COMMUNICATION

The transmission of intelligence

between 2 or more points
Refers to the sending, receiving
& processing of information by
electronic means
 The function of a
communication system is to
transfer information from
one point to another via
some communication links
Information:
1.Audio
2.Video

Voice frequency 300 – 3.4k hz

Baseband transmission
 Antenna length, L
L = λ/4 = c/4f
where
c = speed of light
f = frequency of
received signal
@ f = 3400 Hz

L = (3 x 108 m/s) / 4 (3400/s)

= 22,000 m impossible
 Problems encountered
(If no modulation)

1. Antenna height is very high

2. Signals can not be separated
 MODULATION
l The process by w/c some
characteristic of one wave is
varied in accordance with
another wave
l Performed at the transmitter to
achieve efficient and reliable
information transmission
Data Modulation

Carrier
Analog Modulation technique
1. AM
2. FM
3. PM

Digital Modulation Technique

1. FSK
2. PSK
3. QAM
Pulse Modulation Technique
1. PAM
2. PPM
3. PLM/PWM/PDM
4. PCM
Data Modulation

Carrier
 Two Signals Involved
1. Modulating signal
2. Carrier
 Modulating Signal
lA signal that causes a variation of
some characteristic of a carrier
l ( e.g. amplitude , frequency ,
phase )
l Represents the message
 Carrier
l Unmodulated signal that suits a
particular application
l the radio wave produced by a
transmitter when there is no
modulating signal
l carries information
 Modulated Signal
l The resulting signal
l A carrier wave whose frequency,
amplitude or phase varies in
accordance with the value of the
intelligence signal being
transmitted
 Reasons or need for
Modulation

1. Practicable size of antenna

2. Signal Multiplexing
 Type of Modulation
l AM (Amplitude modulation)
l FM (Frequency Modulation)
l PM (Phase Modulation)
 Amplitude Modulation
A modulation technique which
changes the amplitude of a
relatively high-frequency carrier
signal in proportion with the
instantaneous value of a lower-
frequency modulating signal
+
+
 Amplitude Modulation Process

CARRIER
VCsin2πfct

+
MODULATING
SIGNAL
Vmsin2πfmt
 Vm
Vc m = Vm/Vc
l Modulation index, m – or
coefficient of modulation,
the ratio of the magnitudes of
the modulated signal & the
unmodulated carrier
m = Vm/Vc
 AM Waveform in terms of m
Vcsin2πfct carrier

(V m/2)cos2π(fc - fm)t
mVc

lower
sideband
(V m/2)cos2π(fc + fm)t
mVc

upper
sideband
 Modulation index
- or coefficient of modulation, the ratio of the
magnitudes of the modulated signal & the
unmodulated carrier

Vm
Vc m = Vm/Vc
Over modulation – a condition which
occurs when the magnitude of the
modulating signal is too large, compared
to the carrier
 Vmin Vmax

m = Vmax – Vmin
Vmax + Vmin
 Example
A waveform is seen on an
oscilloscope screen. The maximum
span is 1 V, while the minimum span
is 0.1 V. What is the modulation
index?
FREQUENCY COMPONENTS
IN AN AM WAVE
 AM Waveform Components
Vcsin2πfct carrier

(Vm/2)cos2π(fc - fm)t
lower
sideband
(Vm/2)cos2π(fc + fm)t
upper
sideband
fc- fm fc fc+ fm

Bandwidth = 2fm
fc- fm2 fc+ fm2

fc

Bandwidth = 2fm
 fc- fm2 fc+ fm2

… …

fc- fm3 fc- fm fc fc+ fm fc+ fm3

Bandwidth(AM) = 2fm(max)
 Example

A carrier at 100 kHz is amplitude

modulated by a signal with a
spectrum of 0 to 10 kHz. What are
the resulting sideband
frequencies? What is the
bandwidth necessary to transmit
the signal?
 Example

A carrier at 100 kHz is amplitude

modulated by a signal with a
spectrum of 3k0 to 10 kHz. What
are the resulting sideband
frequencies? What is the
bandwidth necessary to transmit
the signal?
Transmitted power
in an AM wave
Power Relations in AM

Pt = Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB

P = Vrms2/R = Vp2/2R
 AM Waveform in terms of m
Vcsin2πfct carrier

(mVc/2)cos2π(fc - fm)t
lower
sideband
(mVc/2)cos2π(fc + fm)t
upper
sideband
 Power Relations in AM

Pt = Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB

P = Vrms2/R = Vp2/2R

Pt = V c 2/2R + m2Vc2/4R + m2Vc2/4R

Pt = Pc + Pcm2/4 + Pcm2/4
The total transmitted power in an
AM wave is

Pt = Pc(1 + m /2)
2

where
Pt = total transmitted power
Pc = unmodulated carrier power
m = modulation index
 Example
1. What is the total power when the
carrier is 700 W and modulation
index is 0.5?
 Example
2. A transmitter radiates modulated
signal power measured at 1500 W,
while the unmodulated value is
1000 W. What is the modulation
index? What is the unmodulated
value if the modulation index is 0.85?
 Example
3. A 1250-W carrier is modulated
with a resulting modulation index of
0.65. What is the sideband power?
Current Relations in AM

Pt = Pc(1 + m2/2)
It2R = Ic2R(1 + m2/2)

It = Ic√(1 + m2/2)
 The total transmitter current in
an AM wave is
2 2
⎛ It ⎞ m
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 +
⎝ Ic ⎠ 2

where
It = total transmitter current
Ic = unmodulated carrier current
m = modulation index
 Example
1. When a broadcast AM
transmitter is 50% modulated,
the antenna current is 12 A.
What will the current be when
the modulation depth is
increased to 0.8?
2. The antenna current of an AM
broadcast transmitter, modulated
to a depth of 40% by an audio
signal, is 15 A. It increases to 20
A as a result of modulation with
another audio signal. What is the
modulation index resulting from
the second signal?
AMPLITUDE MODULATION WITH
MULTIPLE SIGNALS
Pt = Pc (1 + mt2/2)
where
mt = total modulation index

mt = m12 + m22 + m32 + ......

m1 , m2, m3 = modulation index of

signal having index 1 ,2,3
respectivley
 Example
A 360-W carrier is simultaneously
modulated by two audio waves with
modulation % of 65 and 55, respectively.
What is the total sideband power radiated?
 EXERCISES
1. A 1000-kHz carrier is simultaneously
modulated with 300-Hz, 800-Hz and 2-
kHz audio sine waves. What will be the
frequencies present in the output?
2. When a broadcast AM transmitter is 50
percent modulated, its antenna current is
12 A. What will the current be when
the modulation depth is increased to 0.9.
3. What would be the percentage power
saving if the carrier was suppressed
before transmission took place?
 Forms of Amplitude Modulation
1. A3E ( previously A3) DSBFC
2. R3E (previously A3A) Single sideband
Reduced carrier
3. H3E (previously A3H) Single sideband , full
carrier
4. J3E (previously A3J)Single sideband,
suppressed carrier
5. B8E (previously A3B) two independent SB
6. C3F (previously A5C) Vestigial sideband
7. Lincompex – Linked compressor and
expander
 AM Waveform Components
Vcsin2πfct carrier

(Vm/2)cos2π(fc - fm)t
lower
sideband
(Vm/2)cos2π(fc + fm)t
upper
sideband
Note
carrier conveys no information
two sidebands are images of each
other
 AM Waveform Components
Vcsin2πfct carrier

(Vm/2)cos2π(fc - fm)t
lower
sideband
(Vm/2)cos2π(fc + fm)t
upper
sideband
 Single sideband technique
(SSB)
A technique in which the carrier is
eliminated or highly suppressed, and one
of the two sidebands must be filtered out.
 Reasons / advantages of using
SSB
l more effective utilization of the available
frequency spectrum
l less subject to the effects of selective
fading
l has a noise advantage over AM
l power saving
 Example
Calculate the percentage power
saving when the carrier and one of
the sidebands are suppressed in an
AM wave modulated to a depth of
A. 100 %
B. 50 %
 SSB system
incorporates the mixing process plus
a signal – mulltiplying filtering
enhancement
 Generation of SSB
1. filter method
2. phase cancellation method
3. third method
 Note
l The above systems use some form of
balance modulator to suppress the
carrier and they differ from one another in
the way of suppressing the unwanted
sideband
l The balanced modulator is the key circuit
in single sideband generation
Balanced Modulator
- a circuit which suppresses the carrier &
produces double sideband suppressed
carrier AM.

- it is employed in SSB circuits to remove

the carrier prior to suppressing any of the
sideband
Vc+Vm id1 - id2
id1

id2
Vc - Vm
i = kv2
it = id1 – id2
it = k1(Vc+Vm)2 – k2(Vc - Vm)2
it = k1(Vc2+2VmVc + Vm2)
– k2(Vc2 - 2VmVc + Vm2)
it = 4k(Vmsin2πfmt)(Vcsin2πfct)

(fc + fm) (fc - fm)

Suppression of unwanted
sideband

1. filter method
2. Phase shift method
3. 3rd method
Filter Method
Phase Shift Method
+ =
+ =
ωo
ωc + 90 + ωo
ωc + 90 ωc + 90 - ωo

ωc ωc + 90 + ωo
ωc – 90 - ωo
ωo + 90
 THIRD METHOD
Developed by Weaver as a means of
retaining the advantages of the phase shift
method , such as its ability to generate
SSB at any frequency and use low audio
frequencies , without the associated
disadvantage of an AF phases – shift
network required to operate over a large
range of audio frequencies
3rd Method
A direct competition with the filter
method , but is very complex and
not often used commercially
 FCC Standard for AM
Frequency Band = 535 – 1605 khz
BW for each station = 10 khz