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Fundamentals of Metal Forming

The document discusses fundamentals of metal forming processes. It describes how metal forming uses plastic deformation to change a workpiece's shape without removing material. The tool applies stresses that exceed the metal's yield strength, causing it to deform into the die's shape. Metal forming methods include bulk processes like rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing as well as sheet metalworking techniques like bending, drawing, and shearing. Key factors discussed are material behavior, temperature effects, and friction/lubrication.

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Aakash Agarwal
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
34 views39 pages

Fundamentals of Metal Forming

The document discusses fundamentals of metal forming processes. It describes how metal forming uses plastic deformation to change a workpiece's shape without removing material. The tool applies stresses that exceed the metal's yield strength, causing it to deform into the die's shape. Metal forming methods include bulk processes like rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing as well as sheet metalworking techniques like bending, drawing, and shearing. Key factors discussed are material behavior, temperature effects, and friction/lubrication.

Uploaded by

Aakash Agarwal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

• Overview of Metal Forming

• Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• Temperature in Metal Forming

• Strain Rate Sensitivity

• Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Metal Forming

• Plastic deformation is used to change the shape of metal


workpieces – i.e., no material removal

• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that


exceed yield strength of metal

• The metal deforms into a shape determined by the


geometry of the die

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Classification

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Roll bending. Source: Wikipedia

Figure 18.2 – Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling, (b) forging, (c) extrusion, (d) drawing

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 18.3 - Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending, (b) drawing, (c) shearing

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Stresses in Metal Forming

• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually


compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion

• However, some forming


f processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)

– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)

– Still others apply shear stresses (cutting)

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Material Properties in Metal Forming

• Desirable material properties from manufacturing point of


view:
– Low yield strength and high ductility

• These properties are affected


ff by temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work
temperature
p is raised

• Other factors affecting the process:


– Strain rate and friction

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations and massive


shape changes
g

• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface


area-to-volume ratios

• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets,


rectangular bars/slabs, etc.

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Roll bending. Source: Wikipedia

Figure 18.2 – Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling, (b) forging, (c) extrusion, (d) drawing

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sheet Metalworking
• Forming and related operations performed on metal
sheets, strips, and coils

• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal,


which distinguishes these from bulk deformation

• Often
O e cacalled
ed p g because p
pressworking
ess o presses
esses pe
perform
o
these operations
– Parts are called stampings
– Usual tooling: punch and die

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 18.3 - Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending, (b) drawing, (c) shearing

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• In plastic region
region, metal's
metal s behavior is expressed by the
flow curve:

σ = Kε n

Where K = strength coefficient,


coefficient
and n = strain hardening exponent

• This equation is for true stress and true strain

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Typical
yp Values of K and n

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Engineering Stress-Strain
F L − Lo
σe = e=
Ao Lo
where F = applied force, Ao = original c/s area of test
specimen, L = length at any point during elongation, and
Lo = original
i i l gage llength
th

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
True Stress-Strain
L
F dL L
σ = ε=  = ln
A L L Lo
o

where F = force, A = actual (instantaneous) c/s area


resisting the load, L = actual (instantaneous) length

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Flow Stress
• For most metals at room temperature, strength
increases when deformed due to strain hardening

• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required


t continue
to ti deforming
d f i the
th material
t i l

Yf = Kε n

where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a


function of strain

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Average Flow Stress

• Determined by integrating the flow curve equation


g the
between zero and the final strain value defining
range of interest

_
Kε n
Yf =
1+ n
_
where Yf = average flow stress; and ε = maximum strain
during deformation process

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Temperature in Metal Forming

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on


temperature

– Both strength and strain hardening are reduced at higher


t
temperatures
t
– In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures

Figure 3.15 - General effect of temperature on strength and ductility


Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Temperature in Metal Forming

• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with


lower forces and power at elevated temperature

• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:


– Cold working (up to 0.3Tm)

– Warm working

– Hot working (above 0.5Tm)

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Cold Working

• Performed at room temperature or slightly above

• Many cold forming processes are important mass


production operations

• Minimum or no machining usually required


– These operations are near net shape or net shape processes

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Advantages of Cold Forming vs.
Hot Working

• Better accuracy,
y, closer tolerances

• Lower surface roughness


g and p
practically
y no oxidation

• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness

• Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable


directional properties in product

• No heating of work required


Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Disadvantages of Cold Forming

• Higher forces and power required

• Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale


and dirt

• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of


forming that can be done
– In some operations, metal must be annealed in between to
allow
ll ffurther
th d deformation
f ti steps
t
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold
worked

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but


below recrystallization
y temperature

• Dividing line between cold working and warm working


often expressed in terms of melting point:
– 0.3Tm
Where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Advantages of Warm Working

• Lower forces and power than in cold working

• More intricate work geometries possible

• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hot Working

• Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization


temperature

• Recrystallization temperature = about 0.5Tm on absolute


scale (Kelvin)
– In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above
0.5Tm (up to 0.75Tm)
– Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Why Hot Working?

• Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the


metal - far more than possible with cold working g or warm
working

• Why?
– Strength coefficient is substantially less than at room
temperature
– Strain hardening exponent is zero (theoretically)
– Ductility is significantly increased

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered

• Lower forces and power required

• M
Metals
t l th
thatt usually
ll ffracture
t in
i cold
ld working
ki can b
be
hot formed

• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic

• No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening


– Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently
processed by cold forming

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy


to heat the workpiece)

• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish

• Shorter tool life

• Workpiece more difficult to handle

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Strain Rate Sensitivity

• Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a


y plastic material, with strain hardening
perfectly g exponent
n=0

– The metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress, once
that stress is reached

– However, an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation,


especially at elevated temperatures: Strain rate sensitivity

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
What is Strain Rate?
• Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of
deformation v

• Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other


movement of the equipment

Strain rate is defined as:


. v
ε=
h
.
where ε = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height
of workpiece being deformed (assuming a tensile test
type operation)

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Evaluation of Strain Rate

• In most practical operations, evaluation of strain rate is


complicated byy
– Workpart geometry
– Variations in strain rate in different regions of the part

• Local strain rate can reach 1000 s-1 or more for some
metal formingg operations!
p

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

• Flow stress is a function of temperature

• At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends


on strain rate

– As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation increases

– This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 18.5
18 5 - (a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work
temperature. (b) Same relationship plotted on log-log coordinates

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Yf = Cε m

where C = strength constant (similar but not equal to


strength coefficient in flow curve equation),
and m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent

These parameters (C,


Th (C m)) are themselves
h l d
dependent
d on
temperature

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 18.6 - Effect of temperature on
flow stress for a typical metal. The
constant C in Eq.
Eq (18.4),
(18 4) indicated by the
intersection of each plot with the vertical
dashed line at strain rate = 1.0,
decreases, and m (slope of each plot)
increases with increasing temperature

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity

• Increasing temperature decreases C, increases m

– At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost negligible


• Flow curve is a good representation of material behavior

– As temperature increases, strain rate becomes increasingly


important in determining flow stress

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Friction in Metal Forming

• In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:


– Metal flow is retarded
– Forces and power are increased
– Wears tooling faster

• Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Lubrication in Metal Forming

• Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface


in many y forming
g operations to reduce harmful effects of
friction

• Benefits:
– Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
– Better surface finish
– Removes heat from the tooling

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant
• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal
drawing, etc.)

• Hot working or cold working

• Work material

• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals

• Ease
E off application
li ti

• Cost

Adapted from Groover, M. P., 2002, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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