tool through which

we can improve the Quality and profitability by removing the cause of defects and

variability in manufacturing and business processes. Six Sigma has been on an

incredible run for over 14 years, producing significant savings to the bottom-line of

many large and small organizations.

The define phase involves identifying a project’s critical-to-quality (CTQ)

characteristics driven by the voice of the customer (VOC), followed by developing a

team charter and finally defining a high level process map. A good decision for

project generation not only provides profits but also increases customer satisfaction.

However, there still lacks a well-structured approach to assist a company in creating

the feasible projects. In the measurement phase, the team identifies the key internal

processes that influence CTQ characteristics and measures the defects currently

generated relative to those processes. The analyse phase consists mainly of three

steps: establishing process capability with the help of capability indices, defining

performance objectives by the team benchmarking, and identifying the sources of

variation. The improvement phase optimizes the process based upon data analysis. In

control phase improvements are maintained beyond the completion of the project. It is

well known that real improvement will only come from the shop floor.

Generally, the application of Six Sigma requires top-management involvement

and provision of appropriate resources and trainings. Senior managers within

organization must ne taught the principles of Six Sigma to enable the restricting of the

business organization and to change their attitude towards this more disciplined

approach. It signifies that it is important to the employees to understand the status qou

of their work environment as well as all the decisions of the company make.
Employees should understand the concept for each process improvement and more

important, become involved in the company’s initiatives. Leadership has been proven

to be an extremely important factor for Six Sigma implementation. It was observed

that all hurdles in executing the study were cleared by strong leadership at middle

management. Thus, it was identified that improvement initiatives require strong

leadership support not only at the higher level but also in the middle level of the

organization. The main enabler for Six Sigma implementation is the top management

commitment.

Quality Assessment of Processed Milk Products in Bangladesh in the framework

of Six Sigma Analysis

Different laboratory of Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST),

BCSIR, Dhaka over the year from 2007 to 2012 were collected and analysed the

processed milk products by Single Stage Cluster Sampling method. The application of

control chart on milk was used to identify the condition and verify the quality. The

Six Sigma is a customer focused continuous improvement strategy that minimizes

defects and variation towards an achievement of defects per million opportunities in

product design, production, and administrative process (Hossain, 2018).

They concluded that statistical methods in particular designed and monitored

control charts; enable graphical visualising measurements of processes. They also

describe stability and repeatability of those processes. Using Statistical quality control

in food products allows for measuring, researching, estimating and controlling a few

parameters of the products. Result with requirements, in order to state, whether with

reference to each of these properties the unanimity was also possible. Statistical

quality control of the process for the organization means preventing occurrence of
defects, for minimizing to the systematic identification and analysis of key-processes

and the direct control.

Application of 8D Methodology for minimizing the defects in manufacturing

process: A case study

The 8D methodology used in this paper is an excellent tool for solving the

problem as well as for preventing defects from reoccurring. This conclusion is

supported by means of the results of the case study. The results of the case study show

that the methodology is effective and it provides systematic guidelines to the suppliers

to reduce internal as well as external rejections. After implementing 8D methodology

the rejection level for the issue of dowel pin hole diameter reduces to zero percent and

total rejection percentage reduces to 6.57% from 37.95 %. After consistent monitoring

the supply of coupling disc part for next 3 lots, no quality issues was observed for

dowel pin hole diameter. So the company declares that the 8D activity is closed for

the dowel pin hole diameter issue (Atigre, et al., 2017).

Productivity Improvement by Using IE Tools

This paper has argued for a need by current production managers or work

quantitative approaches in the determination of time standards. Bearing in mind this

article may have addressed key issues of concern to managers; we therefore strongly

believe that the work would readily have values to practicing engineers. It was

observed that the current model is slightly different from previous models in the sense

that it incorporates some uncontrollable factors. All of these factors positive impact

on the model. Unfortunately, there seems to be no documentation that has

incorporated this into a model. This is an important gap closed by the current study.
We have found that it is feasible to apply the model in a real life situation. The study

may be very beneficial to practicing managers in the industry since it has captured

some aspects that have been ignored till date in the management literature. This

therefore, gives more reliable information about the information (Raut, et al., 2014).

Overview of Dairy Processing

The dairy in industry is divided into two main production areas: the primary

production of milk on farms and the processing of milk. The primary production

keeps the cows or other animals such as goats; sheep etc. for the production of milk

for human consumption. The processing of milk is the objective is to extend its

saleable life. This objective is typically achieved by heat treatment to ensure that milk

is safe for human consumption and has an extended keeping quality, and preparing a

variety of dairy products in a semi-dehydrated or dehydrated form (butter, hard cheese

and milk powders), which can be stored (COWI, 2000).

 Figure 2. Flow diagram for processing occurring at a typical milk plant

The figure above shows the flow diagram of basic steps in the production of

whole milk, semi-skimmed milk and skimmed milk, cream, butter and buttermilk. In

the other plants, yogurts and other cultured products may also be produced from

whole milk and skimmed milk. Also, the figure shows the basic processing system for

a butter-making plant. Its initial steps are filtration/clarification, separation and

pasteurisation of the milk. Milk destined for butter making must not be homogenised,

because the cream must remain in a separate phase. Cultured butter and sweet cream

butter can be produced with or without the addition of salt. The presence of salt

affects both flavour and the keeping quality.

 Figure 3. Flow diagram for a typical butter-making plant

Butter is usually packaged in bulk quantities (25 kg) for long-term storage and

then repacked into marketable portions (usually 250 g or 500 g, and single-serve

packs of 10–15 g). Butter may also be packed in internally lacquered cans, for special

markets such as the tropics and the Middle East.

 Figure 4. Flow diagram for a typical cheese plant

Virtually all cheese is made by coagulating milk protein (casein) in a manner

that traps milk solids and milk fat into a curd matrix. This curd matrix is then

consolidated to express the liquid fraction, cheese whey. Cheese whey contains those

milk solids which are not held in the curd mass, in particular most of the milk sugar

(lactose) and a number of soluble proteins.

 Figure 5. Flow diagram for a typical milk drying plant.

For milk powder production, the milk is preheated in tubular heat exchangers

before being dried. The preheating temperature depends on the season (which affects

the stability of the protein in the milk) and on the characteristics desired for the final

powder product. The preheated milk is fed to an evaporator to increase the

concentration of total solids. The solids concentration that can be reached depends on

the efficiency of the equipment and the amount of heat that can be applied without

unduly degrading the milk protein. The milk concentrate is then pumped to the

atomiser of a drying chamber. In the drying chamber the milk is dispersed as a fine

fog-like mist into a rapidly moving hot air stream, which causes the individual mist

droplets to instantly evaporate. Milk powder falls to the bottom of the chamber, from

where it is removed. Finer milk powder particles are Milk receipt, pre-treatment and
standardisation Pasteurisation Addition of starter culture Coagulation Extraction of

whey Cutting and cooking of curd Salting Ripening Cheese whey Cheese milk

Distribution Whey treatment plant Packaging Cleaner Production Assessment in

Dairy Processing Page 12 carried out of the chamber along with the hot air stream and

collected in cyclone separators. Milk powders are normally packed and distributed in

bulk containers or in 25 kg paper packaging systems. Products sold to the consumer

market are normally packaged in cans under nitrogen. This packaging system

improves the keeping quality, especially for products with high fat content.

Industrial Yogurt manufacture: Monitoring of fermentation process and

improvement of final product quality

Lactic acid fermentation during the production of skim milk and whole fat set-

style yogurt was continuously monitored by measuring pH. The modified Gompertz

model was successfully applied to describe the pH decline and viscosity development

during the fermentation process. The viscosity and incubation time data were also

fitted to linear models against ln(pH). The investigation of the yogurt quality

improvement practices included 2 different heat treatment (80 degrees C for 30 min

and 95 degrees C for 10 min), 3 milk protein fortifying agents (skim milk powder,

whey powder, and milk protein concentrate) added at 2.0%, and 4 hydrocolloids

(kappa-carrageenan, xanthan, guar, gum and pectin) added at 0.01% to whole fat and

skim yogurts. Heat treatment significantly affected viscosity and acetaldehyde

development without influencing incubation time and acidity. Although heat

treatment of milk bases may affect the fermentation time and the physical

characteristics of yogurts, the interaction of heat treatment with compositional aspects

was found to be more important. The addition of whey powder shortened the
incubation time but had a detrimental effect on consistency, firmness, and overall

acceptance of yogurts. On the other hand, addition of skim milk powder improved the

textural quality and decreased the vulnerability of yogurts to syneresis. Anionic

stabilizers (kappa-carrageenan and pectin) had a poor effect on the texture and

prevented the wheying-off defect. Skim yogurts containing skim milk powder or

xanthan gum were found to be the most acceptable samples in terms of sensory

quality (Soukoulis, C., … & et al., 2007).