MODULE-I

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

❖ Communication is a process of conveying message at a distance.

If the distance is involved is beyond the direct communication, the communication

engineering comes into the picture. The brain engineering which deals with
communication systems is known as telecommunication engineering.

Telecommunication engineering is classified into two types based on transmission

media. They are:

1. Line communication
2. Radio communication

The transmission of information from source to the destination through a channel or

medium is called communication
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
BASIC COMMUNICATION BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Source: analog or digital

Transmitter: transducer, amplifier, modulator, oscillator, power amp., Antenna

Channel: Like Cable, optical fiber, free space

Receiver: antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator, power amplifier, Transducer

Destination : Like Person, (loud) speaker, computer

 1.1 Need for modulation
Modulation is the process of changing the characteristics parameters
(amplitude, frequency, phase) of the carrier signal, in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Need for Modulation: Baseband signals are incompatible for direct

transmission. For such a signal, to travel longer distances, its strength has to
be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier wave, which
doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.
 1.1 NEED FOR MODULATION

Need for modulation:

1. Reduce the antenna height.

2. Increases the range of Communication.

3. Allows the multiplexing of signals.

4. Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.

5. Avoids the mixing of signals.

6. Improved reception quality

7. Narrow banding of signals.

 1.1 NEED FOR MODULATION
Message or Modulating Signal:
The signal which contains a message to be transmitted is called as a message signal.
It is a baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get
transmitted. Hence, it is also called as the modulating signal.

Carrier Signal :
The high frequency signal, which has a certain amplitude, frequency and phase but
contains no information, is called as a carrier signal. It is an empty signal and is used
to carry the signal to the receiver after modulation.

Modulated Signal:
The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as a modulated signal.
This signal is a combination of modulating signal and carrier signal.
Types of Modulation
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
Amplitude Modulation:
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal is called amplitude modulation .
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Time-domain Representation of the Waves:

Let the modulating signal be, m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt) eq., 1

and the carrier signal be, c(t)= Ac cos(2πfct) eq.,2

Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal
respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal
respectively.

For our convenience, assume the phase angle of the carrier signal is zero. An
amplitude-modulated (AM) wave S(t) can be described as function of time is given by

S (t) = Ac [1+ka m (t)] cos2πfct eq.,3

Where ka = Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
The equation 3, can be written as
S (t) = Ac cos2πfct + Ac ka m (t) cos2πfct eq., 4

The carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then it is
called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth .

SAM (t) = Ac [1+ka Am cos(2πfmt)] cos2πfct eq., 5

SAM (t) = Ac [1+µcos(2πfmt)] cos2πfct eq.,6

Where µ is “Modulation Index” or “Depth of Modulation”

eq.,7

eq.,8

then eq.,9
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
Frequency Domain Representation:

Frequency Spectrum of Modulating signal

Frequency Spectrum of Modulated signal

 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
Bandwidth of Amplitude Modulation:
It is defined as the difference between the higher Upper side band frequency and Lower side band
frequency.

Band width (BW)= fUSB-fLSB = fc+fm- (fc-fm)=2fm

eq.,10
= 2 X Message Bandwidth/highest frequency
message signal
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Single Tone Modulation:

Single tone modulation is “a modulation in which the modulation is carried out by a single
frequency (tone) signal”.
The toned (single frequency) modulating signal consists of only one frequency component and this
signal is modulated with a carrier signal.

Amplitude modulates signal SAM (t) = Ac [1+ka m (t)] cos2πfct

Let us consider single modulating signal m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)

S (t) = Ac Cos (2π fct)+Acµ /2[cos2 π(fc+fm)t]+ Acµ /2[cos2π (fc-fm)t] eq.,11

Fourier transform of S (t) is :

S (f) =A c/2[𝝳 (f-f c) + (f+f c)] +A cµ /4[𝝳 (f-f c-fm) +𝝳 (f+f c+fm)] + A cµ /4[𝝳 (f- f c+fm ) +𝝳 (f+f c-fm)]
eq.,12
1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
Multi Tone Modulation:
In multi-tone modulation modulating signal consists of more than one frequency component
where as in single-tone modulation modulating signal consists of only one frequency component .

Amplitude modulates signal SAM (t) = Ac [1+ka m (t)] cos2πfct

Let us consider single modulating signal m(t) = Am1cos(2πfm1t)+ Am2cos(2πfm2t)+-----

eq.,13
S (t) = Ac Cos (2π fct)+Acµ1 /2[cos2 π(fc+fm1)t]+ Acµ1 /2[cos2π (fc-fm1)t]
+Acµ2 /2[cos2 π(fc+fm2t]+ Acµ1 /2[cos2π (fc-fm2)t]+------
eq.,14
Fourier transform of S (t) is :

S (f) =Ac/2[𝝳 (f-fc) + (f+fc)] +Acµ1 /4[𝝳 (f-fc-fm1) +𝝳 (f+fc+fm1)]

+ Acµ1 /4[𝝳 (f- fc+fm1 ) +𝝳 (f+fc-fm1)]
+ Acµ2 /4[𝝳 (f-fc-fm2) +𝝳 (f+fc+fm2)]
eq.,15
+ Acµ2 /4[𝝳 (f- fc+fm2 ) +𝝳 (f+fc-fm2)]+----------
1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Power Calculation of AM
Single - tone Modulation

Let the modulating signal be, m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)

and the carrier signal be, c(t)= Ac cos(2πfct)
Then AM equation is S (t) = Ac [1+ka m (t)] cos2πfct

S (t) = Ac Cos (2π fct)+Acµ /2[cos2 π(fc+fm)t]+ Acµ /2[cos2π (fc-fm)t]

Total Power: Pt= Pc + PUSB+PLSB

Power of any signal is equal to the mean square value of the signal
Carrier power Pc = Ac2/2
Upper Side Band power PUSB = Ac2 µ2/8
Lower Side Band power P LSB = Ac2 µ2/8
Total power Pt = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

Total power Pt = Ac2/2 + Ac2 µ2/8 + Ac2 µ2/8

= Ac2/2 + Ac2 µ2/4
= Ac2/2[1 + µ2/2]
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Power Calculation of AM

Total power Pt = Ac2/2 + Ac2 µ2/8 + Ac2 µ2/8

= Ac2/2 + Ac2 µ2/4
= Ac2/2[1 + µ2/2]

Total power Pt =

Total power Pt =
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Transient Efficiency of AM(ղ)

It is defined as the ratio of power carried by the side bands to the total power available
 1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Power Calculation of AM
Multi-tone Modulation:

Total Power: Pt= Pc + PUSB1+PLSB1 + PUSB2+PLSB2+-------------------

Total power Pt = Ac2/2 + Ac2 µ12/8 + Ac2 µ12/8 + Ac2 µ22/8 + Ac2 µ22/8+--------
= Ac2/2 + Ac2 µ12/4 + Ac2 µ22/4+---------
= Ac2/2[1 + µ12/2+ µ22/2+-----]
= Ac2/2[1 + µt2/2]

Total power Pt = Pc[1 + µt2/2]

1.2 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
 1.2 Generation and Detection of AM Waves

A. GENERATION OF AM WAVES:
1. Square –Law Modulator
2. Switching Modulator

B. DETECTION OF AM WAVES :
1. Synchronous detector
2. Square law detector
3. Rectifier detector
 1.2 (a) Generation of AM Waves
1. Square –Law Modulator(1/3):

Square –Law
Modulator
 1.2 (a) Generation of AM Waves
Square –Law Modulator(2/3):

Substituting V 1(t)In the above equation

 1.2 (a) Generation of AM Waves
Square –Law Modulator(3/3):
After Passing through a BPF with the cutoff frequency fc

Applying Fourier transform:

 1.2 (a) Generation of AM Waves
2. Switching Modulator :

C(t) > 0
C(t) <0

Mathematically
With period To=1/fc and a duty cycle of
50%
 1.2 (a) Generation of AM Waves
2. Switching Modulator :

After Passing through a BPF

 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves
1. Synchronous/Coherent Detector(1/2):

After Passing through

LPF
 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves
1. Synchronous/Coherent Detector(2/2):
For a phase ø:

When there is no proper synchronization ,then

i.e., There is no De-Modulated output. This effect is called “ Quadrature -Null effect” .
In order to avoid above problem, we will maintain synchronization at receiver , but the
complexity of receiver will increase.
 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves
2.SQUARE-LAW DETECTOR(1/2) :
 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves
2.SQUARE-LAW DETECTOR(2/2) :

After passing through the LPF:

The unwanted terms gives rise to signal

distortion . The ratio to the desired signal
to undesired signal
 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves
3. Envelope detector(1/2) :

Half wave rectifier ,the Negative Portion is cliff off

Envelope detector
 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves

The charging time constant RsC is very small when compared to the
carrier period 1/fc i.e.,

The Dis-charging time constant RsC is must large enough to

ensure that the capacitor discharges slowly through load capacitor

The discharging time constant should not exceed the period of

The message signal
 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves

The discharging time constant RLC is very large when compared to the charging time
constant i.e.,
1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves
 1.2 (b) Detection of AM Waves

Condition to Avoid Diagonal Clipping:

The Max. time constant depends up on given modulation index and highest
frequency message signal without causing diagonal clipping.
 1.3 Double side band suppressed carrier (DSB –sc)modulation

DSB-SC can be generated by using a Product modulator/Balanced Modulator with

message signal and Carrier signal getting multiplied.
 1.3 Double side band suppressed carrier (DSB –sc)modulation

Single-Tone Modulation

DSB-SC Modulated signal is: S (t) = Ac cos2πfct. m (t)

For a single tone ,
m(t)= Am cos2πfmt

Then, S (t) = Ac cos2πfct. Am cos2πfmt

= Ac Am/2[cos2π(fc + fm)t +cos2π(fc - fm)t ]

Fourier transform of S (t) is :

S (f) =AcAm /4[𝝳 (f-fc-fm) +𝝳 (f+fc+fm)] + AcAm /4[𝝳 (f- fc+fm ) +𝝳 (f+fc-fm)]
1.3 Double side band suppressed carrier (DSB –sc)modulation
1.3 DOUBLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB –SC)MODULATION

Power Calculation of DSB-SC

Let the modulating signal be, m(t) = Am cos (2πfmt)
and the carrier signal be, c(t)= Ac cos (2πfct)
Then DSB-SC equation is S (t) = Ac cos2πfct. m (t)

S (t) = Ac Am/2[cos2π(fc + fm)t +cos2π(fc - fm)t ]

Total Power: Pt= PUSB+PLSB

Total power Pt = Ac2 µ2/8 + Ac2 µ2/8

= Ac2 µ2/4
= Pc . µ2/2

Efficiency:

Efficiency is 100%
 1.3.(A)Generation of DSB-SC Waves
1. Balanced modulator:
Carrier signal applied to two AM Modulators is same but the message signal modulating
wave is applied to one of the AM Modulator with the 180 degrees phase shift

Balanced modulator
 1.3.(A) Generation of DSB-SC Waves
.
The output of First AM generator is

The output of Second AM generator is

The output of Summer is: x1-x2:

 1.3 (a) Generation of DSB-SC Waves
2. Ring Modulator(1/2):

Mathematically the square wave is represented as:

 1.3 (a) Generation of DSB-SC Waves
2. Ring Modulator(1/2):
 1.3 (a) Generation of DSB-SC Waves
2. RING MODULATOR(2/2):

The output of the Ring Modulator is :

When s(t) is passed through a BPF, Then the o/p of the filter is:
 1.3.(B) Detection of DSB-SC Waves
1.Coherent/Synchronous Detector:
 1.3(B) Detection of DSB-SC Waves
When there is NO Perfect Synchronization, two distortions arises:
1. Effect of Phase distortion
2. Effect of Frequency distortion

1. Effect of Phase distortion:

When there is phase shift of π/2, the demodulated output is zero, Even though the input is
present. This effect is called “Quadrature null effect”
 1.3(B) Detection of DSB-SC Waves
2.Effect of Frequency distortion

When there is frequency distortion, each signal undergo a shift of ⍙f and power reduced
By Factor 2. Phase distortion can be tolerated but nor frequency distortion
 1.3 (B) Detection of DSB-SC Waves
Synchronization Techniques:
1. Use of Pilot Carrier
2. COSTAS LOOP
3. Squaring LOOP

2. COSTAS LOOP(1/2):
 1.3 (B) Detection of DSB-SC Waves

2. COSTAS LOOP(2/2):
If ø error=0,
I-channel o/p: Ac2 /2 m(t)
Q-channel o/p:0
Then the o/p of I-Channel taken as Demodulated signal

When there is a small amount of Phase error, then:

I-channel o/p: Ac2 /2 m(t). Cos ø
Q-channel o/p: Ac2 /2 m(t).sin ø

Then Phase Discriminator output is:

Output is: Ac2 /2 m(t). ø
 QAM(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)

• The quadrature null effect of the coherent detector may also

be put to good use in the construction of the so-called
quadrature-carrier multiplexing or quadrature-amplitude
modulation (QAM).
• This scheme enables two DSB-SC modulated waves (resulting
from the application of two physically independent message
signals) to occupy the same channel bandwidth. Yet it allows
for the separation of the two message signals at the receiver
output.
• Quadrature-carrier multiplexer is therefore a bandwidth
conservation system.
QAM(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
QAM(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
QAM(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
 1.7 Single side band (SSB) modulation
SSB-SC: It is a form Amplitude modulation in which the carrier is fully suppressed and
one of the side bands (LOWER/UPPER) also suppressed.
 1.7 Single side band (SSB) modulation

Derivation for USB-SC:

 1.7 Single side band (SSB) modulation
❖Derivation for LSB-SC:
1.7 Single side band (SSB) modulation
 1.7 Single side band (SSB) modulation
(a)Generation of SSB-SC:
1.Filter method/Balanced modulator method
2. Phase discriminator method
3. Third method/Weaver’s Method

(b) Detection of SSB-SC:

1. Coherent/Synchronous Detector:

Generation of SSB-SC
 1.7 (b) Detection of SSB-SC
1Coherent/Synchronous Detector:
1.8 Vestigial-sideband (VSB) modulation
Vestigial sideband modulation or VSB modulation is the procedure where a part of the
signal called as vestige is modulated, along with one sideband. A VSB signal can be
plotted as shown in the resulting figure.
1.8 Vestigial-sideband (VSB) modulation
Vestigial sideband modulation or VSB modulation is the procedure where a part of the
signal called as vestige is modulated, along with one sideband. A VSB signal can be
plotted as shown in the resulting figure.

Fig. Amplitude response of VSB filter; only positive-frequency portion is shown.

 1.8 .(a) Generation & Detection of VSB-SC
Generation of VSB-SC:

Detection of VSB-SC:
1.8 .(a) Generation & Detection of VSB-SC
 THEME EXAMPLE— VSB TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL
TELEVISION
• Vestigial sideband modulation is used in commercial television broadcasting, both analog
and digital.4
• The channel bandwidth used for TV broadcasting in North America is 6 MHz, as indicated
in Figure.
• In the case of analog transmission, this channel bandwidth not only accommodates the
bandwidth requirement of the VSB-modulated video signal but also provides for the
accompanying sound signal that modulates a carrier of its own.
• The values presented on the frequency axis of Figure pertain to a specific TV channel.
• According to this figure, for analog VSB transmission, the picture carrier frequency is at
55.25 MHz and the sound carrier is at 59.75 MHz.
• Note, however, that the information content of the TV signal lies in a baseband spectrum
extending from 1.25 MHz below the picture carrier to 4.5 MHz above it.
 THEME EXAMPLE— VSB TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL
TELEVISION
The choice of the VSB modulation format for transmission of analog television was
influenced by two factors:
1. The video signal exhibits a large bandwidth and significant low-frequency
content, which suggests the use of vestigial sideband modulation.
2. The circuitry used for demodulation in the receiver should be simple and
therefore cheap. This suggests the use of envelope detection, which requires the
addition of a carrier to the VSB modulated wave.
 FREQUENCY TRANSLATION

Block diagram of mixer

The idea of frequency translation described herein may be generalized as follows.

• Suppose that we have a modulated wave s1(t) whose spectrum is centered on a
carrier frequency f1, and the requirement is to translate it upward in
frequency, such that its carrier frequency is changed from f1 to a new value of
f2.
• This requirement may be accomplished using the mixer shown in Figure.
• Specifically, the mixer is a device that consists of a product modulator followed
by a band-pass filter.
• The band-pass filter is designed to have a bandwidth equal to that of the
modulated signal s1(t) used as input.
 FREQUENCY TRANSLATION

Block diagram of mixer

The key issue to be resolved is the frequency of the local oscillator connected to the
product modulator. Let f1 denote this frequency.
Due to the frequency translation performed by the mixer, the carrier frequency f1 of
the incoming modulated signal is changed by an amount equal to fl ; hence, we may
set

Solving for fl, we thus have

 FREQUENCY TRANSLATION

Block diagram of mixer

This relation assumes that f2 > f1, in which case the carrier frequency is translated
upward. If, on the other hand, we have f1 >f2, the carrier frequency is translated
downward, for which the corresponding frequency of the local oscillator is

The reason for the band-pass filter is that the product modulator of Figure produces
two terms:

The band-pass filter rejects the unwanted frequency and keeps the desired one.
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Block diagram of FDM system.

 ANGLE MODULATION
• Let θi(t) denote the angle of a modulated sinusoidal carrier at time t; it is
assumed to be a function of the information-bearing signal or message signal.
• We express the resulting angle-modulated wave as

• where Ac is the carrier amplitude. A complete oscillation occurs whenever θi(t)

changes by 2π radians.
• If θi(t) increases monotonically with time, the average frequency in Hertz over
an interval from t to t +Δt is given by
 ANGLE MODULATION
We may thus define the instantaneous frequency of the angle-modulated signal s(t)
as follows:
 ANGLE MODULATION
• Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous angle θi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal as shown by

• The term 2π fct represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier; the constant kp
represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in radians per volt
on the assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform.
• For convenience, we have assumed in Eq. that the angle of the unmodulated
carrier is zero at t = 0. The phase-modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the
time domain by
 ANGLE MODULATION
Frequency modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as
shown by

The term fc represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier, and the constant kf
represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in Hertz per volt on
the assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform.
Integrating Eq. with respect to time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get

where, for convenience, we have assumed that the angle of the unmodulated carrier
wave is zero at t = 0. The frequency-modulated signal is therefore described in the
time domain by
ANGLE MODULATION
 Relationship between frequency modulation and phase modulation

PM
:
FM
:

▪ PM and FM are uniquely related to each other

▪ This means that the properties of PM can be deduced from those of FM and vice
versa
 ANGLE MODULATION
PROPERTIES OF ANGLE-MODULATED WAVES:
• Constancy of Transmitted Power
• Nonlinearity of the Modulation Process
• Irregularity of Zero-Crossings
• Visualization Difficulty of Message Waveform
• Trade-Off of Increased Transmission Bandwidth for Improved Noise
Performance
 Properties of Angle Modulated Signal
Property 1: Constancy of Transmitted Power
Amplitude of PM and FM waves is maintained at a constant value equal to the carrier
amplitude for all time t, irrespective of the sensitivity factors kp and kf
=> Average transmitted power of angle-modulated waves is a constant

Property 2: Nonlinearity of the Modulation Process

Consider PM (Prove the nonlinearity for FM by yourself):

For m(t) =
m1(t):
For m(t) =
m
For(t):
2 m(t) = m1(t) +
m2(t):
 Properties of Angle Modulated Signal
Property 3: Tradeoff of Increased Transmission Bandwidth for Improved Noise
Performance
❑ An important advantage of angle modulation over AM is the realization of improved
noise performance

❑ This advantage is due to the fact that the transmission of a message signal by
modulating the angle of a sinusoidal carrier wave is less sensitive to the presence of
additive noise than transmission by modulating the amplitude of the carrier

❑ The improvement in noise performance is, however, attained at the expense of a

corresponding increase in the transmission bandwidth requirement of angle
modulation

❑ In other words, the use of angle modulation offers the possibility of exchanging an
increase in transmission bandwidth for an improvement in noise performance.

❑ Such a tradeoff is not possible with amplitude modulation since the transmission
bandwidth of an amplitude-modulated wave is fixed somewhere between the
message bandwidth B and 2B Hz, depending on the type of modulation employed
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
Consider then a sinusoidal modulating signal defined by

The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal is

Where

The quantity Δf is called the frequency deviation, representing the maximum

departure of the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the carrier
frequency fc.
the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is obtained as
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
The ratio of the frequency deviation Δf to the modulation frequency fm is
commonly called the modulation index of the FM signal.
We denote it by β, and so write

and

The FM signal itself is given by

Depending on the value of the modulation index β, we may distinguish two cases
of frequency
modulation:
• Narrow-band FM, for which β is small compared to one radian.
• Wide-hand FM, for which β is large compared to one radian.
 NARROW-BAND FREQUENCY MODULATION
Consider FM Eq., which defines an FM signal resulting from the use of a
sinusoidal modulating signal. Expanding this relation, we get

Assuming that the modulation index β is small compared to one radian, we may use
the following two approximations:

And

Hence, Eq. s(t) simplifies to

Equation defines the approximate form of a narrow-band FM signal produced by
the sinusoidal modulating signal Amcos(2πfmt).
 Wide-band FM (WBFM)
2. WBFM (β is large compared to one radian):

Complex Envelope of s(t):

=> a periodic function of time with a fundamental frequency equal to fm

 WBFM (contd…)
Complex Fourier Coefficient

Jn(β) = nth order Bessel

function of the first kind
and argument β
 WBFM (contd…)
Thus,

=> S(f) consists of an infinite number of delta functions spaced

at f = fc ± nfm
 WBFM (contd…)
Properties of FM for arbitrary β:
1. Jn(β) = (-1)n J-n(β) for all n

3.
 WBFM (contd…)
1. The spectrum of an FM wave contains a carrier component and an infinite set of
side frequencies located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency
separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm, ….

2. For the special case of small β compared with unity, only the Bessel coefficients
J0(β) and J1(β) have significant values, so that the FM wave is effectively
composed of a carrier and a single pair of side-frequencies at fc±fm. This FM
signal is essentially the NBFM signal.

3. The amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according to J0(β). This
implies that the envelope of an FM wave is constant, so that the average power
of FM signal is constant.

Alternatively: Power of FM signal

 BW of FM Signals
BW of FM Signals
❑ Theoretically, BW of FM wave is finite
❑ BW of FM signals is effectively limited to a finite number of significant side
frequencies
Carson’s Rule
Single-tone

W = BW of m(t)
Multi-tone Δf = kf m(t)|max

Example: Commercial FM Broadcasting

In North America, the maximum value of frequency deviation Δf is fixed at
75 kHz for commercial FM broadcasting by radio. Assume W = 15 kHz,
which is typically the “maximum” audio frequency of interest in FM
transmission.
Carson’s rule: BT = 2∆f + 2W = 180 kHz
 PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
The phase-locked loop (PLL) is a negative feedback system, the operation of which
is closely linked to frequency modulation. It can be used for synchronization,
frequency division/multiplication, frequency modulation, and indirect frequency
demodulation.

Basically, the phase-locked loop consists of three major components: a multiplier, a

loop filter, and a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) connected together in the
form of a feedback loop, as in Figure. The VCO is a sinusoidal generator whose
frequency is determined by a voltage applied to it from an external source. In
effect, any frequency modulator may serve as a VCO.
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP