Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

The impact of debris on marine life

S.C. Gall ⇑, R.C. Thompson
Marine Biology & Ecology Research Centre, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Marine debris is listed among the major perceived threats to biodiversity, and is cause for particular con-
Available online 10 February 2015 cern due to its abundance, durability and persistence in the marine environment. An extensive literature
search reviewed the current state of knowledge on the effects of marine debris on marine organisms. 340
Keywords: original publications reported encounters between organisms and marine debris and 693 species. Plastic
Ocean litter debris accounted for 92% of encounters between debris and individuals. Numerous direct and indirect
Garbage consequences were recorded, with the potential for sublethal effects of ingestion an area of considerable
Biodiversity
uncertainty and concern. Comparison to the IUCN Red List highlighted that at least 17% of species affected
Harm
Mortality
by entanglement and ingestion were listed as threatened or near threatened. Hence where marine
Microplastics debris combines with other anthropogenic stressors it may affect populations, trophic interactions and
assemblages.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction readily apparent from the published literature that on a global

scale, plastic items are consistently among the most numerically
Marine habitats are spoiled with man-made debris, from the abundant types of marine debris (OSPAR, 2007; Thompson et al.,
poles to the equator and from shorelines, estuaries and the sea sur- 2009; UNEP-CAR/RCU, 2008; UNEP, 2005, 2009). There are a num-
face to the depths of the ocean (Thompson et al., 2009). The inci- ber of transport pathways by which debris enters the marine envi-
dence of marine debris is cause for concern for a number of ronment, including rivers, drainage or sewerage systems, and
reasons. It is known to be harmful to organisms and to human wind, and once there, debris persists, with its durability making
health (Coe and Rogers, 1997; Derraik, 2002; Gregory, 2009; it resistant to degradation (Barnes et al., 2009).
Rochman et al., 2013), it has potential to increase the transport Plastic debris is of particular concern due to its abundance, and
of organic and inorganic contaminants (Gaylor et al., 2012; its persistence in the environment, which makes it a ubiquitous
Holmes et al., 2012; Mato et al., 2001; Rochman et al., 2012; category of marine debris. Global production of plastics has
Teuten et al., 2009), it presents a hazard to shipping, and it is aes- increased considerably over the last few decades from 5 million
thetically detrimental, thus generating negative socio-economic tonnes per year in the 1960s to 280 million tonnes per year in
consequences (Mouat et al., 2010). The scale of the marine debris 2011 (PlasticsEurope, 2012). The absolute quantity of plastic debris
problem and its potential to negatively impact biodiversity has that enters the marine environment is, however, unknown. Sam-
not been widely evaluated. pling is typically restricted to the sea surface in coastal waters
Marine debris is defined as any persistent manufactured or pro- and shorelines, and temporal trends have been found to vary
cessed solid material discarded, disposed of or abandoned in the between regions (Barnes et al., 2009; Derraik, 2002). It is evident,
marine and coastal environment (Coe and Rogers, 1997; Galgani however, that despite efforts to remove debris from the marine
et al., 2010). It includes items made or lost by people, and those environment, and restrictions on dumping at sea, quantities of
deliberately discarded into or unintentionally lost in the marine plastic are increasing in some locations (Harper and Fowler,
environment including, among others, items of plastic, wood, 1987; Thompson et al., 2004; Goldstein et al., 2012). In many areas
metal, glass, rubber, clothing and paper (Galgani et al., 2010; quantities are highly variable but stable and for some debris types
OSPAR, 2007). The material types most commonly found in marine there is evidence of a decrease, but it seems inevitable that since
debris are glass, metal, paper and plastic (OSPAR, 2007), and it is most plastics will not biodegrade, quantities in the marine envi-
ronment will increase over time (Andrady, 2011). It is likely that
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1752 584997. the lack of consistent trends in temporal data represent the move-
E-mail addresses: sarah.gall@plymouth.ac.uk (S.C. Gall), R.C.Thompson@ ment of debris to compartments where monitoring is minimal
plymouth.ac.uk (R.C. Thompson). such as deep sea sediments Woodall et al. (2014) and offshore

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.041
0025-326X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179 171

areas, and also the fragmentation of plastic debris into pieces smal- 2011), in particular coral reefs (Al-Jufaili et al., 1999; Chiappone
ler than those routinely sampled. et al., 2005; Chiappone et al., 2002; Donohue et al., 2001;
The impact of marine debris on marine life is of particular con- Richards and Beger, 2011). Particular concern is associated with
cern, and effects can be wide reaching (Fig. 1), with the conse- species listed on the IUCN Red List as these are at the greatest risk
quences of ingestion and entanglement considered to be harmful. of extinction from a diverse range of impacts.
Reports in the literature began in the 1960s (Brongersma, 1968; The incidence of marine debris and its potential to cause harm
Caldwell et al., 1965; Holgersen, 1961) with fatalities being well has resulted in it being recognised as a global problem (STAP,
documented for birds, turtles, fish and marine mammals (Laist, 2011; Sutherland et al., 2010) and its listing among the major per-
1997; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and cieved threats to marine biodiversity (Gray, 1997). The problem
the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel – GEF, 2012). Debris has been recognised in global and regional agreements such as
has also been shown to provide an additional surface for the rafting the decisions of the 11th Conference of the Parties to the Conven-
of organisms (Aliani and Molcard, 2003; Barnes and Fraser, 2003; tion on Biological Diversity (CBD COP 11 Decision XI/18), the 10th
Barnes and Milner, 2005; Carpenter et al., 1972; Winston et al., Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of
1997) which has implications for the transport of non-native spe- Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS Resolution 10.4), the
cies, and to provide new habitat for colonisation (Ayaz et al., 2006; International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From
Carr et al., 1985; Donohue et al., 2001; Goldstein et al., 2012; Good Ships (MARPOL) Annex V, and the EU Marine Strategy Framework
et al., 2010; Pace et al., 2007) which may be particularly important Directive (MSFD). Furthermore, the cumulative impacts of plastic
where it provides hard substrate in areas that are otherwise pre- resins on human health and the environment have led to proposals
dominantly of soft sediment (Pace et al., 2007). It may also cause enacting legislation and policies classifying the most harmful types
physical changes to habitats (Aloy et al., 2011; Carson et al., of plastic debris as hazardous waste (Rochman et al., 2013).

Fig. 1. (A) Debris discarded on the shore near a coral reef, Ta’u Island, American Samoa (Courtesy of Wolcott Henry/Marine Photobank). (B) Debris extracted from the carcass
of a Laysan Albatross chick, Kure Atoll, Hawaii (Courtesy of Claire Fackler, NOAA Marine Sanctuaries/Marine Photobank). (C) Debris incorporated into the nests of a Northern
Gannet (Morus bassanus) on Grasholm, UK (Courtesy of Dr. Stephen Votier, Plymouth University). (D). Marine debris and derelict fishing gear among albatross nesting habitat.
Midway Atoll, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Courtesy of Steven Siegel/Marine Photobank). (E) Turtle entangled in plastic rope in Caribbean (photo: UNEP-CAR/RCU, 2008).
172 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179

Without sufficient knowledge on the scope of the problem it is, including (where relevant) species name, taxonomic grouping,
however, difficult to develop legislation that is both adequate number of individuals, debris type, type of encounter, and location
and effective. of encounter. Where additional reference was made to specific
Literature to date has highlighted the problems associated with impacts or harm these were also noted, for example lacerations,
the presence of debris in the marine environment and discussed its gut obstruction and death.
impacts and implications on marine organisms (Derraik, 2002; Once the data were collated, analyses were undertaken to
Gregory, 2009; Laist, 1997, 1987). The last comprehensive review determine the number of papers reporting encounters, number of
was conducted by Laist (1997) who reported 267 species interact- species involved, number of individuals involved, debris type and
ing with marine debris (becoming entangled or ingesting debris), report location. The paper did not aim to test hypotheses, but to
but provided no synthesis of numbers of individuals impacted, provide summary statistics on mean levels of encounter, including
thus restricting our understanding of the scale of the problem. It means and measures of variability where possible. Species were
is evident that high degrees of uncertainty exist relating to marine included on the species list when in the original publication they
debris data, including, in particular the amount of debris entering were either 1) identified to species level or 2) identified to a lower
the marine environment, what happens to this debris and the taxonomic level but where it could be confirmed that they were
extent of its impact on marine biodiversity. Following this, not included within those already captured. Species were grouped
Derraik (2002) reviewed the pollution of the marine environment taxonomically as appropriate for the ingestion/entanglement and
by plastic debris, in relation to entanglement and ingestion, use rafting categories, with analyses focussing on the groups with
of plastic debris by invasive species, and absorption of pollutants the greatest numbers of species and individuals reported.
by species. Since this time, however, no further review has been The literature review process did not include assessment of the
completed, and it is therefore timely to evaluate the extent to reliability of each report. Literature was screened to ensure that the
which the marine debris problem has changed over time. focus was on the most reliable sources, but the conclusions of the
This paper therefore aims to provide an update to the work of authors regarding whether encounters with marine debris had
Derraik (2002) reviewing and synthesising current knowledge of caused harm to the organisms were not questioned. The objective
the effects of marine debris on marine organisms, presenting data of this work was to present the body of evidence, and it was
on the number of individuals and number of species for which lit- accepted that some subjectivity in different researcher’s assess-
erature exists documenting encounters with marine debris and ment of harm was inherent, but unavoidable. The reference list
also the number of reports that have been published. The opportu- refers only to those references mentioned within this text and is
nity for this work arose from a report the authors were invited to not a full list of all reviewed papers. Those mentioned are charac-
prepare for the CBD and Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel teristic, and indicative of the general trends identified by the
of the Global Environment Facility (STAP). This formed an exten- review.
sive review (61 pages) outlining the impact of marine debris on Some limitations were identified in the data currently available,
biodiversity together with strategies to address the challenge of with a lack of reports considering low trophic level organisms, and
marine debris (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological a geographical reporting bias. Furthermore, the differing aims of
Diversity and the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel – GEF, studies which have reported encounters result in different infor-
2012). The current paper presents a succinct summary of some mation being provided; hence not all reports provided detail of
of the key messages from that report and builds upon it, providing the size or number of items ingested, the number of individuals
a peer reviewed update on (Derraik, 2002). It is intended that the affected or the impact of the encounters and whether harm was
results will contribute to global understanding of the marine debris caused. It is thought that the impact of microplastic (defined as
problem, providing up to date estimates of the numbers of species plastic material <5 mm (Arthur et al., 2009)) in particular is under-
and individuals affected by marine debris. The results are also represented due to lack of information relating to the size of debris
compared to species conservation status as defined by IUCN to ingested. These limitations are discussed.
provide context for the scale and potential consequences of the
impacts.
3. Results

2. Materials and methods A total of 340 original publications were identified document-
ing encounters between marine debris and marine organisms.
An extensive literature review was conducted, focussing on These reported encounters for a total of 693 species. 76.5% of all
peer reviewed publications and reports in grey literature. Once col- reports listed plastic amongst the debris types encountered by
lated, the literature was divided into four key topics, namely those organisms making it the most commonly reported debris type.
1) documenting ingestion of or entanglement in marine debris by 92% of all encounters between individual organisms and debris
organisms, 2) reporting species rafting on debris, 3) where debris were with plastic.
creates new habitat for colonisation, and 4) where it causes phys- Encounters between organisms and marine debris were first
ical damage to ecosystems. Electronic key word searches were per- reported in the 1960s (Brongersma, 1968; Caldwell et al., 1965;
formed using Web of Science, Google Scholar and Google to Holgersen, 1961). Since that time there has been an increased fre-
identify literature. Key words used for debris included: marine quency of reporting, both for numbers of species and numbers of
debris, floating marine debris, marine litter, debris, plastic, metal, individuals effected (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
glass and paper, and for effects included: impact, entanglement, Diversity and the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel – GEF,
ingestion, rafting, habitat, ecosystem, invasive, alien and biodiver- 2012). The average number of documents reporting ingestion and
sity. The reference list from Laist (1997) and papers which refer- entanglement encounters as well as those reporting rafting has
enced other studies that had not already been captured were remained fairly constant since the 1980s (Secretariat of the
also examined and all relevant traceable sources used. Convention on Biological Diversity and the Scientific and
Contact by email was made with key researchers and the Technical Advisory Panel – GEF, 2012).
coordinators of the UNEP Regional Seas Programmes to identify When considering reporting location, regions with the greatest
additional literature, in particular grey literature. Data was com- number of reports included the east coast of North America
piled in terms of the frequency of different types of encounter, (n = 56), Australasia (n = 54), the west coast of North America
 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179 173

(n = 54) and Europe (n = 52). Regions where reporting was low fragments (37%) (Fig. 2a). When the data are considered according
included Antarctica (n = 6), the east and west coasts of Africa to species, encounters were again most strongly associated with
(n = 7 and n = 5 respectively) the west coast of South America plastic rope and netting for cases of entanglement (55%), and with
(n = 6) and the Arctic (n = 5). plastic fragments (31%) for ingestion (Fig. 2b). Cases of both entan-
glement and ingestion were fewest for the debris types: glass,
3.1. Entanglement and ingestion metal and paper (Fig. 2).
Thirty-five percent more papers reported entanglement
Of the 340 original publications examined, a total of 292 (n = 178) than ingestion (n = 132), and reports were most com-
reported the incidence of ingestion or entanglement encounters monly made for sea turtles, marine mammals and sea birds.
between marine debris and organisms. These reported encounters Reports of entanglement in marine debris by species were most
for 44,006 individuals from 395 species, and represented a 49% numerous for the northern right whale (Eubalaena glacialis),
increase over the 267 species reported by Laist (1997). Reports of (n = 38), the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), (n = 19), and hawks-
ingestion were made for 13,110 individuals from 208 species and bill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), (n = 15), and reports of the inci-
reports of entanglement were made for 30,896 individuals from dence of ingestion of marine debris by species were most
243 species. Plastic was the material for which encounters numerous for the green sea turtle (C. mydas), (n = 20), northern ful-
between individuals and debris were most commonly reported mar (Fulmaris glacialis), (n = 20) and loggerhead turtle (Caretta
for cases of both entanglement and ingestion (92%). When this cat- caretta), (n = 18). Species with the greatest number of individuals
egory was subdivided into debris type it was apparent that the ingesting debris were the northern fulmar (F. glacialis),
majority of entanglement incidents were encounters between the (n = 3444), Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis), (n = 971)
individual and plastic rope and netting (71%), whereas the majority and greater shearwater (Puffinus gravis), (n = 895), and with the
of ingestion incidents were between the individual and plastic greatest number of individuals becoming entangled in debris were

Fig. 2. Reports of entanglement and ingestion caused by marine debris according to number of (a) individuals, (b) species, and (c) documents/papers per debris type (Rope
and netting, other fishing materials (mainly lines, pots), intact items and packaging, fragments > 5 mm, microplastic < 4.99 mm), glass, metal, paper, other (e.g. rubber) and
unknown. Bars are divided by impact according to taxonomic grouping – marine mammals, birds, fish, sea turtles. The number of species is greater than 395 as it accounts for
species encountering more than one debris type, and total number of papers is greater than 292 as it accounts for papers reporting impacts on more than one species. Data
presented are for all reported encounters identified in the published literature.
174 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179

the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus), (n = 3835), Californian and via aquaculture, both of which are known to be substantial
sea lion (Zalophus californianus), (n = 3587), and Atlantic puffin contributors to species dispersal, and also to the transport of inva-
(Fratercula arctica), (n = 1674). sive species (Molnar et al., 2008). Marine debris is now contribut-
Consequences of encounters were considered where docu- ing to the rafting and transport of organisms, with the potential for
mented, suggesting that direct harm or death (defined as where floating debris such as plastic to travel great distances.
the individual was reported to have been injured or killed as a Thirty-four reports were identified reporting organisms rafting
direct result of the encounter with marine debris) is a more com- on debris for 259 species. Numbers of individuals were seldom
mon consequence of entanglement than ingestion, with 79% of reported, so values are not presented. When considering the mate-
cases resulting in direct harm or death for cases of entanglement rials comprising the rafting debris, intact items and packaging
compared to 4% of cases of ingestion (Fig. 3). accounted for 40% of all reported encounters with species, followed
All known species of sea turtle, 54% of all species of marine by fragments (36%), rope and netting (17%), other fishing material
mammal, and 56% of all species of seabird were affected by entan- (1.50%) and microplastics (1.50%), (Fig. 5). Of the species identified,
glement in or ingestion of marine debris and the percentage of only 6 were listed as invasive and were described in a total of 4
encounters has increased for all taxonomic groups since the Laist reports. It is however, expected that this is an underrepresentation
(1997) review (Table 1). Whilst the number of reports of species as the number of reports is low and not all reports identified organ-
of fish encountering marine debris remains low (0.68%), the num- isms to species level.
ber of species affected has almost doubled since 1997.
Data on species that had encountered marine debris were cross
3.4. Assemblage level effects
referenced with species conservation status using the IUCN Red
List to determine how many of those already known to be threa-
Evidence for assemblage level effects were very limited; sug-
tened were encountering debris. From this, it was apparent that
gesting that such effects are difficult to quantify rather than that
approximately 17% of species ingesting or becoming entangled in
they do not exist. A total of eight references were identified. These
marine debris were listed as near threatened, vulnerable, endan-
documented and suggested likely effects on coral reefs (Al-Jufaili
gered or critically endangered (Fig. 3). Reports documenting
et al., 1999; Chiappone et al., 2005; Chiappone et al., 2002;
impacts on critically endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus
Donohue et al., 2001; Richards and Beger, 2011), soft sediment
schauinslandi), (n = 215); endangered loggerhead turtle, (n = 755);
habitats (Uneputty and Evans, 1997) and sandy intertidal sedi-
vulnerable northern fur seal, (n = 3835), and near threatened sooty
ments (Aloy et al., 2011; Carson et al., 2011).
shearwater, (n = 1122) were of particular concern due to the num-
Chiappone et al. (2005) reviewed the consequences of the loss
bers of individuals involved (Fig. 4).
of fishing gear on coral reef and hard bottom sites in the Florida
Keys, finding that hook and line gear was responsible for 84% of
3.2. Potential for debris to provide new habitat
impacts to sponges and cnidarians with tissue abrasion causing
partial or total mortality. They did not attempt to link the quantity
Numerous man made surfaces have been added to the marine
of debris to the damage caused, but it is clear from their assess-
environment, and marine debris contributes to this. These are most
ment that debris had negative impacts on the benthic assemblage.
commonly coastal structures such as harbour walls and coastal
Richards and Beger (2011) identified similar consequences from
defences, and artificial reefs which result from purposeful intro-
the presence of marine debris in a lagoon in the Republic of the
duction of additional surfaces. Whilst the contribution of marine
Marshall Islands, finding that coral cover significantly decreased
debris to this is slim, it does represents the addition of hard sub-
as debris cover increased, again suggesting assemblage level
strata into the sea, providing new surfaces for colonisation by
effects.
microorganisms and macrobiota (Harrison et al., 2011; Whal,
In soft sediment habitats, Uneputty and Evans (1997) found
1989; Ye and Andrady, 1991), and influencing the relative abun-
that marine debris accumulating on the seabed in Ambon Bay,
dance of organisms within local assemblages (Secretariat of the
Indonesia increased the abundance of meiofauna and decreased
Convention on Biological Diversity and the Scientific and
that of diatoms when compared to areas without debris, although
Technical Advisory Panel – GEF, 2012). The impact of this will
no change was noted for macrofauna.
likely be more substantial in areas away from the coastal zone
Not all studies were able to directly link their findings to assem-
where other man made habitats are scarce.
blage level effects, however, but instead identified the potential for
Six papers were identified that described this, listing a total of
these to occur. Aloy et al. (2011) determined experimentally that
85 taxa (both mobile and sessile) using marine debris as habitat
when plastic cover was 50% the efficiency of the gastropod
from 12 taxonomic groups (Table 2). Number of individuals was
Nassarius pullus in locating and moving towards a food source sig-
not commonly reported, often as organisms were colonial. Four
nificantly decreased, but the maximum cover of plastic that they
of the papers reported colonisation of derelict fishing gear by
found on the shore was only 0.77%. Similarly, Carson et al. (2011)
mobile and sessile species (Ayaz et al., 2006; Carr et al., 1985;
determined that the quantity of plastic fragments in beach sedi-
Donohue et al., 2001; Good et al., 2010), highlighting an effect
ments altered the sediment’s thermal properties, and although
aside from the destructive ‘ghost fishing’ with which they are usu-
they did not identify an assemblage level impact they hypothesised
ally associated.
that this could have significant consequences for beach organisms,
particularly those such as sea turtles whose eggs have temperature
3.3. Dispersal via rafting, including transport of invasive species
dependent sex determination. Hence, rather than identifying a
current assemblage level effect, both authors have identified the
The dispersal of species in the marine environment largely
potential for this to be the case in the future.
depends on oceanic currents, but, increasingly the range of species
with no pelagic larval stage has expanded, suggesting that rafting
on man-made objects is playing a role in their spread (Thiel and 4. Discussion
Gutow, 2005). Species have always rafted on natural materials
such as wood, sargassum and volcanic pumice (Thiel and Gutow, It is apparent that a wide range of species are affected by inges-
2005), but increased industrialisation has opened new pathways tion and entanglement in marine debris and that the frequency of
such as the transport of organisms in the ballast water of ships encounters has increased over time. While it seems inevitable that
 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179 175

feeding capacity (Ryan, 1988). Sub-lethal effects are particularly

difficult to quantify, highlighting the complexities in ascertaining
whether debris ingestion has caused the individuals death, been
a contributing factor, or is unrelated.
A further consequence of ingestion of marine debris, in particu-
lar microplastic debris may be the provision of a pathway facilitat-
ing the transport of chemicals to organisms (Oehlmann et al., 2009;
Rochman et al., 2012; Teuten et al., 2009). Microplastics are defined
as pieces or fragments of plastic less than 5 mm in diameter (Arthur
et al., 2009; Barnes et al., 2009), and their abundance is increasing in
the oceans (Goldstein et al., 2012; Thompson et al., 2004). The find-
ing that 10% of all ingestion reports documented encounters with
microplastics highlights their importance as a component of marine
debris, as supported by their recent identification as one of the top
emerging global issues (Sutherland et al., 2010; UNEP Year Book,
2011). To date, studies into harmful toxicological effects associated
with ingestion are limited, with none having confirmed a link at
environmental concentrations of debris. Ryan et al. (1988) did
however, identify a positive correlation between the amount of
Fig. 3. Incidence of ingestion of or entanglement in marine debris, indicating the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT, DDE and dieldrin in the
consequence of the encounter where described. ‘Direct harm/death’ is defined as fat tissue and eggs of breeding female Great Shearwaters, suggest-
where the encounter was reported to have directly caused injury or death, ‘indirect
ing that if there are toxicological effects, these could be passed to
harm/death’ as where the encounter contributed to injury or death but was not the
direct cause (for example, sub-lethal effects) and ‘survived’ as where the encounter offspring and may therefore be far reaching.
did not have an adverse effect on the individual. Data presented are for all reported The small size of microplastics means that they have a large
encounters identified in the published literature. surface area to volume ratio, and consequently the capacity to
facilitate the transport of contaminants. This applies both to those
incorporated in the plastic as part of the manufacturing process
the biological and ecological performance of some individuals will such as monomers, oligomers, bisphenol-A, phthalate plasticisers,
be compromised, at present there is no clear evidence of popula- flame retardants and antimicrobials (Lithner et al., 2011), and
tion level consequences of encounters between plastic and marine those adsorbed such as persistent bioaccumulative and toxic sub-
life. It should be noted, however, that there are few clear examples stances present in the oceans from other sources (Mato et al.,
of population level effects from any single form of man-made con- 2001; Rochman et al., 2012; Teuten et al., 2009). It is clear that
tamination as it is very difficult to link such changes in natural there is potential for the transfer of contaminants from the plastic
populations to single causative agents (but see Gibbs et al., to the organism once ingested (Teuten et al., 2007, 2009), but the
1987). A lack of evidence does not therefore necessarily imply a extent to which the transfer of toxic substances to organisms is
lack of effect. facilitated by microplastic particles, the consequences of this trans-
This review has identified that the effects of entanglement are fer, and the importance of this pathway in relation to other path-
more commonly reported than those of ingestion, with a much ways is not yet fully understood (Cole et al., 2011; Teuten et al.,
greater percentage of encounters linked to direct harm or death 2009). In addition to toxicological effects, recent laboratory exper-
of individuals. This however, rather than suggesting that entangle- iments have indicated the potential for microplastic ingestion to
ment is a greater problem than ingestion, may serve to highlight have physical effects compromising food assimilation (Wright
that the effects of entanglement are more readily obvious, allowing et al., 2013).
more conclusive reporting of harm with entanglement. Impacts of Examination of encounters according to species highlighted
entanglement include drowning, suffocation, lacerations, a that all known species of sea turtle and more than half of all known
decreased ability to catch food, and an inability to effectively avoid species of marine mammal and sea bird have ingested or become
predators (Derraik, 2002; Gregory, 1991; Laist, 1997, 1987). The entangled in marine debris. However, only a small proportion of
detection of ingestion effects is harder and typically requires nec- fish species have been affected, and it is important to note that
ropsy. Effects commonly outlined include starvation due to gut while these are important statistics, it must be recognised that
obstruction, a false feeling of satiation, reduced fitness, and, poten- the proportion of species known to encounter debris will decrease
tial toxicity caused by absorption of toxins from plastic debris as the taxonomic diversity of the species group increases. Hence,
(Bjorndal et al., 1994; Gregory, 1991; Ryan et al., 1988; Spear the more species in a taxonomic group, the bigger the sampling
et al., 1995). effort required to adequately determine the number of species
The severity of the impact of both ingestion and entanglement affected. Studies of fish, for example, are often opportunistic fol-
will vary according to the type of debris and will vary between spe- lowing fisheries studies, with ingestion in particular not commonly
cies and also between individuals, with some able to withstand recorded as it requires necropsy. There is variation among studies
more than others. Despite this, it is apparent that there will be neg- which likely results from differences in the species examined the
ative consequence for the individual. sampling location, and methodology. Some studies, such as that
The consequences of ingestion also depends upon feeding hab- of Lusher et al. (2013) found that all ten fish species sampled in
itats, with, for example, sea birds that commonly ingest hard, the English Channel, UK and 37% of all individuals had ingested
sharp, items of prey being better able to tolerate ingestion of hard microplastic, whereas Anastasopoulou et al. (2013) only found evi-
items of debris than those used to softer prey items (Baltz and dence of debris ingestion in five out of 24 species sampled in the
Morejohn, 1976; Bourne and Imber, 1980). Some species will Ionian Sea, Eastern Mediterranean.
regurgitate indigestible items, and therefore will regurgitate deb- Encounters with marine debris are of particular concern for spe-
ris, resulting in less impact than those in which debris accumulates cies which are recognised to be threatened, and with 17% of all
in the gut. Where accumulation in the gut occurs, the result may be species reported here listed as near threatened, vulnerable, endan-
death, caused at least in part by sublethal effects such as reduced gered or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List it is evident
176 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179

Table 1
Number of species with records of entanglement and ingestion documented in Laist (1997), the number reported here and the total number of species identified worldwide. The
percentage of the total number of known species that are reported entangled or ingesting is given in brackets. NB This value will also be affected by the number of species within a
taxonomic group. For groups with fewer species less sampling effort would be required to demonstrate that all or a large percentage of the species were affected. Sources for total
number of identified species: Laist (1997), First Census of Marine Life (2010).

Species group Number of known species Number of species with Number of species with Total number of species with either
entanglement records ingestion records entanglement or ingestion records
Laist (1997) This study Laist (1997) This study Laist (1997) This study
Marine mammals 115 32 (28%) 52 (45%) 26 (23%) 30 (26%) 49 (43%) 62 (54%)
Fish 16,754 34 (0.20%) 66 (0.39%) 33 (0.20%) 50 (0.30%) 60 (0.36%) 114 (0.68%)
Seabirds 312 51 (16%) 79 (25%) 111 (36%) 122 (39%) 138 (44%) 174 (56%)
Sea turtles 7 6 (86%) 7 (100%) 6 (86%) 6 (86%) 6 (86%) 7 (100%)

Fig. 4. Number of species listed as near threatened, vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List for which impacts of marine debris through
entanglement or ingestion effects have been recorded. Species are listed in order of number of impacted individuals from largest to smallest. E denotes that the species has
been impacted by entanglement, and I that it has been impacted by ingestion. For critically endangered species, 1 represents entanglement, 1 ingestion and 3 both
entanglement and ingestion; for endangered species, 6 represent entanglement, 6 ingestion, and 3 both entanglement and ingestion; for vulnerable species, 9 represent
entanglement, 18 ingestion, and 5 both entanglement and ingestion; and for near threatened species, 5 represent entanglement, 7 ingestion, and 2 both entanglement and
ingestion. Data presented are for all reported encounters identified in the published literature.

that marine debris may be contributing to the potential for species level effects. For example van Franeker et al. (2011) who have stud-
extinction. ied the northern fulmar population in the North Sea over than last
The main focus of the literature to date has been on entangle- 33 years determined that approximately 95% of individuals
ment and ingestion of marine debris. The provision of an additional washed ashore dead contained plastic debris, and that of these,
source of rafting material for species may, however, also have neg- 58% contained quantities exceeding the OSPAR Ecological Quality
ative consequences, with Barnes (2002) estimating that debris Objective critical level of 0.1 g per individual. Whilst they did not
might have substantially increased the propagation of fauna in identify specific negative impacts on the fulmars resulting from
subtropical and high latitudes. Where species are invasive this the ingestion of plastic debris, it seems likely that they are occur-
could be problematic, and whilst unlikely to be a major pathway ring. The strength of this data has led to the suggestion that plastic
for transport, rafting on marine debris may provide an additional content in this population could be used as a monitoring indicator
and in some locations, substantial method for the spread of to assess spatial and temporal changes in surface debris concentra-
invasive species (Gregory, 2009). tions on a regional basis within the north-eastern Atlantic. Simi-
Despite lack of solid evidence to confirm it, for species where larly, due to the finding that plastic was retained in the stomachs
there is a clear record of marine debris encounters affecting sub- of petrels for months, (Furness, 1985; Ryan and Jackson, 1987), it
stantial numbers of individuals there is concern for population has been suggested that these species could be a useful proxy for
 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179 177

Table 2 monitoring changes in the composition of plastic across the Atlan-

Number of taxa and number of papers by taxonomic group that report the use of tic and southwest Indian Oceans (Ryan, 2008). Other populations
marine debris as a habitat. Unknown represents those species identified by Pace et al.
(2007) as no species list was presented.
known to extensively ingest marine debris include the Norway lob-
ster (Nephrops norvegicus) in the Clyde Sea, UK where Murray and
Taxonomic group Number of taxa Number of papers Cowie (2011) determined that 83% of the individuals contained
Bivalves 1 1 microplastic debris, and green turtle and seabirds in Brazil where
Bryozoans 1 1 Tourinho et al. (2010) determined that 100% of dead stranded
Cephalopods 1 1
Cnidaria 3 2
green turtles and 40% of dead stranded sea birds contained human
Crustaceans 14 3 made debris.
Echinoderms 6 3 There is limited evidence of effects at the assemblage level. In
Fish 10 1 areas where debris provides isolated hard habitat, however, spe-
Gastropods 1 1
cies which would not otherwise have been present are able to col-
Pelagic insects 1 1
Polychaetes 2 1 onise which may have consequences for surrounding biota. Where
Porifera 1 1 this occurs in the water column or in areas of soft sediment, the
Seagrass and algae 2 1 species associated with the debris are likely to be different from
Unknown 47 1 those otherwise present, thus potentially altering the species
assemblage and increasing overall diversity (Pace et al., 2007). An
increase in microplastic debris in the water column might also pro-
vide opportunity for species to increase in abundance. Goldstein
et al. (2012), for example, found a positive correlation between
abundance of microplastics and abundance of the eggs of the pela-
gic insect Halobates sericeus in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre.
Despite the lack of a positive correlation between microplastic
abundance and recruitment, the increased abundance of micro-
plastics was seen to overcome substrate limitation for oviposition,
suggesting that oceanic microplastic pollution may have conse-
quences for organisms associated with hard substrates.

5. Conclusions

This review has reported the number of species and individuals

encountering marine debris and the number of reports document-
ing these encounters. The finding that for some species, a substan-
tial proportion of a population may be involved, along with the
number of species that are also on the IUCN Red List, and the
increased incidence of encounter highlights that marine debris is
likely to represent an additional and escalating anthropogenic fac-
tor affecting marine habitats and biodiversity. Hence, it is possible
that where marine debris combines with other anthropogenic
stressors it may contribute towards population or species level
effects, and may also indirectly affect trophic interactions and
assemblages which could be particularly important if a keystone
species is involved.
It must be recognised that whilst this paper examines the
known extent of the impact of marine debris on marine organisms
there are reporting limitations. Few reports currently consider low
trophic level organisms, but this does not necessarily indicate that
they are not affected by marine debris, rather that any impacts are,
as yet, not fully described. Globally, a reporting bias is evident,
with the lack of reports from areas such as Asia, Africa and the
Polar Regions probably also resulting from underreporting rather
than a lack of occurrence. Lack of data on the size of debris ingested
may also indicate that encounters with microplastic may be more
widespread than is currently documented.
The findings presented here are considered an underestimate of
the impacts of marine debris on biota, and while this highlights a
Fig. 5. Incidence of rafting on marine debris reported by number of (a) species and clear need for further research in order to more fully understand
(b) papers per taxonomic grouping – mammals, birds, fish, sea turtles, crustaceans,
the global patterns and the extent of debris impacts on biodiversity
cephalopods, bivalves, gastropods and echinoderms. Bars are divided by impact per
debris type (rope and netting, other fishing materials (mainly lines, pots), Intact this is not a reason to delay efforts focussed on effective mitigation
items and packaging, fragments > 5 mm, microplastic < 4.99 mm, wood, metal, tar or input reduction.
balls and type not reported). Number of individuals was not commonly reported in Addressing the marine debris problem presents challenges sim-
the literature and so has not been included. Total number of species is greater than ilar to those associated with many other threats to biodiversity,
259 as it accounts for species being reported for more than one debris type, and
total number of papers is greater than 34 as it accounts for reports of more than one
such as habitat loss and degradation, climate change, nutrient
taxon per paper. Data presented are for all reported encounters identified in the loading, and over-exploitation and unsustainable use of resources.
published literature. Unlike many other environmental issues that currently challenge
178 S.C. Gall, R.C. Thompson / Marine Pollution Bulletin 92 (2015) 170–179

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