UNIT – I AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Amplitude Modulation- DSBSC, DSBFC, SSB, VSB - Modulation index, Spectra, Power relations and
Bandwidth – AM Generation – Square law and Switching modulator, DSBSC Generation – Balanced
and Ring Modulator, SSB Generation – Filter, Phase Shift and Third Methods, VSB Generation – Filter
Method, Hilbert Transform, Pre-envelope & complex envelope –comparison of different AM techniques,
Superheterodyne Receiver

Introduction
Communication involves transfer of information from source to destination via a channel or medium.
Elements of a communication system
The basic elements are Source, Transmitter, channel, Receiver and Destination

1.1 Modulation
Modulation is the process of changing the characteristics (Amplitude , Frequency , Phase) of carrier
signal according to the instantaneous value of modulating signal.
Message signal is a low frequency signal (voice 0-4 KHz and video 0-6 MHz)⇨ it cannot be transmitted
to a long distance.

Carrier signal is a high frequency signal used to transmit the low frequency modulating signal to
a long distance

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 Types of Modulation
MODULATION
AM DSB FC
Amplitude AM DSB SC
Modulation (AM) SSB
VSB

Frequency NBFM
Modulation (FM) WBFM
Angle
Modulation
Phase NBPM
Modulation (PM) WBPM

The sinusoidal signal can be represented by

x (t)=A Cos (ω c t+ θ)
A –Amplitude
ω c –Frequency
θ - Phase

Modulating signal m (t) (Message signal, Base band signal, Demodulated signal) – Low frequency signal
-Information carrying signal.
m (t)= V m Sin ω m t or V m Cos ω m t

Carrier signal c (t) - High frequency signal used to carry the information carrying signal i.e. modulating
signal.
c(t)= V c sin ω c t or V c Cos ω c t

Amplitude modulation (AM) : AM is the process of changing the amplitude of the carrier signal
according to the modulating signal.

Frequency modulation (FM): FM is the process of changing the frequency of the carrier signal
according to the modulating signal.

Phase modulation (PM): PM is the process of changing the phase of the carrier signal according to
the modulating signal.

1.1.1 Need for Modulation (or) Advantages of Modulation

Reduction in height of antenna
For efficient transmission, antenna size ≈ λ/2
We know C = f λ, & C = 3 x 108m/s
For example if f = 5kHz, then λ /2 = C/2f = 3 x 108 / 2x5x103 =30km
It is impossible to construct antenna of 30km height.
If f = 10MHz (high frequency), λ /2 = 15 m.

This antenna height can be practically achieved.

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 Multiplexing: Several messages are transmitted over the common channel without interference using
modulation.
Adjustment of Band Width: Signal to noise ratio can be improved since it is the function of Band
Width.
Ease of Radiation: Due to modulation, signals are translated to higher frequencies.
It becomes easy to design amplifier circuits and antenna systems at the increased frequencies.

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Modulator: Modulator generates modulated signal (AM, FM, PM).

Modulating signal m(t) Modulator Modulated Signal s(t)

Carrier Signal c(t)

Demodulator/ Detector : Demodulator recovers modulating signal from modulated signal.

Modulated signal s(t) Demodulator Modulating Signal m(t)

1.2 Amplitude modulation (AM/DSB FC)

In Amplitude modulation, amplitude of the carrier is changed according to the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal.

Types of AM: DSB SC , SSB SC , VSB

1. Derive the expression for Amplitude modulated signal. Nov 2016

Amplitude
Modulating signal m(t) AM Signal
modulator
Modulator
Carrier Signal
Expression for AM
The carrier signal c(t) = Vc sinωc t
The message signal m(t) =Vm sin ωm t
The AM signal , VAM= Vc+ Vm sin ωm t
 Vm 
= Vc  1  sin mt 
 Vc 
Vm
= Vc 1  ma sin mt  where ma 
Vc
The instantaneous value of AM signal is S(t)= VAM(t)= VAM sinωc t
= Vc 1  ma sin mt  sinωc t
= Vc sinωc t+ ma Vc sinωc t sin ωm t

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 maVc
= Vc sinωc t+ [cos(c  m ) t  cos(c  m ) t]
2
s(t )  1  ka m(t )A cos(ct )

The AM signal consists of carrier, Lower Sideband (LSB) and Upper Sideband (USB)

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1.2.1 Modulation Index / Depth of modulation / % modulation
It is the parameter which indicates the depth of modulation (or) measure of modulation
Indicates the amount that the carrier signal is modulated.
Modulation index ranges from m= 0 to 1.
It is defined as the ratio of amplitude of modulating signal to the amplitude of carrier signal.
V V max  V min
m  m or m 
Vc V max  V min

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Degrees of modulation
There are 3 degrees of modulation
• m<1 under modulation
• m=1 critical modulation
• m>1 over modulation( distortion)
m<1 m=1 m>1

Single tone modulation- Modulation performed for a message signal with one frequency
component.
Multi-tone modulation – Modulation performed for a message signal with more than one
frequency component

Frequency spectrum of AM
Vc

mVc/2 mVc/2

fc-fm fc fc+fm
Bandwidth of AM
BW=2fm
fm- Frequency of modulating signal

Phasor representation of AM
USB

Vc resultant

Carrier LSB

The carrier is taken as the reference phasor and the two sideband phasors are rotating in the opposite
direction.
The resultant phasor is the sum of carrier phasor and two sideband phasors rotating in the opposite
direction.

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 Power and current relation in AM
The Power relation in AM is
 m2 
Pt  Pc  1  
 2 
where Pt – total modulated power, Pc-un modulated carrier power and m- modulation index.
For multi tone modulation ,the modulating signal consists of more than one frequency
The transmitted power is
 m2
Pt  Pc  1  t 
 2 
mt  m12  m2 2  m32 .......
The Current relation in AM is
1
 m2  2
It  Ic  1  
 2 
where It – total modulated current, Ic-un modulated carrier current and m-modulation index.

2. Derive the efficiency of AM.

Transmission Efficiency: It is the ratio of the transmitted power which contains the information to the
total power(i.e. the total sideband power to the total transmitted power).
It is the ratio of power in sidebands to the total power
powerinsidebands
%efficiency  X 100
Totalpower

= x100 where Pc=Vc2/2R

[ ]

[ ]
= x 100
[ ]

= x100
[ ]

= ma2 x 100 ma = 1
2+ma2
= 33.33 %

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 Note: Only 33.33% power is used and remaining power is wasted by transmitting the carrier along with
the sidebands.
The maximum transmission efficiency of the Amplitude Modulation is 33.3%
i.e. only one-third of the total power is used by the sidebands and remaining power is wasted by
transmitting carrier which does not contain information.

Advantages of AM:
 AM wave can travel a long distance
 It covers larger area than FM
Disadvantages:
 Poor performance in the presence of noise.
 Inefficient use of transmitter power.
 Wastage in Band Width.
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1.2.2 Generation of AM Waves (AM modulators)

AM modulators
Nonlinear modulator (or) low level modulator (Square law modulator, Balanced modulator)
Linear modulator (or) high level modulator (Collector modulator)
Low level modulation:
 AM generation is at low power level
 Modulation takes place prior to the output element of the final stage of the transmitter.

High level modulation

 AM generation is at high power level.
 Before modulation, the carrier and the modulating signal are amplified to an adequate power
level.
 Modulation takes place in the last RF amplifier stage of the transmitter.
 Efficiency of high level modulation is greater than low level.
Nonlinear modulators
 It makes use of the non linear characteristics of nonlinear device. (diode, transistor, FET)
 To make the device to operate in the nonlinear VI characteristics (diode, transistor, FET) the input
is kept low.
Linear modulator:
 It makes use of the linear region of the VI characteristics of diode.
 The input is kept high to operate the device in the linear region of VI characteristics of diode.

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3. With necessary diagrams explain the non linear method of generation of AM. Dec2008
Explain with suitable diagrams the generation of AM using square law. May 2015
Explain any one method to generate Amplitude modulated wave. Nov 2016

Nonlinear modulators:
i. Square law modulator
ii. Balanced modulator

i. Square law modulator

 Generation of AM.
 Nonlinear modulator.
 Input is kept low so that the device operates in the non linear region of VI characteristics of
diode.
Circuit diagram

m(t)
Vmsinωmt
V1(t) V2(t) RL AM signal
c(t)
VCsinωct

Circuit description:
It consists of
Summer - To add modulating and carrier signal
Nonlinear device -Diode
BPF- Tuned to ωc
Operation:
V1(t) –sum of carrier and modulating signal is applied to the input of diode
V 1(t)=VC sinωct + Vmsinωm t (1)
The input and output relation is given by Square law
V2(t) =a V1(t) +b V1 2(t) (2)
Where a and b are constants
Sub eqn (1 ) in eqn(2)
V2(t) =a V1(t) +b V1 2(t)
=a (VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t ) + b(VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t )2
= a VC sin ω c t+ a V m sin ω m t + b VC 2 sin ω c t + b V m 2sinωm t +2b VC V m sin ω c t sin ω m t
V2(t) consists of modulating signal, carrier signal, squared modulating signal, squared carrier signal.
BPF is tuned to ω C. It allows only ω c & ω C ± ω m & remaining terms are eliminated.
V2(t) = a VC sinωct+2b VC V m sin ω c t sin ω m t
=a VC sin ω c t+ b V C V m [Cos (ω c-ω m)t – Cos (ω c+ ω m)t]
Carrier sidebands

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 AM wave with carrier and sidebands are generated.
Drawbacks:
 Heavy filtering is required to remove unwanted terms.
 Output power level is low.
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ii. Balanced Modulator
 Non linear modulator
 Common circuit for AM generation
Description:
 Two non-linear devices are connected in the balanced mode. (Here it is transistor)
 Assume two transistors are identical and the circuit is symmetrical.
 The carrier voltage across the two windings of a centre-tap transformer are equal and opposite
in phase, i.e. V c = -VC1
The input voltage to T, is V b c = VC + Vm
= VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t
(Since both VC & Vm are in phase)
The input voltage to T2 is V1bC = VC1 + Vm
= - VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t
By non-linearity, the collector current is
ic = a1 V b c + a2Vbc2
ic1 = a1 V 1bc + a2V1bc2
Circuit diagram:

ic

T1

Vc Vbc

Carrier Vc sinωct - + AM o/p

Vc1 V1bc
Modulating
Signal
T2

ic1

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 ic = a1VCsinωct+ a1Vmsinωmt + a2VC2sin2ωct + a2Vm2sin2ωmt +2VmVC a2 sinωmt sinωct
ic1 = - a1VCsinωct+ a1Vmsinωmt + a2VC2sin2ωct + a2Vm2sin2ωmt - 2VmVC a2 sinωmt sinωct

The output AM voltage is

V0 = k(ic – ic1) Since ic & ic1 are flowing in opposite direction.
= 2ka1 VCsinωct + 4ka2 VC Vm sinωct VCsinωct
= 2ka1 VC [1+2a2Vm/a1 sinωmt] sinωct
V0= 2ka1 VC [1+2a2Vm/a1 sinωmt] sinωct

Advantages:
 No filter is required.
 The unwanted terms are automatically balanced out.
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4. Explain the generation of AM using Linear modulator.
Linear modulator
 It makes use of the linear region of the VI characteristics of transistor .
 The input is kept high to operate the device in the linear region of VI characteristics of
transistor.
Switching modulator
A simple diode is used for AM switching modulator

BPF

+
~
Vm sin ωmt _

+ R L C V0(t)
~
Vm sin ωct -

Operation:
 The diode is forward biased for every positive half cycle of the carrier, and behaves like a short
circuited switch.
 When it is on, the signal appears at the input of the BPF.

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  For negative half cycle of the carrier, the diode is reverse biased and behaves like a open switch (it
is off). The signal does not reach the filter and no output is obtained.
 The signal is modulated at the rate of carrier frequency.
 The BPF passes frequency ωc + ωm, where ωm is the maximum frequency of message signal.
 Where there is no modulating signal, the steady state o/p voltage is V0(t) = VCsin ωCt
 Let us consider that the diode is ideal, and carrier signal is stronger than message signal.
 The diode conducts when the combined signal (message plus carrier) is positive.
 Then the output voltage is given by V0(t) = [VC + Vmsin ωmt] sin ωct.

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1.2.3 Detection (or) Demodulation
Definition: It is the process of recovering of original modulating signal from the modulated signal.
Square law detector (or) Non-linear detector

Detector Linear diode detector (or) Envelope detector

5. Discuss about nonlinear detection of AM Dec2012

Detector: Recovers the original modulating signal from the modulated signal.
Square law detector (Non – Linear detector)
 Detection of AM.
 Nonlinear detector.
 Input is kept low so that the device operates in the non linear region of VI characteristics of
diode.
Description:
 Low – level modulated signal.
 Device operating in the non-linear region.
 It is similar to square law modulator – but the filter is LPF instead of BPF.
Operation:
 Vd is used to adjust the operating point.
 Because of the non-linearity of the transfer characteristics of the device, the carrier is away
from the quiescent point.
 The operation is limited to the non – linear region due to which the lower half portion of the
current waveform is compressed. This causes envelope distortion.
 The average value of the diode current varies with time.
 The distorted diode current is given by square law
i = a1v1+ a1v12 where V1 = VC (1+masinωmt) sinωct V1- input modulated voltage
 i = a1[VC (1+masinωmt) ) sinωct ] + a2[VC (1+masinωmt) + sinωct]2

The above current equation consists of components 2ω c , 2(ωc ± ωm), ωm and 2 ωm besides the input
frequency terms.

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This diode current when passed though LPF p asses the frequencies of ωm, 2ωm and suppress the other
higher components.
The modulating signal with frequency ωm is recovered.

Circuit diagram:

D LPF

R C Vout

AM
Wave S(t)

– Vd +

I V Carrier envelope

V t

AM wave

Distortion:
 Non – linear characteristics of the diode produces additional frequency components.
 ωc & 2ωc are easily suppressed by LPF, since they are away from ωm.
 But 2ωm close to ωm cannot be totally suppressed by LPF.
 Component 2ωm introduces distortion.

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6. Draw an envelope detector circuit used for demodulation of AM and ex-plain its operation.
May2010/May2011/May2012
Explain the demodulation of AM using envelope detection. May 2015
Explain any one method to demodulate Amplitude modulated wave. Nov 2016
Explain the operation of envelope detector. April 2018 Dec2017

Linear diode detector (Envelope detector/ Non coherent detector)

Detector: Recovers original modulating signal from the modulated signal.
Linear diode detector:
 It makes use of the linear region of the VI characteristics of diode..
 The input is kept high to operate the device in the linear region of VI characteristics of diode.
 Used in commercial AM radio receiver circuits.
Circuit diagram:
D

AM R C modulating signal m(t)

LPF

Description:
 A diode operating in linear region of VI characteristics can extract the envelope of an AM
wave.
 Such a detector is called envelope detector.
 The applied modulated voltage is of large amplitude, the operation takes place in the linear
region of VI characteristics.
 Circuit consists of diode and RC low pass filter.
 AM wave is applied at the input of the detector.

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Operation:
 Let us assume that the capacitor ‘C’ is not present.
 Circuit is similar to a half wave rectifier and produces half wave rectified carrier wave.
 If the capacitor is introduced then during positive half cycle, the capacitor charges to the peak
value of the input voltage (carrier voltage).
 During the negative half cycle, the diode does not conduct.
 The input voltage is disconnected from the RC circuit.
 Capacitor slowly discharges through ‘R’.
 This discharging process continues until the next positive half cycle.
 when the input signal is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts again and
process repeats.
 The output is spiky and follows the envelope of modulated signal.
 The spikes can be reduced if RC time constant is large , so that the capacitor discharges slowly
through the load resistance R.
 But if RC is too large it produces diagonal clipping.

Distortion in envelope detector

 If RC is too low , discharge curve is almost vertical during the non-conducting period
 Produce large fluctuation s in the output voltage.
 If RC is too high, discharge curve is almost horizontal and several negative peaks are clipped off.
 So ,RC time constant cannot be too high or too low.
 Experimentally it is found that the amount of distortion can be reduced by selecting RC value
such that 1/RC ≥ ωmma / 1 – ma2
ma<<1  1/RC ≥ ωmma

Diagonal clipping:
If RC time constant is kept too high, the discharge curve becomes approximately horizontal.
In that case, negative peaks of the detected envelope may be completely or partially missed.
The recovered base band signal is distorted at negative peaks.
This type of distortion is known as diagonal clipping.
Advantages:
 Circuit is simple
 Inexpensive.
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1.3 Suppressed Carrier systems
 In AM, both Transmitted power and bandwidth is wasted.
 The transmitted power is wasted in transmitting carrier along with the sidebands which does not
contain information.

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 Advantages of Suppressed Carrier systems (AM SC):
Both Transmitted power and bandwidth can be saved in suppressed carrier systems
Types of suppressed carrier system
DSB SC -Double sideband suppressed carrier system
SSB SC -Single sideband suppressed carrier system

1.3.1 DSB SC -Double sideband suppressed carrier system

DSB SC contains only sidebands and the carrier is suppressed.
Transmitting power is saved but bandwidth remains the same as AM.
It can be generated by the product of Carrier and the message signal

7. Derive the expression for DSBSC. Nov 2016

Product modulator generates DSB SC i.e., multiplication of carrier signal and message signal
produces DSB SC

Block diagram:
m(t) s(t) DSB SC signal
Product
Message signal modulator

Carrier signal
Local
oscillator

Carrier signal c(t)= VC sinωct

Message signal m(t)= Vmsinωmt
S(t)=VC Vm sinωmt sinωc t
=VC Vm [cos(ωc-ωm)t – cos(ωc+ ωm)t]
2 sidebands

Frequency spectrum of DSB SC

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 Bandwidth of DSB SC
BW=2fm
BW remains same as AM.

Phasor representation of DSB-SC

USB

Carrier resultant

LSB

The resultant phasor is the sum of two sideband phasors only, since the carrier is suppressed shown by
dotted lines

Efficiency of DSB SC
Only the sidebands are transmitted and the carrier is suppressed. Therefore the transmitting power is
increased to 66.67%.

1.3.2 Generation of DSB SC AM

In this, AM wave consists of only the upper and lower sidebands. Transmitted power is saved
through suppression of carrier wave.

Types of Generation of DSB-SC

i. Balanced modulator
ii. Ring modulator

8. With the help of a neat diagram, explain the generation of DSB-SC using Balanced modulator.
Dec2006/May2009
Derive the expression for output voltage of a balanced modulator to generate DSB SC and explain
the working principle. [Apr - 2019] May 2017

i. Balanced Modulator
 Commonly used for DSB – SC generation
 Two non-linear devices are connected in the balanced mode to suppress the carrier wave.
 Operation is confined in non-linear region of its transfer characteristics.

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 Circuit diagram:

ic
T1

Vm Vbc

Vm sinωmt DSB SC

Vm1 Carrier V1bc

Signal

T2

ic1

Operation:
 The modulating voltage applied across the two windings of a centre-tap transformer are equal
opposite in phase. i.e. V m = -Vm1
 The input voltage to transistor T1 is given by V b c = V c+ V m (V m & V c are in phase)
= VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t (1)
 Input voltage to transistor T2 is given by 1 1
Vbc = Vm + V c (V m & V c are out of phase)
= - V m sin ω m t + VC sin ω c t (2)
 By the non-linearity relationship, the collector current can be written as
ic = a1Vbc + a2Vbc2 (3)
1 1 1 2
ic = a1V bc+ a2V bc (4)
Substituting eqn (1) & (2) in eqn (3) & (4)
ic = a1[VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t] + a2[ VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t]2
= a1 [VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t] + a2 [VC 2sin2 ω c t + Vm2 sin2ωmt+ 2Vmsinωmt VC sin ω c t] (5)
1 2 2 2 2
ic = a1 [VC sin ω c t – V m sin ω m t] + a2 [VC sin ω c t + V m sin ω m t – 2Vm sin ω m t V C sin ω c t] (6)

The output DSB SC voltage is

V0 = k(I c – ic1) Since I c & ic1 are flowing in opposite direction.
Sub eqn 5 & 6 in V0
V0 = 2ka1Vmsinωmt +4k a2VmVcsinωct sinωmt

This circuit can also be constructed using other amplifying devices like FET
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 9. Draw the circuit diagram of ring modulator and explain its operation. Dec2006/May 2016
Explain any one method to generate DSB-SC AM. Nov 2016
Ring modulator (or) Double Balanced Modulator
Both carrier and modulating signals are automatically balanced out and hence the name

 Most popular method

 4 diodes are connected to form a ring and the carrier signal is connected between centre taps of
the input and output transformers.
 No need for BPF at the output
 The 4 diodes are controlled by a square wave carrier Vc(t) of frequency fc.

Assumption: In switch on condition, the diodes have a constant forward resistance rf and a
constant backward resistance rb when switched off.
Circuit diagram:
Tr1 a D1 b Tr2

m(t) D4 S DSBSC(t)
Modulating signal D3 Modulated signal
D2

c d

Carrier
signal c(t)
Construction:
The modulator consists of input transformer Tr1 and output Transformer Tr2 & four diodes.
The modulating signal is applied to the input of Tr1 and carrier is applied to the centre tap of Tr1 and Tr2.
Operation:
Carrier acts as a switching signal to alternate the polarity of m(t) at carrier frequency.
Case i. No modulating signal and only carrier signal is present.
When there is no modulating signal, all the four diodes conduct depending upon the polarity of
Carrier.
Positive half cycle of carrier:
 Diodes D1 & D2 are forward biased and D3 & D4 are reverse biased current divides equally in the
upper & lower portions of the primary of Tr2.
 No output is induced in the secondary. Thus the carrier is suppressed.
Negative half cycle of carrier:
 Diodes D1 & D2 are reverse biased & D3 and D4 are forward biased, current divides equally in the
upper & lower portions of the primary of Tr2.
 No output and carrier is effectively balanced out.

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Case ii when both carrier and modulating signals are present.
 During positive half cycle of the carrier c(t)>0, diodes D1 & D2 conduct, D3 & D4 does not conduct.
 The message signal m(t) is multiplied by +1
 During negative half cycle of the carrier c(t)< 0, D3 & D4 conduct, D1 & D2 does not conduct.
 The message signal m(t) is multiplied by -1
 When polarity of modulating signal changes, 180 phase reversal takes place.
Modulating signal m(t) = V m sin ω m t
c(t) = V c sin ω c t
Output voltage S(t) = m(t) c(t) we know that sin A sin B =1/2[Cos (A-B)-Cos(A+B)]
= V m sin ω m t V c sin ω c t
S DSBSC(t) =[ V m V c /2] [Cos (ω c-ω m)t – Cos(ω c+ ω m)t]
The above equation shows that the output contains upper & lower sidebands only.
Advantages:
 DSB – SC is more efficient in transmitted power as compared to DSBFC.
 Better signal to noise ratio as compared to SSB.
Disadvantage:
 BW remains same as AM even though carrier is suppressed.

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1.3.3 Detection of DSB – SC
Recover the original modulating signal from the DSB SC modulated signal.
Coherent detection (or) synchronous detection.
Costas loop detection. (Costas receiver)

10. Explain the operation of DSBSC system using coherent detection with the help of circuit diagram.
Dec2006/May2009/May 2016
Explain any one method to detect DSB-SC AM. Nov 2016
Discuss the detection process of DSB SC using coherent detector. Analyze the drawback of the
suggested methodology. Nov - 2018 [Apr - 2019] May 2017

Detection: Demodulation or detection is the process by which the original modulating signal
is recovered from the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation.
Coherent detection: The modulating m(t) can be recovered from DSB – SC by first multiplying locally
generated carrier.
The phase and frequency of locally generated carrier and carrier at the transmitter must be exactly
coherent in phase and frequency otherwise the detected signal will be distorted.
Block diagram:

S(t) V(t) V 0(t)

Product LPF
DSB SC signal modulator

cos(ωct +ϕ)
Local
oscillator

Description:
 It consists of product modulator followed by an LPF.
 The product modulator multiples the DSB SC modulated signal and the locally generated carrier.
 The output of product modulator is applied to the LPF to allow the modulating signal only.
Operation:
 The input signal can be DSB – SC or SSB – SC
 It is multiplied by locally generated carrier
V (t)= m(t)A c Cs ω c t Cos (ω c t +ϕ)
= [m (t) Ac /2] Cos ϕ Cos (2ωct +ϕ)]
= [m (t) Ac /2] Cos ϕ + [m(t)Ac /2 ] Cos(2ωct +ϕ)]
The product signal is then passed through LPF of BW ωm.
V o(t) = [m(t)Ac /2] Cos ϕ

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 The amplitude of demodulated signal is maximum, when ϕ = 0
Minimum, when ϕ = ± п/2
i.e. V0(t) = 0, when ϕ = ± п/2
 The zero demodulated signal which occurs when ϕ = ± п/2 is called quadrature null effect.
 Phase error ϕ in the local oscillator causes the detector output to be attenuated by a factor
Cos ϕ.
 When phase error is constant, the detector produces undistorted output.
Demerits:
 It requires an additional system at the receiver to ensure that the carrier at the transmitter is
synchronized with the local carrier
 Receiver is complex and costly.

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11. Explain the operation of Costas receiver May2009

Costas Receiver
To overcome the demerits of coherent detector , costas receiver is used
Block diagram:

Costas receiver is used for synchronous detection of DSB – SC signal to avoid quadrature null effect.

Quadrature Null effect

The detector output is zero when θ = 90.This is called Quadrature null effect, because the signal is
zero when the local carrier is in phase quadrature with transmitted carrier

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 Description:

 The system has two synchronous detectors.

 One detector is called In phase coherent detector (or) I channel.
 It is fed with a locally generated carrier which is in phase with the transmitted carrier.
 The other synchronous detector is Quadrature phase coherent detector (or) Q channel.
 It is fed with a locally generated carrier which is in phase quadrature with the transmitted carrier
 The 2 detector constitute a negative feedback system which synchronizes the local carrier with
the transmitted carrier.

Operation:
 If local carrier signal is synchronized with the transmitted carrier (θ = 0)
 The output of I channel is the desired modulating signal m(t) (as cos 0 =1)
 The output of Q channel is zero (as sin 0 = 0) due to quadrature null effect.
 If the local oscillator phase drifts (or) changes slightly, [θ is a small non-zero quantity].
 I channel output is almost unchanged
 Q channel output now is not a zero, (some signal will appear at its output) proportional to sin θ.
 The local oscillator is a voltage controlled oscillator, its frequency can be adjusted by an error
control / dc signal.

************************
1.4 Hilbert Transform
Hilbert transform is a system that produces -900 phase shift for all positive frequencies and 900
phase shift for all negative frequencies.
The amplitude of all frequency components of the input signal is unaffected.

12. Explain the Hilbert transform with an example April 2018 May 2015/ May 2017

Hilbert transform is a system that produces a phase shift of -900for all positive frequencies s and
a phase shift of -900for all negative frequencies.
The amplitude of all frequency components of the input signal is unaffected.
 Hilbert transform does not involve a domain change
i.e., the Hilbert transform of a signal x(t) is another signal denoted by xˆ(t ) in the same domain
(time domain)
 Hilbert transform of a signal x(t) is a signal xˆ (t ) whose frequency components lag the
frequency components of x(t) by 90 .
 xˆ (t ) has exactly the same frequency components present in x(t) with the same amplitude–
except there is a 90 phase delay
The only change that the Hilbert transform performs on a signal is changing its phase

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  The amplitude of the frequency components do not change by performing the Hilbert-transform
 Hilbert transform changes cosines into sine’s.
 The Hilbert transform xˆ (t ) is orthogonal to x(t)
 Since the Hilbert transform introduces a 90 phase shift, carrying it out twice causes a 180 phase
shift, which can cause a sign reversal of the original signal

Properties of Hilbert transform:

 A signal x(t) and its Hilbert transform xˆ (t ) have same energy.
 The Hilbert transform of an even signal is odd and odd signal is even.
 Applying Hilbert transform to a signal twice causes sign reversal of the signal.
If xˆ (t ) is the Hilbert transform of x(t) then Hilbert transform of xˆ (t ) is –x(t).
 A signal x(t) and its Hilbert transform xˆ (t ) are orthogonal.

The phase is -90 for the positive frequency and +90 for the negative frequency.
There are two ways of converting cosine wave into sine wave.
Hilbert transform in frequency domain
Hilbert transform in time domain

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Phasor rotation to create a Sine wave out of cosine wave
Transformation process shifts all negative frequencies of signal to +90 phase shift and all positive
Frequencies of signal to – 90 phase shift.
If cosine wave is applied to transformer, we get sine wave.
Cost  sint
If sine wave is applied to transformer then we get negative cosine wave from which negative sine wave
can be obtained and finally it produces cosine wave.
Cost  sint - Cost  - sint Cost
From this, we can say Hilbert transformer is also called as quadrature filter.

*******************

1.5 Pre-envelope and complex envelope

The concept of pre envelope is useful in deriving the general expression of SSB SC
The pre-envelope of a real signal x(t) is the complex function.
() ( ) ̂( )
The pre-envelope is useful in treating hand pass signals and systems.
Analytical signal of the positive part of x(t)
()
() () () () { ( )

X(f) 1

Hilbert transform ̂( ) () ()

2 ()

Here ( ) doubles the positive part

The complex envelope of a band pass signal x(t) is
̂( ) ()
If the pre-envelope ( ) is band pass, it can be studied easily if we shift it to low frequency. This low
pass version of ( ) is called complex envelope.

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Signal Analytics and the Complex envelope
In signal processing the relationship between real and imaginary parts of a complex signal is
described by Hilbert transformer.
The transform not only relates I and Q signal components but creates a class of analytical signals
necessary for simulation.
The analytical signal represents band pass signals as complex envelope.
The complex envelope can be used to represent the Band Pass (BP) system by a Low pass (LP) system.

h(t)
Input Output

If h(t) or x(t) is a band pass filter centered around f o we can define its complex envelope as
̂( ) () H(f)

fc f

̃( )

f
Quadratic filter Hilbert transformer
( ) { }
()
( ) | ( )|
( )

() ( ) {

() ( )
Phase Splitter Hilbert transformers
Analog Hilbert transformers are mostly implemented in the form of a phase splitter consisting of
two parallel all-pass filter with a common input and separated output ports, each having the
following transfer function respectively.
()
( )
()
( )
with ( ) ( ) ( )

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 ()
All pass filter transformers
( )
( )
( )
Where
( )
( ) {( ( )) } ( ) [ ]
( )

1.6 SSB – SC (Single sideband Suppressed Carrier System)

 In AM, both transmitting power and band width is wasted.
 In DSB – SC, power is saved by suppressing the carrier but the bandwidth remains same.
 Further saving of power is possible when one of the sideband is suppressed along with the
carrier.
 In SSB-SC power is saved by suppressing one of the sideband because of its symmetry at carrier
frequency.
 Here transmission B.W is also reduced to half when one of the SB is suppressed along the carrier.
BW = fm (half of DSB – SC)

Power calculation
 Power in SSB – SC – AM is
Pt” = PSB = [1/4] ma2Pc
 Power saving w.r.t AM with carrier
= [P t – P t”] /P t where P t = total power transmitted.
= [1 +ma2/2]Pc – [ ma2/4Pc] = 1 + [ma2 /4]
[1 +ma2/2]Pc 1 +[ma2/2]
= [4 +ma2]/4 = [4 +ma2]
[ 2 +ma2 ]/2 2[2 +ma2]
If ma =1, then % power saving = 5/6 = 83.33%
Frequency spectrum

Bandwidth of SSB SC

BW= fm (It is same as the frequency of modulating signal)

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Phasor diagram of SSB SC

USB resultant

Carrier LSB

1.6.1 Generation of SSB – SC AM

SSB SC can be generated by
Phase shift method
Modified phase shift method (or) Weaver’s method

13. Explain the generation of SSB SC signal using phase shift method. May2009/Dec2008
Apply the concept of Hilbert transform to generate SSB SC signal. May 2017
Discuss the generation of single side band modulated signal. April 2018 Dec 2017

Phase shift method To overcome the drawbacks of filter method, we go for phase shift method.
The filter method requires a sideband filter with a narrow transition band and it cannot be used
at very low and very high frequencies

Block diagram
BM1

Product
modulator
Modulating signal m(t)
M1

Cos 2πfct (oscillator ) +

Wide band -90 phase
phase shifter shift Ʃ SSB SC

̃ (t) Sin 2πfct + or -

Product
modulator

BM2
M2

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Operation:

 Two balanced modulators (BM1, BM2) and two phase shift networks are used in this method.
 BM1 receives the two signals directly.
 BM2 receives the two signals with a phase shift of 900.
 Carrier is suppressed by two balanced modulators.
 Unwanted side band is cancelled by the summer.
 Outputs of balanced modulators are added by the summer.
 Output of summer contains only USB. (Carrier is already suppressed by balanced modulator)
The output of BM1 is m(t) Cos ω c t
The output of BM2 is ̃ ( )sin ω c t
m (t) - Hilbert transform of m(t)
m (t)= Cos ω m t
m (t) = Cos(ω m - 90)t = sinωmt
The output of adder = m (t) Cos ω c t+ ̃ ( ) sin ω c t
= Cos ω m t Cos ω c t+ Cos (ω m - 90) t sin ω c t
= Cos ω m t Cos ω c t+ sin ω m t sin ω c t
= Cos( ω c - ω m)t [Cos A Cos B + sin A sin B = Cos(A – B)]
S SSB sc(t) = Cos( ω c - ω m)t

 When two signals are added at the summer LSB is generated and USB is suppressed
 When two signals are subtracted at the summer USB is generated and LSB is suppressed

Merits:
 Does not require any sharp cut off filter.
 It is possible to generate the desired side band in a single frequency translation step.
Demerits:
 Each balanced modulator need to be carefully balanced in order to suppress the carrier.
 Each modulator should have equal sensitivity to the base band signal.

*********************
14. How SSB can be generated using Weaver's method? Illustrate with a neat block diagram.
May2010/May 2012

Modified phase shift method / Weaver’s method/ Third method

Advantages:
Generate SSB SC at any frequency and use low modulating frequencies.
No wide band phase shift network is required

Page 28 of 51
Disadvantage: Not commercially used because of its complexity.
Modulating signal V m(t) = V m sin m t
AF carrier V0 (t) = 2V0sin0t
RF carrier V c (t) = 2V1sin1t

Weavers method ( Third method)

( ωo t +90o + ω m t ) ( (ωo- -- ω m) t +90o )

BM 1 LPF BM 3

ωc t
( ωot +90o )
(ωc + ωo- ω m)t+ 90o
ω mt -90 phase -90 phase
shifter shifter Σ

ωo t
ωc t +90o

BM2 LPF BM 4
( ωo + ω m)t ( ωo -- ω m)t

Output of BM1

A B
= 2V0 sin (0t + 90) V m sin m t
= VmV0cos (0t + 90 -  m t) – Cos (0t + 90 + m t)
eliminated

Output of BM2

= 2V0 sin0tVm sin m t

= VmV0 [Cos (0t --  m t) – Cos (0t +  m t)]
eliminated
LPF in the BM1& BM2 eliminates the upper sidebands of the modulator.
Output of LPF1 isVmV0cos (0t + 90 - m t)
Output of LPF2 is VmV0 [Cos (0t -- m t)]
Assume V m=V0 =1
Output ofBM3 = 2sinc t Cos (0t + 90 - m t) 2 sin A Cos B = [sin (A+B) +sin(A-B)]

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 = sin [(c + 0 - m) t +90] + sin [(c - 0 + m)t – 90] (1)
A B
Output of BM4 = 2 sin(c t + 90) Cos (0t - m ) t
= sin [(c + 0 - m)t + 90] + sin[(c - 0 + m)t+ 90] (2)

The final output of summer circuit is (1) + (2) = V0

(1) + (2)  V0 = 2sin [(c + 0 - m) t +90]
V0 = 2cos [(c + 0 - m) t ]
Note: other terms are cancelled because it is out of phase with each other
 Final output is the LSB of RF carrier c -m.

************************
15. Explain the coherent detection of SSB SC signal.
Discuss the detection process of SSB SC using coherent detector. Analyze the drawback of the
suggested methodology May 2017

Detection: Demodulation or detection is the process by which the original modulating signal
is recovered from the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation.
Coherent detection: The modulating m(t) can be recovered from DSB – SC by first multiplying with
locally generated carrier.
The phase and frequency of locally generated carrier and carrier at the transmitter must be exactly
coherent in phase and frequency otherwise the detected signal will be distorted.
Description:
 It consists of product modulator followed by an LPF.
 The product modulator multiples the SSB SC modulated signal and the locally generated
carrier.
 The product modulator output is passed through LPF to recover the modulating signal

Block diagram:

S(t) V(t) y(t)

Product Low pass
SSB – SC modulator Filter (LPF)
Modulated wave
Carrier
Cos ω c t
The output of the multiplier (or) product modulator is
V (t) = S (t) Cos ω c t
= [m (t) Cos ω c t ± m(t) sin ω c t] Cos ω c t
Where m (t) - message signal;
m (t) - Hilbert transform of m(t) (90° Phase shift)

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 = [m (t) Cos ω c t ± m (t) sin ω c t] Cos ω c t
= m (t) [1+cos 2ωct]/2 ± m (t) sin ω c t Cos ω c t
= 1/2 m (t) + 1/2 m (t) Cos 2ωct +1/2 m (t) sin2ωct
Low pass filter removes the terms of frequency ω c , 2 ω c and at the output we get
Y (t) = 1/2 m (t)
Original modulating signal is recovered from modulated signal.

Advantages of SSB
 BW(fm) is half of that required by DSBSC system
 Power of the suppressed carrier and sideband is saved.
 Due to narrow BW, effect of noise at the receiver circuit is reduced  better quality of
reception.
Disadvantages of SSB
 Transmission and reception of SSB is more complex.
 SSB receivers require precise tuning than AM receiver and frequency stability is required.
Applications:
 Point to point radio telephone communication
 SSB telegraph system
 Police wireless communication
 VHF &UHF communication

************************
Explain in detail about VSB. [April 2018] [Apr - 2019]
1.7 Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation
VSB overcomes the disadvantages of SSB – SC and serves as a com promise between SSB – SC &
DSB – SC modulations.
 Used for TV transmission
 Vestige → means part (or) portion (or) trace.
 In VSB, the desired sideband is partially suppressed and small portion called trace (or)
vestige of the undesired sideband is also transmitted to compensate for the suppression.
Advantages
 No need for sharp cut off filter and phase shifter.
Need for VSB:
 SSB modulation is suited for transmission of voice signal because of the energy gap that
exists in the frequency spectrum of voice signal.
 When signal contain frequency component of extremely low frequency (telegraph &
television signal) the USB &LSB meet at the carrier frequency and it is difficult to isolate one
sideband.VSB – SC is used in this case.

Page 31 of 51
 Magnitude Response of VSB filter (only positive – frequency portion)
Vestige of LSB Suppressed portion of USB
H(f)
1

fc – f v fc fc + fv fc + fm f

USB  fc to fc + fm
In this fc to fc + fv is suppressed
LSB fc to fc – fm is LSB
In this, fc – fv to fc is transmitted as vestige
H(fc)  = ½ frequency response fc – fv  H(f)   fc + fv exhibits odd symmetry
H(f – fc) + H(f + fc) =1
 The magnitude response at only w sum of two frequency comp in the range
fc – fv  f  fc + fv is equal to unity.
 Phase response is linear.
 Transmission Bandwidth of VSB modulation is BT = fv + ω Where ω  message Bandwidth, fv
width of the vestigial sideband

1.7.1 Generation and Detection of VSB

16. Discuss the generation and detection of VSB May 2007

Generation of VSB
Filter method (frequency discrimination method)

m(t) Product V(t) DSB – SC Band Pass

modulator Filter
VSB – SC signal
AC cosωct S(t)
Carrier

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 FT
f(t)  F(ω)
FT
f(t) cosct  ½ [F(ω - ω c ) + F(ω + ω c )]
FT
f(t) cos2 f ct  ½ [F(f - fc ) + F(f + fc )]
 Product modulator generates DSB – SC signal from the message & carrier signals.
 The output of product modulator the DSB – SC is passed through sideband shaping filter
[VSB – filter]
V(t) (DSB – SC) =Ac Cos c t m(t)
V(f) = FT[Ac Cosc t m(t)]
V(f) = Ac/2 [M(f – f c) + M( f+ fc) ]
By using the modulation property, the spectrum of VSB signal is
S(f) = H(f) V(f)
S(f) = [Ac/2 M(f – f c) +M(f + fc)] H(f)

where H(f)  transfer function(or) frequency response of VSB filter

V(f) S(f)
H(f)

H(f) = S(f) / V(f)

S(f) - spectrum of VSB – SC signal

Demodulation of VSB

Product Low pass

VSB V(t) output
modulator filter
signal S(t) signal V0(t)
i.e. m(t)

Ac’ cos 2fct

 Product modulator gives DSB – SC signal.
 The Fourier transform of S(t) (VSB signal) using modulation theorem is
S(f) = [Ac/2{M(f – fc) + M(f+fc)] H(f) (1)
 The output of product modulator is V(t) = S(t) Ac1cos (2fct) = Ac1 S(t) cos (2fct)
 Fourier transform of this using modulation theorem is
V(f)= [Ac 1/2] {S(f – fc) + S(f+ fc)} (2)
Sub. (1) in (2) V(f) =[ Ac Ac1/4]{M(f – 2fc) + M(f)} H(f - fc) + Ac Ac1/4{M(f + M (f+2fc)} H(f + fc)
 First term  frequency spectrum of modulating signal

Page 33 of 51
  Second term  frequency spectrum of VSB signal having carrier frequency 2f c and it can be
removed by LPF.
Frequency spectrum of signal V0(t) available at the output of VSB modulator will be
Vo(f) = [Ac Ac1 /4] {H(f – fc) M(f) +Ac Ac1/4 M(f) H(f+fc)}
[Ac Ac1 /4 ]M(f) {H(f - fc) + H(f+fc) }
For distortion less reproduction of m(t), V0(t) is the scaled version of m(t) [scaled version  some
constant multiplied by M(f)]
i.e. if [H(f – fc) + H(f + fc)] is constant within the frequency then the output of V 0(t) will be
proportional to m(t). i.e. V0(t) = [AcAc1 / 4 ]m(t))
Advantages of VSB:
 Low frequencies, near fc are transmitted without any attenuation.
 BW is reduced compared to DSB SC
SSB-SC < BW < DSB -SC
 Filter need not have sharp cut off

Application
Mainly used for TV transmission since low frequency near fc represent significant picture details and
they are unaffected due to VSB.

************************

Page 34 of 51
1.8 Comparison of AM systems
17. Compare the performance of amplitude modulation systems by using different attributes.
Dec2009/May 2012

Description AM with DSB – SC – AM SSB – SC – AM VSB - AM

carrier DSB FC
Frequency spectrum Carrier and 2 Suppressed Suppressed One of Side Band is
Sidebands Carrier and Carrier and partially
Only 2 Side only one Side suppressed and
bands band vestige of other SB
is taken
Bandwidth 2fm 2fm fm fm < BW < 2fm

Sidebands Two sidebands Two sidebands one sideband One of the

sideband is partially
suppressed and
vestige of other is
taken to
compensate for the
suppression
Power saving for 33.33% 66.66% 83.3% 75%
sinusoidal
33.33% 50% 75% 75%
Power saving for
non- sinusoidal
Easier to Not difficult More difficult to Difficult but easier
Generation methods generate generate to generate than
SSB – SC
Simple Difficult More Difficult Difficult
Detection methods inexpensive
(S/N)0 = (S/N)0 = (S/N)i (S/N)0 = (S/N)i (S/N)0 = (S/N)i
Signal to noise 1/3(S/N)f
Application AM Broadcast Short distance Long range high TV transmission
applications point to point frequency and high speed
communication communication. data
(telephony) (wireless mobile) communication

Page 35 of 51
 UNIT I
Amplitude Modulation
1. Define modulation.
Modulation is defined as the process of changing the characteristics (amplitude, phase ,frequency)
of high frequency carrier signal according to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

2. What is the need for modulation? (

What are the advantages of modulation? May 2013/ Nov 2016
What are the advantages of converting the low frequency signal into high frequency s
The advantages of modulation are
 Reduction of antenna heigh.t
 Ease of transmission.
 Multiplexing.
 Reduced noise.
 Narrow bandwidth.

3. Define Amplitude modulation. May 2007
Amplitude modulation is defined as the process of changing the amplitude of the carrier signal
according to the modulating signal .

4. Define modulation index of AM. (or) depth of modulation (or) percentage modulation
May 2006/ May 2007
Modulation index is defined as the ratio of amplitude of message signal to that of carrier
amplitude.
Vm V max  V min
m or m 
Vc V max  V min
Where Vm- amplitude of modulating signal
Vc- amplitude of modulating signal.

5. What are the degrees of modulation?

The degrees of modulation are
 Under modulation. m<1
 Critical modulation m=1
 Over modulation m>1
m<1 m=1 m>1

Page 41 of 51
6. Define efficiency of AM. May 2006
Efficiency of AM is defined as the ratio of power in sidebands to the total power
powerinsidebands
%efficiency  X 100
Totalpower
= m2 x 100 m = 1 or 100% m-modulation index
2
2+m
= 33.33 %

7. Give the power relation and current relation in AM

The Power relation in AM is
 m2 
Pt  Pc  1  
 2 
where Pt – total modulated power, Pc-un modulated carrier power and m- modulation index
The Current relation in AM is
1
 m2  2
It  Ic  1  
 2 
where It – total modulated current, Ic-un modulated carrier current and m-modulation index.

8. Draw the frequency spectrum of AM.

Vc
mVc/2 mVc/2 fc- carrier frequency
fc--fm -LSB frequency
fc-+fm -USB frequency

fc-fm fc fc+fm

BW=2fm

9. Draw the frequency spectrum of DSB SC.

BW=2fm

Page 42 of 51
10. Draw the frequency spectrum of SSB SC.

BW=fm
fc- suppressed carrier frequency
fc--fm - suppressed LSB frequency fc-+fm -USB frequency

11. Draw the phasor representation of AM,DSB SC,SSB SC

Phasor representation of AM
USB

resultant

Carrier
LSB

Carrier is the reference phasor and the two side band phasors rotating in the opposite direction.

The resultant is sum of carrier and two side band phasors

Phasor representation of DSB-SC

USB

resultant
Carrier(Suppressed)
LSB

Phasor representation of SSB-SC

USB

resultant

Carrier(Suppressed)
LSB

Page 43 of 51
12. What are the advantages of Suppressed Carrier (SC) systems?
The advantages of Suppressed Carrier (SC) systems are
In DSB SC BW remains same as AMFC but power is saved.
In SSB SC BW is reduced to half when compared to AMFC and power is also saved.

13. What is the bandwidth of AM signal?

The bandwidth of AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of modulating signal.
BW=2fm
fm- modulating signal frequency

14. What is the bandwidth of DSB SC , SSB SC AM signal?

The BW of DSB SC=2fm
The BW of SSB SC= fm
fm- modulating signal frequency

15. Compare AM with DSB-SC and SSB-SC. April 2018 May 2013
AM DSB-SC SSB-SC

Bandwidth=2fm Bandwidth=2fm Bandwidth=fm

Contains USB, LSB, carrier Contains USB,LSB Contains LSB or USB

More power is required for Power required is less Power required is less than
Transmission than that of AM. AM &DSB-SC

16. Define demodulation or detection.

Demodulation or detection is defined as the process of recovering the modulating signal from the
modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation.

17. What is diagonal clipping?

In the envelope detector, if RC time constant is kept too high, the discharge becomes
approximately horizontal. In that case, negative peaks of the detected envelope may be completely
or partially missed. The recovered base band signal is distorted at negative peaks. This type of
distortion is known as diagonal clipping.

18. Define coherent (or) Synchronous detection.

The phase and frequency of locally generated carrier must be exactly coherent with that of phase
and frequency of transmitted carrier otherwise the detected signal will be distorted called
coherent detection.

19. Comment on Hilbert Transform.

 Hilbert Transform corresponds to a 900 phase shift.
 The only change that the Hilbert transform performs on a signal is changing its phase.

Page 44 of 51
  The amplitude of the frequency components of the signal do not change by performing the
Hilbert- transform.
 Hilbert transform changes cosines into sines, the Hilbert transform xˆ (t ) of a signal x(t) is
orthogonal to x(t).

 j , f  0
H f  
H f  ht   j, f  0

20. What are the properties of Hilbert transform?

The properties of Hilbert transform ,
 A signal x(t) and its Hilbert transform xˆ (t ) have same energy.
 The Hilbert transform of an even signal is odd and odd signal is even.
 Applying Hilbert transform to a signal twice causes sign reversal of the signal.
If xˆ (t ) is the Hilbert transform of x(t) then Hilbert transform of xˆ (t ) is –x(t).
 A signal x(t) and its Hilbert transform xˆ (t ) are orthogonal.

21. Determine the Hilbert transform of Cos ω t. Dec2017

The Hilbert transform of cos ω t is sin ω t. Since it produces 900 phase shift.

22. What is pre envelope and complex envelope? May 2016

The pre-envelope of a real signal x(t) is the complex function.
( ) ( ) ̂( )
The pre-envelope is useful in treating hand pass signals and systems.
The complex envelope can be used to represent the band pass (BP) system by a low pass (LP)

23. What are suppressed carrier (SC)systems?

In AM ,the transmitting power is wasted in transmitting the carrier which does not contain any
information. The transmitting power is saved by suppressing the carrier called suppressed carrier
systems.

24. What are the types of suppressed carrier systems?

The types of suppressed carrier systems are
 Double side band Suppressed carrier system (DSB SC)
 Single side band Suppressed carrier system (SSB SC)

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25. What are the advantages of SSB SC?
The advantages of SSB SC are both transmitting power and bandwidth is saved.

26. Mention the applications of SSB.

The applications of SSB are
 Point to point radio telephone communication.
 Police wireless communication.
 VHF &UHF communication.

27. What are advantages and disadvantages of SSB? [Apr - 2019] May 2007
Advantages of SSB are
BW(fm) is half of that required by DSB SC system
 Transmitter power requirement in SSB is reduced.
 Due to narrow BW, effect of noise at the receiver circuit is reduced.
 This gives better quality of reception in SSB.
Disadvantages of SSB
 Transmission & reception of SSB is more complex.
 SSB receivers require precise tuning than AM receiver.

28. What is VSB? Where it is used? Dec 2017

Vestigial side band is a compromise between SSB and DSB. In VSB one of the sideband is partially
suppressed and vestige(portion) of other side band is also transmitted.
VSB is mainly used in TV broadcasting for the video transmission .

29. What are the advantages of VSB-AM?

What are advantages and applications of VSB? May 2011
Advantages of VSB:
 Low frequencies, near fc are transmitted without any attenuation.
 BW is reduced compared to DSB SC.
 SSB-SC< BW < DSB – SC.
Application : Mainly used for TV transmission.

30. For television signal transmission vestigial sideband modulation is selected. Justify your answer.
Suggest a modulation scheme for the broadcast of video transmission and justify
Nov 2009/Nov 2014/ Nov 2016
VSB is mainly used in TV broadcasting for the video transmission .
TV signals contains frequency component of extremely low frequency, the USB and LSB meets the
carrier frequency and is difficult to isolate one of the side band since low frequency near fc
represent significant picture details and they are unaffected due to VSB. Therefore VSB is used for
TV transmission.

31. What are the parameters used to evaluate the ability of a radio receiver?
The parameters commonly used to evaluate the ability of a receiver to successfully demodulate a
radio signal are

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  Selectivity
 Sensitivity
 Fidelity
32. Define sensitivity. May 2014
Sensitivity of a receiver is the ability to receive or detect weak signals and amplify them.

33. Define selectivity.

Selectivity of a receiver is the ability to select the desired signal among the various signals and
reject the unwanted signal.

34. Define Fidelity.

Fidelity of the receiver is the ability to reproduce all the frequency components of modulating
signal at the output of the receiver.

35. Define super heterodyne principle.

Define heterodyning. May 2015
Heterodyne principle is defined as the process of mixing two signals having different frequencies to
produce a new frequency. This process uses a locally generated carrier wave, which determines the
change of frequency.

36. What is called image frequency? Dec 2014

Image frequency is defined as the signal frequency plus twice the intermediate frequency. This has
the effect of two stations being received simultaneously and hence it is undesirable.
fsi = fs + 2 fi
fsi - image frequency
It can be eliminated by providing adequate image signal selectivity (pre selector)between antenna
and mixer input.

37. What is intermediate frequency?

In super heterodyne receiver, all the incoming frequencies are converted to a pre determined fixed
frequency called Intermediate frequency.
(IF) is defined as the difference between the signal frequency and the local oscillator frequency.
IF = fs – fo when fs > fo (or) IF = fo –fs when fo > fs

38. Define image frequency rejection ratio.

Image frequency rejection ratio defined as “the ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to the gain
at the image frequency”.
IFRR (α) = Gain at the signal frequency
Gain at the image frequency
IFRR =  = 1 + Q2P2
where P = fsi/fs – fs/fsi
where Q = quality factor of tuned circuit
fsi = image signal frequency
fs = input RF frequency

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39. What is the value of standard intermediate frequency for AM radio and FM radio?
The most common intermediate frequency used in AM radio receivers is 455 kHz.
The most common intermediate frequency used in FM radio receiver is 10 M Hz.

40. What are the advantages of super heterodyne receiver over TRF? [Apr - 2019]
What are the characteristics of super heterodyne receiver? May 2010
The advantages of super heterodyne receiver over TRF are
 High selectivity and sensitivity.
 Uniform bandwidth because of fixed intermediate frequency.
 It eliminates image frequency.
 Improved stability.

41. What theorem is used to calculate the average power of a periodic signal g p(t)?
State the theorem. May 2016
Parseval’s Theorem is used to calculate the average power of a periodic signal.
Parseval ‘s theorem states that the total average power in a periodic signal equals the sum of
average of power in all of its harmonic components.

⁄ | ( )| ∑ | |

42. Do the modulation techniques decide the antenna height? May 2017
Yes , the modulation decides the antenna height .The antenna height is inversely proportional to
frequency. So by modulation the antenna height is reduced.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A transmitter supplies 8 Kw to the antenna when modulated. Determine the total power
radiated when modulated to 30%. [Apr - 2019]
Given data:
% modulation m=0.3, carrier power, Pc=8 kw
Formula: Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)
Pt=8.36 kw

2. A 500 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 60 percent. Calculate the total power in modulated
wave. Nov 2008
Given data:
Carrier power pc=500W
Depth of modulation ma =60%
Find total power pt.
Solution :
P t=pc (1+ /2)
P t=512.5W

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3. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A when only carrier is sent. It increases to 8.93A
when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the percentage modulation.
Given data:
Un modulated carrier current ,Ic =8A , modulated current It=8.93A
½
Formula: It=Ic (1+m2/2)
m=0.701
%m=70%

4. A transmitter radiates 9 kW without modulation and 10.125 KW after modulation. Determine

depth of modulation. Nov 2007
Given data :
-un modulated carrier power=9kw
- transmitted power.=10.12kw
Solution:
Pt=Pc (1+m2/2)
√ ( 1)
m=0.5

5. How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a 100KHz bandwidth if the highest
frequency modulating a carrier is 5 KHz? April 2010 / Nov 2011
Given data:
Modulating frequency, fm =5 KHz
Total bandwidth=100 kHz
Solution:
B w =2fm
= 2x 5 kHz
= 10 kHz
Total bandwidth is 100 KHz
The number of AM broadcast stations
.’. 100/10=10

6. An amplitude modulation transmitter radiates 1000w of un modulated power. If the carrier is

modulated simultaneously by two tones of 40% and 60% respectively. Calculate the total power
radiated. Nov 2012
Given data :
Un modulated carrier power Pc=1000W
m1=40%
m2=60%
Find transmitted power Pt.

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 Solution :
m t=√
m1=40/100=0.4
m2=60/100=0.6
m t =0.721.
Pt=pc(1+ /2)
P t=1259.9W

7. Compute the bandwidth of the amplitude modulated signal given by

S(t)=23[1+0.8cos(310t)]cos(230000 t). May2012/April2009
Given data:
Carrier amplitude Ac =23
Modulation index ma=0.8
ωm = 310
ωc=230000
Solution :
2 fm=310
fm=310 /2 =155Hz
Bandwidth=2fm=98.67 Hz.

8. Obtain the BW of AM signal S(t) = 23 cos(23000t) (1+0.8cos310t)

Given :
AM signal S(t) = 23 cos(23000t) (1+0.8cos310t)
Solution:
General expression for AM AC cos ct[1+macosmt]
c = 230000 AC = 23 ma = 0.8 m = 310
2fc = 23,0000
fc = 23,000/2 = 11.5KHz 2  f m = 310
BW = 2fm = 2 x155 f m = 155Hz
BW = 310Hz
9. A carrier of 6kV is amplitude modulated by an audio signal of 3 kV. Find the modulation index.
Nov - 2018
Vm = 3kV
Vc= 6kV
Modulation index m= Vm/Vc = 3k/6k
m=0.5

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43. What are advantages of converting low frequencing signal to high frequency signal? Nov 2018
In multiplexing, low frequency signals are converted to high frequency signals and
combined with other high frequency signals so that you can pack multiple signals into a
single signal, although this combined siganl will have a greater bandwidth.
44. What are the advantages of coherent detection? April 2018

Coherent detection therefore offers several key advantages compared to direct detection:
(1) Greatly improved receiver sensitivity.
(2) Can extract amplitude, frequency, and phase information from an optical carrier, and
consequently can achieve much higher capacity in the same bandwidth.

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