Discrete-Time Systems

in the Time Domain 2

2.1 Introduction
A discrete-time system processes an input signal in the time-domain to generate an out-
put signal with more desirable properties by applying an algorithm composed of simple
operations on the input signal and its delayed versions. The aim of this second exercise
is to illustrate the simulation of some simple discrete-time systems on the computer using
MATLAB and investigate their time domain properties.

2.2 Background Review

R2.1 For a linear discrete-time system , if y1 [n] and y2 [n] are the responses to the input
sequences x1 [n] and x2 [n], respectively, then for an input

x[n] = α x1 [n] + β x2 [n], (2.1)

the response is given by

y[n] = α y1 [n] + β y2 [n]. (2.2)
The superposition property of Eq. (2.2) must hold for any arbitrary constants α and β and
for all possible inputs x1 [n] and x2 [n]. If Eq. (2.2) does not hold for at least one set of
nonzero values of α and β, or one set of nonzero input sequences x1 [n] and x2 [n], then the
system is nonlinear .

R2.2 For a time-invariant discrete-time system , if y1 [n] is the response to an input x1 [n],
then the response to an input
x[n] = x1 [n − no ]
is simply
y[n] = y1 [n − no ].
where no is any positive or negative integer. The above relation between the input and
output must hold for any arbitrary input sequence and its corresponding output. If it does
not hold for at least one input sequence and its corresponding output sequence, the system
is time-varying .

R2.3 A linear time-invariant (LTI) discrete-time system satisfies both the linearity and
the time-invariance properties.

15
16 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

R2.4 If y1 [n] and y2 [n] are the responses of a causal discrete-time system to the inputs
u1 [n] and u2 [n], respectively, then
u1 [n] = u2 [n] for n < N
implies also that
y1 [n] = y2 [n] for n < N .
R2.5 A discrete-time system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable
if, for any bounded input sequence x[n], the corresponding output y[n] is also a bounded
sequence , that is, if
|x[n]| < Bx for all values of n,
then the corresponding output y[n] is also bounded, that is,
|y[n]| < By for all values of n,
where Bx and By are finite constants.
R2.6 The response of a discrete-time system to a unit sample sequence {δ[n]} is called
the unit sample response or, simply, the impulse response , and denoted as {h[n]}. Corre-
spondingly, the response of a discrete-time system to a unit step sequence {µ[n]}, denoted
as {s[n]}, is its unit step response or, simply the step response.
R2.7 The response y[n] of a linear, time-invariant discrete-time system characterized by
an impulse response h[n] to an input signal x[n] is given by
∞


y[n] = h[k] x[n − k], (2.3)
k=−∞

which can be alternately written as

∞


y[n] = h[n − k] x[k], (2.4)
k=−∞

by a simple change of variables. The sum in Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4) is called the convolution
sum of the sequences x[n] and h[n], and is represented compactly as:
y[n] = h[n] 
∗ x[n], (2.5)
where the notation 
∗ denotes the convolution sum.
R2.8 The overall impulse response h[n] of the LTI discrete-time system obtained by a
cascade connection of two LTI discrete-time systems with impulse responses h1 [n] and
h2 [n], respectively, and as shown in Figure 2.1, is given by
h[n] = h1 [n] 
∗ h2 [n]. (2.6)
If the two LTI systems in the cascade connection of Figure 2.1 are such that
h1 [n] 
∗ h2 [n] = δ[n], (2.7)
then the LTI system h2 [n] is said to be the inverse of the LTI system h1 [n] and vice-versa .
 2.3 MATLAB Commands Used 17

h1[n] h2[n] h2[n] h1[n] h1[n] * h2[n]

Figure 2.1 The cascade connection.

R2.9 An LTI discrete-time system is BIBO stable if and only if its impulse response
sequence {h[n]} is absolutely summable , that is,
∞


|h[n]| < ∞. (2.8)
n=−∞

R2.10 An LTI discrete-time system is causal if and only if its impulse response sequence
{h[n]} satisfies the condition

h[k] = 0 for k < 0. (2.9)

R2.11 The class of LTI discrete-time systems with which we shall be mostly concerned
in this book is characterized by a linear constant-coefficient difference equation of the form

N

M
dk y[n − k] pk x[n − k], (2.10)
k=0 k=0

where x[n] and y[n] are, respectively, the input and the output of the system, and {dk }
and {pk } are constants. The order of the discrete-time system is max(N, M ), which is the
order of the difference equation characterizing the system. If we assume the system to be
causal, then we can rewrite Eq. (2.10) to express y[n] explicitly as a function of x[n]:

N
dk

M
pk
y[n] = − y[n − k] + x[n − k], (2.11)
d0 d0
k=1 k=0

provided d0 = 0. The output y[n] can be computed using Eq. (2.11) for all n ≥ no knowing
x[n] and the initial conditions y[no − 1], y[no − 2], . . . , y[no − N ].

R2.12 A discrete-time system is called a finite impulse response (FIR) system if its impulse
response h[n] is of finite length. Otherwise, it is an infinite impulse response (IIR) system.
The causal system of Eq. (2.11) represents an FIR system if dk = 0 for k > 0. Otherwise,
it is an IIR system.

2.3 MATLAB Commands Used

The MATLAB commands you will encounter in this exercise are as follows:
18 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

General Purpose Commands

disp

Operators and Special Characters

: . + - * / ;
% <

Language Constructs and Debugging

break end for if input

Elementary Matrices and Matrix Manipulation

ones pi zeros

Elementary Functions

abs cos

Polynomial and Interpolation Functions

conv

Two-Dimensional Graphics

axis plot stem title xlabel

ylabel

General Purpose Graphics Functions

clf subplot

Character String Functions

num2str
 2.4 Simulation of Discrete-Time Systems 19

Signal Processing Toolbox

filter impz

For additional information on these commands, see the MathWorks Online Documenta-
tion [Mat05] or type help commandname in the Command window. A brief explanation
of the MATLAB functions used here can be found in Appendix B.

2.4 Simulation of Discrete-Time Systems

In Project 1.5 we illustrated the application of a simple discrete-time system described
by Eq. (1.21) in the smoothing of data corrupted by a random noise . We now consider
the simulation of some additional discrete-time systems and study their properties. For
the simulation of causal LTI discrete-time systems described by Eq. (2.10), the command
filter can be used. There are several versions of this command. If we denote

num = [p0 p1 ... pM ],

den = [d0 d1 ... dN ],

then y = filter(num,den,x) generates an output vector y of the same length as the
specified input vector x with zero initial conditions, that is, y[-1] y[-2] = ... =
y[-N] = 0. The output can also be computed using y = filter(num,den,x,ic) where
ic = [y[-1], y[-2], ..., y[-N]] is the vector of initial conditions. Access to final
conditions is obtained using [y,fc] filter(num,den,x, ic).

Project 2.1 The Moving Average System

Examination of Eq. (1.21) reveals that the three-point smoothing filter considered here is an
LTI FIR system. Moreover, as y[n] depends on a future input sample x[n + 1], the system
is noncausal. A causal version of the three-point smoothing filter is obtained by simply
delaying the output by one sample period, resulting in the FIR filter described by

y[n] = 31 (x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2]). (2.12)

Generalizing the above equation we obtain

M −1
1

y[n] = x[n − k], (2.13)
M
k=0

which defines a causal M -point smoothing FIR filter. The system of Eq. (2.13) is also known
as a moving average filter . We illustrate its use in filtering high-frequency components
from a signal composed of a sum of several sinusoidal signals.
20 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

% Program P2_1
% Simulation of an M-point Moving Average Filter
% Generate the input signal
n = 0:100;
s1 = cos(2*pi*0.05*n); % A low frequency sinusoid
s2 = cos(2*pi*0.47*n); % A high frequency sinusoid
x = s1+s2;
% Implementation of the moving average filter
M = input(’Desired length of the filter = ’);
num = ones(1,M);
y = filter(num,1,x)/M;
% Display the input and output signals
clf;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(n,s1);
axis([0, 100, -2, 2]);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Signal # 1’);
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(n,s2);
axis([0, 100, -2, 2]);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Signal # 2’);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(n,x);
axis([0, 100, -2, 2]);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Input Signal’);
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(n,y);
axis([0, 100, -2, 2]);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output Signal’);
axis;

Questions:

Q2.1 Run the above program for M = 2 to generate the output signal with x[n] = s1[n]
+ s2[n] as the input. Which component of the input x[n] is suppressed by the discrete-
time system simulated by this program?

Q2.2 If the LTI system is changed from y[n] 0.5(x[n] + x[n - 1]) to y[n] =
0.5(x[n] - x[n - 1]), what would be its effect on the input x[n] = s1[n] + s2[n]?

Q2.3 Run Program P2 1 for other values of filter length M, and various values of the
frequencies of the sinusoidal signals s1[n] and s2[n]. Comment on your results.
 2.4 Simulation of Discrete-Time Systems 21

Q2.4 Modify Program P2 1 to use a swept-frequency sinusoidal signal of length 101, a

minimum frequency 0, and a maximum frequency 0.5 as the input signal (see Program
P1 7) and compute the output signal. Can you explain the results of Questions Q2.1 and
Q2.2 from the response of this system to the swept-frequency signal ?

Project 2.2 A Simple Nonlinear Discrete-Time System (Optional)

Let y[n] be a signal generated by applying the following nonlinear operations on a signal
x[n]:
y[n] = x[n]2 − x[n − 1] x[n + 1]. (2.14)

In this project you will generate the output y[n] of the above system for different types of
the input x[n] using Program P2 2.
The following MATLAB program can be used to generate an input signal x[n] composed
of a sum of two sinusoidal sequences and simulate the LTI system of Eq. (2.12) to generate
y[n].

% Program P2_2
% Generate a sinusoidal input signal
clf;
n = 0:200;
x = cos(2*pi*0.05*n);
% Compute the output signal
x1 = [x 0 0]; % x1[n] = x[n+1]
x2 = [0 x 0]; % x2[n] = x[n]
x3 = [0 0 x]; % x3[n] = x[n-1]
y = x2.*x2 - x1.*x3;
y = y(2:202);
% Plot the input and output signals
subplot(2,1,1)
plot(n,x)
xlabel(’Time index n’);ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Input Signal’)
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(n,y)
xlabel(’Time index n’);ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output signal’);

Questions:

Q2.5 Use sinusoidal signals with different frequencies as the input signals and compute
the output signal for each input. How do the output signals depend on the frequencies of
the input signal? Can you verify your observation mathematically?
22 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

Q2.6 Use sinusoidal signals of the form x[n] sin(ωo n)+K as the input signal and compute
the output signal. How does the output signal y[n] depend on the DC value K?

Project 2.3 Linear and Nonlinear Systems

We now investigate the linearity property (see R2.1) of a causal system of the type described
by Eq. (2.10) . Consider the system given by

y[n]−0.4 y[n−1]+0.75 y[n−2] = 2.2403 x[n]+2.4908 x[n−1]+2.2403 x[n−2]. (2.15)

MATLAB Program P2 3 is used to simulate the system of Eq. (2.15), to generate three
different input sequences x1 [n], x2 [n], and x[n] = a · x1 [n] + b · x2 [n], and to compute and
plot the corresponding output sequences y1 [n], y2 [n], and y[n].

% Program P2_3
% Generate the input sequences
clf;
n = 0:40;
a = 2;b = -3;
x1 = cos(2*pi*0.1*n);
x2 = cos(2*pi*0.4*n);
x = a*x1 + b*x2;
num = [2.2403 2.4908 2.2403];
den = [1 -0.4 0.75];
ic = [0 0]; % Set zero initial conditions
y1 = filter(num,den,x1,ic); % Compute the output y1[n]
y2 = filter(num,den,x2,ic); % Compute the output y2[n]
y = filter(num,den,x,ic); % Compute the output y[n]
yt = a*y1 + b*y2;
d = y - yt; % Compute the difference output d[n]
% Plot the outputs and the difference signal
subplot(3,1,1)
stem(n,y);
ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output Due to Weighted Input: a \cdot+ x_{1}+[n]
+ b \cdot+ x_{2}+[n]’);
subplot(3,1,2)
stem(n,yt);
ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Weighted Output: a \cdot+ y_{1}+[n] + b \cdot+
y_{2}+[n]’);
subplot(3,1,3)
stem(n,d);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Difference Signal’);
 2.4 Simulation of Discrete-Time Systems 23

Questions:

Q2.7 Run Program P2 3 and compare y[n] obtained with weighted input with yt[n]
obtained by combining the two outputs y1[n] and y2[n] with the same weights. Are these
two sequences equal? Is this system linear?

Q2.8 Repeat Question Q2.7 for three different sets of values of the weighting constants,
a and b, and three different sets of input frequencies.

Q2.9 Repeat Question Q2.7 with nonzero initial conditions.

Q2.10 Repeat Question Q2.8 with nonzero initial conditions.

Q2.11 Consider another system described by:

y[n] = x[n] x[n − 1].

Modify Program P2 3 to compute the output sequences y1[n], y2[n], and y[n] of the
above system. Compare y[n] with yt[n]. Are these two sequences equal? Is this system
linear?

Project 2.4 Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems

We next investigate the time-invariance property (see R2.2) of a causal system of the type
described by Eq. (2.11). Consider again the system given by Eq. (2.15).
MATLAB Program P2 4 is used to simulate the system of Eq. (2.15), to generate two
different input sequences x[n] and x[n - D], and to compute and plot the corresponding
output sequences y1[n], y2[n], and the difference y1[n] - y2[n + D].

% Program P2_4
% Generate the input sequences
clf;
n = 0:40; D = 10;a = 3.0;b = -2;
x = a*cos(2*pi*0.1*n) + b*cos(2*pi*0.4*n);
xd = [zeros(1,D) x];
num = [2.2403 2.4908 2.2403];
den = [1 -0.4 0.75];
ic = [0 0];% Set initial conditions
% Compute the output y[n]
y = filter(num,den,x,ic);
% Compute the output yd[n]
yd = filter(num,den,xd,ic);
% Compute the difference output d[n]
d = y - yd(1+D:41+D);
% Plot the outputs
subplot(3,1,1)
24 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

stem(n,y);
ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output y[n]’);grid;
subplot(3,1,2)
stem(n,yd(1:41));
ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title([’Output Due to Delayed Input x[n ’, num2str(D),’]’]);grid;
subplot(3,1,3)
stem(n,d);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Difference Signal’);grid;

Questions:

Q2.12 Run Program P2 4 and compare the output sequences y[n] and yd[n - 10].
What is the relation between these two sequences? Is this system time-invariant?

Q2.13 Repeat Question Q2.12 for three different values of the delay variable D.

Q2.14 Repeat Question Q2.12 for three different sets of values of the input frequencies.

Q2.15 Repeat Question Q2.12 for nonzero initial conditions . Is this system time-
invariant?

Q2.16 Repeat Question Q2.14 for nonzero initial conditions. Is this system time-invariant?

Q2.17 Consider another system described by:

y[n] = n x[n] + x[n − 1]. (2.16)

Modify Program P2 4 to simulate the above system and determine whether this system is
time-invariant or not.

Q2.18 (optional) Modify Program P2 3 to test the linearity of the system of Eq. (2.16).

2.5 Linear Time-Invariant Discrete-Time Systems

Project 2.5 Computation of Impulse Responses of LTI Systems

The MATLAB command y = impz(num,den,N) can be used to compute the first N sam-
ples of the impulse response of the causal LTI discrete-time system of Eq. (2.11).
MATLAB Program P2 5 given below computes and plots the impulse response of the system
described by Eq. (2.15).
 2.5 Linear Time-Invariant Discrete-Time Systems 25

% Program P2_5
% Compute the impulse response y
clf;
N = 40;
num = [2.2403 2.4908 2.2403];
den = [1 -0.4 0.75];
y = impz(num,den,N);
% Plot the impulse response
stem(y);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Impulse Response’); grid;

Questions:

Q2.19 Run Program P2 5 and generate the impulse response of the discrete-time system
of Eq. (2.15).

Q2.20 Modify Program P2 5 to generate the first 45 samples of the impulse response of
the following causal LTI system:

y[n] + 0.71 y[n − 1] − 0.46 y[n − 2] − 0.62 y[n − 3]

= 0.9 x[n] − 0.45 x[n − 1] + 0.35 x[n − 2] + 0.002 x[n − 3]. (2.17)

Q2.21 Write a MATLAB program to generate the impulse response of a causal LTI system
of Eq. (2.17) using the filter command; compute and plot the first 40 samples. Compare
your result with that obtained in Question Q2.20.

Q2.22 Write a MATLAB program to generate and plot the step response of a causal LTI
system of Eq. (2.11). Using this program compute and plot the first 40 samples of the step
response of the LTI system of Eq. (2.15).

Project 2.6 Cascade of LTI Systems

In practice a causal LTI discrete-time system of higher order is implemented as a cascade of

lower order causal LTI discrete-time systems. For example, the fourth-order discrete-time
system given below

y[n] + 1.6 y[n − 1] + 2.28 y[n − 2] + 1.325 y[n − 3] + 0.68 y[n − 4]

= 0.06 x[n] − 0.19 x[n − 1] + 0.27 x[n − 2] − 0.26 x[n − 3] + 0.12 x[n − 4] (2.18)

can be realized as a cascade of two second-order discrete-time systems:

Stage No. 1

y1 [n] + 0.9 y1 [n − 1] + 0.8 y1 [n − 2] = 0.3 x[n] − 0.2 x[n − 1] + 0.4 x[n − 2] (2.19)
26 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

Stage No. 2

y2 [n] + 0.7 y2 [n − 1] + 0.85 y2 [n − 2] = 0.2 y1 [n] − 0.5 y1 [n − 1] + 0.3 y1 [n − 2] (2.20)

MATLAB Program P2 6 simulates the fourth-order system of Eq. (2.18), and the cascade
system of Eqs. (2.19) and (2.20). It first generates a sequence x[n], and then uses it as the
input of the fourth-order system, generating the output y[n]. It then applies the same input
x[n] to Stage No. 1 and finds its output sequence y1[n]. Next, it uses y1[n] as the input
of Stage No. 2 and finds its output y2[n]. Finally, the difference between the two overall
outputs y[n] and y2[n] are formed. All output and the difference signals are then plotted.

% Program P2_6
% Cascade Realization
clf;
x = [1 zeros(1,40)];% Generate the input
n = 0:40;
% Coefficients of 4th-order system
den = [1 1.6 2.28 1.325 0.68];
num = [0.06 -0.19 0.27 -0.26 0.12];
% Compute the output of 4th-order system
y = filter(num,den,x);
% Coefficients of the two 2nd-order systems
num1 = [0.3 -0.2 0.4];den1 = [1 0.9 0.8];
num2 = [0.2 -0.5 0.3];den2 = [1 0.7 0.85];
% Output y1[n] of the first stage in the cascade
y1 = filter(num1,den1,x);
% Output y2[n] of the second stage in the cascade
y2 = filter(num2,den2,y1);
% Difference between y[n] and y2[n]
d = y - y2;
% Plot output and difference signals
subplot(3,1,1);
stem(n,y);
ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output of 4th-order Realization’);grid;
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(n,y2)
ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output of Cascade Realization’);grid;
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(n,d)
xlabel(’Time index n’);ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Difference Signal’);grid;
 2.5 Linear Time-Invariant Discrete-Time Systems 27

Questions:

Q2.23 Run Program P2 6 to compute the output sequences y[n] and y2[n] and the
difference signal d[n]. Is y[n] the same as y2[n]?

Q2.24 Repeat Question Q2.23 with the input changed to a sinusoidal sequence.

Q2.25 Repeat Question Q2.23 with arbitrary nonzero initial condition vectors ic, ic1,
and ic2.

Q2.26 Modify Program P2 6 to repeat the same procedure with the two second-order
systems in reverse order and with zero initial conditions . Is there any difference between
the two outputs?

Q2.27 Repeat Question Q2.26 with arbitrary nonzero initial condition vectors ic, ic1,
and ic2.

Project 2.7 Convolution

The convolution operation of Eq. (2.5) is implemented in MATLAB by the command conv,
provided the two sequences to be convolved are of finite length. For example, the output
sequence of an FIR system can be computed by convolving its impulse response with a given
finite-length input sequence. The following MATLAB program illustrates this approach.

% Program P2_7
clf;
h = [3 2 1 -2 1 0 -4 0 3]; % impulse response
x = [1 -2 3 -4 3 2 1]; % input sequence
y = conv(h,x);
n = 0:14;
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(n,y);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output Obtained by Convolution’);grid;
x1 = [x zeros(1,8)];
y1 = filter(h,1,x1);
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(n,y1);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output Generated by Filtering’);grid;

Questions:

Q2.28 Run Program P2 7 to generate y[n] obtained by the convolution of the sequences
h[n] and x[n], and to generate y1[n] obtained by filtering the input x[n] by the FIR
28 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

filter h[n]. Is there any difference between y[n] and y1[n]? What is the reason for using
x1[n] obtained by zero-padding x[n] as the input for generating y1[n]?
Q2.29 Modify Program P2 7 to develop the convolution of a length-15 sequence h[n]
with a length-10 sequence x[n], and repeat Question Q2.28. Use your own sample values
for h[n] and x[n].

Project 2.8 Stability of LTI Systems

As indicated by Eq. (2.8), an LTI discrete-time system is BIBO stable if its impulse response
is absolutely summable. It therefore follows that a necessary condition for an IIR LTI system
to be stable is that its impulse response decays to zero as the sample index gets larger.
Program P2 8 is a simple MATLAB program used to compute the sum of the absolute
values of the impulse response samples of a causal IIR LTI system. It computes N samples
of the impulse response sequence, evaluates

K
S(K) = |h[n]| (2.21)
n=0

for increasing values of K, and checks the value of |h[K]| at each iteration step. If the
value of |h[K]| is smaller than 10−6 , then it is assumed that the sum S(K) of Eq. (2.21)
has converged and is very close to S(∞).

% Program P2_8
% Stability test based on the sum of the absolute
% values of the impulse response samples
clf;
num = [1 -0.8]; den = [1 1.5 0.9];
N = 200;
h impz(num,den,N+1);
parsum = 0;
for k = 1:N+1;
parsum = parsum + abs(h(k));
if abs(h(k)) < 10^(-6), break, end
end
% Plot the impulse response
n = 0:N; stem(n,h) xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
% Print the value of abs(h(k))
disp(’Value =’);disp(abs(h(k)));

Questions:

Q2.30 What are the purposes of the commands for and end?
Q2.31 What is the purpose of the command break?
 2.5 Linear Time-Invariant Discrete-Time Systems 29

Q2.32 What is the discrete-time system whose impulse response is being determined by
Program P2 8? Run Program P2 8 to generate the impulse response. Is this system stable?
If |h[K]| is not smaller than 10−6 but the plot shows a decaying impulse response, run
Program P2 8 again with a larger value of N.

Q2.33 Consider the following discrete-time system characterized by the difference equa-
tion:
y[n] = x[n] − 4 x[n − 1] + 3 x[n − 2] + 1.7 y[n − 1] − y[n − 2].
Modify Program P2 8 to compute and plot the impulse response of the above system. Is
this system stable?

Project 2.9 Illustration of the Filtering Concept

Consider the following two discrete-time systems characterized by the difference equations:
System No. 1

y[n] = 0.5 x[n] + 0.27 x[n − 1] + 0.77 x[n − 2],

System No. 2

y[n] = 0.45 x[n] + 0.5 x[n − 1] + 0.45 x[n − 2] + 0.53 y[n − 1] − 0.46 y[n − 2].

MATLAB Program P2 9 is used to compute the outputs of the above two systems for an
input    
20πn 200πn
x[n] = cos + cos , with 0 ≤ n < 299.
256 256

% Program P2_9
% Generate the input sequence
clf;
n = 0:299;
x1 = cos(2*pi*10*n/256);
x2 = cos(2*pi*100*n/256);
x = x1+x2;
% Compute the output sequences
num1 = [0.5 0.27 0.77];
y1 = filter(num1,1,x); % Output of System No. 1
den2 = [1 -0.53 0.46];
num2 = [0.45 0.5 0.45];
y2 = filter(num2,den2,x); % Output of System No. 2
% Plot the output sequences
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(n,y1);axis([0 300 -2 2]);
ylabel(’Amplitude’);
30 Chapter 2 • Discrete-Time Systems in the Time Domain

title(’Output of System No. 1’);grid;

subplot(2,1,2);
plot(n,y2);axis([0 300 -2 2]);
xlabel(’Time index n’); ylabel(’Amplitude’);
title(’Output of System No. 2’);grid;

Questions:

Q2.34 Run Program P2 9. In this question both filters are lowpass filters but with different
attenuation in the stopband, especially at the frequencies of the input signal. Which filter has
better characteristics for suppression of the high-frequency component of the input signal
x[n]?
Q2.35 Modify Program P2 9 by changing the input sequence to a swept sinusoidal se-
quence (length 301, minimum frequency 0, and maximum frequency 0.5). Which filter
has better characteristics for suppression of the high-frequency component?

2.6 Background Reading

[1] A. Antoniou. Digital Filters: Analysis, Design, and Applications. McGraw-Hill, New
York NY, second edition, 1993. Secs. 1.3–1.8.
[2] E. Cunningham. Digital Filtering: An Introduction. Houghton-Mifflin, New York
NY, 1992. Ch. 8.
[3] D.J. DeFatta, J.G. Lucas, and W.S. Hodgkiss. Digital Signal Processing: A System
Design Approach. Wiley, New York NY, 1988. Sec. 2.2.
[4] L.B. Jackson. Digital Filters and Signal Processing. Kluwer, Boston MA, third
edition, 1996. Ch. 11.
[5] R. Kuc. Introduction to Digital Signal Processing. McGraw-Hill, New York NY,
1988. Secs. 2-3, 2-5–2-8.
[6] L.C. Ludeman. Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing. Harper & Row, New
York NY, 1986. Sec. 1.3.
[7] S.K. Mitra. Digital Signal Processing: A Computer-Based Approach. McGraw-Hill,
New York NY, third edition, 2005. Sec. 2.4–2.8.
[8] A.V. Oppenheim, R.W. Schafer, and J. R. Buck. Discrete-Time Signal Processing.
Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River NJ, second edition, 1998. Secs. 2.2–2.5.
[9] S.J. Orfanidis. Introduction to Signal Processing. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River
NJ, 1996. Chs. 2, 3.
[10] B. Porat. A Course in Digital Signal Processing. Wiley, New York, NY, 1996. Sec.
2.7.
 2.6 Background Reading 31

[11] J.G. Proakis and D.G. Manolakis. Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms,
and Applications. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River NJ, third edition, 1996. Secs.
2.2–2.4.

[12] R.A. Roberts and C.T. Mullis. Digital Signal Processing. Addison-Wesley, Reading
MA, 1987. Secs. 2.3–2.4.