*FORMATION OF THE GEOSPHERE nov 6  May mga nagroroam around na particles

particularly the dust and gas particle that

 Earth before (no water) up to present is 4.5 billion
came from the stars that exploded or unang
years
materials na nagform during the explosion of
 Basis of earth’s age
the first stars. Eventually the dust and gas
1. Oldest rock
particles, dikit dikit together bcs of self-
2. Oldest mineral (zircon)
gravity. If you shape something in outer
3. Moon’s rock
space, nagcluclump sila together bcs of
4. Meteorite
electrostatic forces, reason how the solar
 1&2 not good basis bcs nagrereset ang age
system formed. The smaller materials
nila pag nag memelt
nagdikit together, sa sobrang dami nila
 3&4 di nagrereset ang age kasi hindi
lumaki nang lumaki up until mas
nagmemelt outside
concentrated yung mass sa center, nagstart
 3 is not really acceted kasi it is younger than
magrotate and then eventually upon
the planet & not undergone geologic
rotation nagform ng disk shape na material
process/melting
na nagform ng sun at the center and forming
 4 widely accepted yun ang remnant of the
also the protoplanets dun sa labas ng disk
planet formation – same time nagform sa
shape, so lahat halos ng mass ay
solar system – di nagmemelt
naconcentrate sa gitna at lahat ng di
 The Sphere sumama sa gitna, ay nagform ng
 Biosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, protoplanets sa paligid.
Geosphere  ASSUMPTION: lahat sabay sabay nagform
 Cryosphere = sphere that contains ice,  Pagcluclump ng material is also SELF
glacier of the planet ASSEMBLY but in much larger scale
= nahiwalay sa water kasi iba ang  Explains the division of the planets in the
function when it comes to the sun solar system
and enery na binibigay ng sun. The 1. Inner planets = terrestrial; rocky;
ice/glacier deflect back to the outer MVEM (mercury, venus, earth,
space ang energy na binibigay ng mars)
sun. Unlike the ocean, na inabsorb 2. Outer planets = gas and liquid; JSUN
ang heat coming from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
 Every sphere is interconnected or  Heavier elements pulled in by gravity of the
interrelatedness Sun, lighter elements considered into the
 Age of the Universe = 13.8 BY or 14 BY outer planets
1. Studying the oldest object  PLANETARY ACCRETION
2. Measuring how fast is expanding =  Same concept with nebular hypothesis but
red shift this is more localized
 2012 NASA’s Wilkinson Microwave  Clumping of small material to form planets
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) = 13.772 +- localized
0.0059 BY  Pagsasama sama through gravity and
 2013 European Space Agency’s Planck electrostatic
spacecraft = 13.82 BY
 Few minutes = Neutrons, electrons, protons formed OBJECT % OF MASS
 300,000 = Universe cool enough to form ATOMS SUN 99.85
mainly H and He JUPITER 0.10
 Hundred million = 1 billion year: Clouds of He and H ALL OTHER PLANETS 0.04
gas contract; Temp increases causing nuclear fusion; COMETS 0.01
Creation of other elements (C O Si Fe) SATELLITES AND 0.00
RINGS
ASTEROIDS 0.00
METEOROIDS AND 0.000001
DUST
 BAKIT MATAAS ANG % NI SUN?
 KASI SYA ANG PINAKAMALAKI SA SOLAR
SYSTEM AT SAKANYA NAGCONCENTRATE
 The Nebular Hypothesis ANG MASS NUNG NAGFOFORM ANG SOLAR
 Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon de Laplace SYSTEM
= 18th century  Venus is near our size kaya twin planet
 Widely accepted model for explaining the  PLANET IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
formation and evolution of the solar system  Composition depends on the distance from
 Solar system originated from a single the sun
rotating cloud of gas and dust came from the  Near sun = high temp minerals (iron)
stars that explode starting 4.6 BYA
  Far sun = low temp materials (methane,  EARLY EARTH
ammonia)  Larger than the earth today
 Homogenous in composition
Mercury *Inner or terrestrial
 Faster rotation: 1 day = 6hrs
Venus planets – near sun
 Protoearth partially melts: molten surface
Earth (23.5 tilt axis
causes seasons; 22 to *Rocky composition;  THE MOON
24) largely silicate rocks  Orbit: 384,000 km from earth
Mars (no water bcs of and metals (si, fe, o,  Diameter: 3476 km
it is just near n)  Mass: 7.35x10^22 kg
goldilocks zone and  2nd brightest oject in the sky after the sun
masyadong hot and  GIANT-IMPACT HYPOTHESIS/THEIA (debris IMPACT
no atmosphere)  Moon formed out of the debris left over
ASTEROID BELT = source of water; kaya wala from a collision between Earth and an
sa line dahil sa laki ng JUPITER astronomical body the size of Mars
JUPITER *giant or jovian –  4.5 BYA (Hadean eon); 20-100 MY after the
SATURN outer planet – far
solar system formed
URANUS from the sun
 Colliding body is sometimes called Theia
NEPTUNE *lack solid surfaces –
liquid or gas  Lunar rocks analysis: impact ,au have been a
*composition: light direct it, causing a through mixing of both
elements: H, He, Ar, parent bodies
C, O  Most accepted
 REVOLUTION: counter-clockwise  Formation of solar system -> segregation of
 ROTATION: counter-clockwise except VENUS layers (differentiation) -> theia impact
rotation upside down  Bakit mas nauna ang differetiation dahil very
 Uranus = rotates at an axes that is tipped nearly to much same ang composition ng theia sa
its side. composition ng mantle which means may
 COMET = chunk of ice and rock from the outer solar core na nagform sa interior ng planet at may
system; with tail mantle na
 ASTEROID = big rock in orbit to mars and jupiter  Theia impact is one of the reasons why
 METEOROID = and pag nagbounce at natanggal sa mabagal ang rotation ng earth
orbit ng mars and Jupiter nagiging meteoroid
 METEOR = outside the earth but inside the
atmosphere of earth nagstart magburn; not all
survive and minsan totally sunog and not reach the
earth; falling star
 METEORITE = if meteor reach the earth  Theia rich in carbon and sulfur which is present in
 HOW IS EARTH DIFF FROM OTHER PLANET diamonds that’s why we have a lot of diamonds *PIC
 Liquid water bcs we’re in goldilocks  BIRTH OF THE MOON
zone/habitable zone that is not that near 1. Planetary Capture: may existing earth at
and close to the star para magfroze and heat moon na nun and the gravity of the earth
 Pag nagbago nag sta ain magbabagorin ang captured the moon dahil massive ito kaya
habitable ozne natin kaya wede mawala ang nagstay na sa orbit ng earth
water sa earth 2. Sister Planetesimal of Earth: habang
 Part of the milky way nagfoform si earth nagfoform din ang moon,
 BAKIT MAY WATER SA IBANG MOON? no giant impact happened
 The top most portion is frozen but the inner 3. Part of the Earth that broke off due to fast
is liquid spinning: sa bilang bilis ng pag ikot ng
 PROTO-EARTH tumilapok ang moon; this is possible kung
 Started from a “dust ball” from the nebular mabilis ang velocity mabilis ang rotation ng
gas and dust brought together by gravity earth pro it is impossible to happen
(accretion), which was heated (heating) and
lead to melting and eventually segregated
into layers (differentiation = density of
mterials – the denser, mas magsisink sa
interior – it is possible if the planet is liquid
para ma enable nya yung sinkig ng materials
– dapat mainit, mamolten para mag sink) as
it cooled.

 LATE HEAVY BOMBARDMENT

*THE MOON nov 8  3.9-4.1 bya
  Spike in the collisions of asteroids to inner  Iron catastrophe: pag sink ng iron sa core at
planets sa mantle; yung pag sink ng iron at
 May have been caused the migration of pagrerelease ng sobrang taas ng energy at
Jupiter and Saturn – dahil nag aagawan sila sobrang taas ng temperature kaya naging
ng orbit sa isat isa kaya maraming collision molten ang initial planet
ng asteroids at kaya naaffect ang asteroid  Form planet – iron catastrophe – theia
belt kaya tinman ang earth ng maraming impact – late heavy bombardment
meteorites
 Evidence: craters sa mercury at mars at
moon
 Reason of the upside down of Venus
 Kaya nagsesettle ang Earth
 FORMED THE CRATERS OF THE MOON AND OTHER
PLANETS. WHY NOT EARTH
 Walang craters kung walang meteorite
 Wala sa earth dahil nagchachange ang
surface ng earth bcs of plate tectonics,
weathering, erosion, melting of rocks

 CONSEQUENCE OF SEGREGATION AND

 SUMMARY DIFFERENTIATION (for differentiation to happen
 Formation of the universe through big bang dapat liquid)
protons neutrons electrons and then  Layered internal structure – crust mantle
nagcool down ang universe forming first core
atoms and forming nucleosynthesis  Dipole magnetic field (outer core bcs liquid,
elements up until iron and then super nova yug pag ikot ng mga materials yun naglead sa
explosion to form elements heavier than pagform ng dipole magnetic field particularly
iron and the remnants of dust and gas yung iron) (deflects solar wind kaya di
particle of the explosion of stars and then natatanggal atmosphere natin) (magnetic
collide and accretion to form a nebula and field reason ng makapal na atmosphere)
eventually nagconcentrate ang mass sa  Atmosphere (nag cool down forming
center forming the proto sun and while atmosphere)
forming sun nagfoform din ang roughly 20  Liquid water (exists bcs of earth’s size and
proto planets and nagcollide to form the location in the solar system)
inner planets and while forming the earth it  EARTH’S VITAL STATISTICS
was bombardment with a lot of meteorites A. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
and then nagkaroon ng segregation and then 1. Iron: 34.6
tinamaan ng isang planetesimal, yung debris 2. Oxygen: 29.5
ng kanilang collision ay naggrow sa space at 3. Silicon: 15.2
nagsama sama together to form the moon 4. Magnesium: 12.7
and then nagkaroon ng late heavy  CRUST – oceanic: S, M
bombardment and after it dun lang naging
– continental: S, Al
stable ang surface ng planet and start
magcool down and lito and mesosphere to  MANTLE: FE, MG
formation of solar system then the early  CORE: FE, NI
earth and the moon *PIC B. CIRCUMFERENCE
 First calculated by Erathosthenes
 THE EARTH - Summer solstice: Alexandria (7.2)
 When cooling set in, the denser elements and Syene (no shadow)
(iron) sank while the lighter ones floated put - Distance betwee two cities = 5000
into the surface, creating a differentiated stadia
earth - 4000km
 Differentiation: denser elements sa inner,  Circumferenece = 360 deg
lighter elements sa outside  800 km = 7 deg
 5.9722x10^24kg  CURRENT DAY MEASURE:
- Equatorial: 40,075 km
 - Polar circumference: 40,008 km  OCEAN BASINS (5) (PAIAA)
C. RADIUS  Pacific
 Equatorial: 6,378 km  African
 Polar radius: 6,357 km  Indian
D. SHAPE  Antarctic
 Oblate spheroid: flattened at the poles  Artic
and bulging at the equator
E. ROTATION
 Axial tilt (OBLIQUITY – pagbabago ng
degree ng axial tilt)
 Orbital speed of the earth: 30km/s
 22-24 deg
 23.5 deg
 Reason for seasons  OCEAN FEATURES
 Counterclockwise o Oceanic ridges
 VELANOVICH CYCLE = pagbabago ng o Trenches
climate change and one factor is the o Seamounts/guyots
OBLIQUITY pag nagbabago yung degree o Abyssal hills/plains
ng tilt nagbabago rin yung climate o Volcanic islands – pacific ring of fire
F. DENSITY maraming volcano dahil sa trenches
 5.513 g/cm^3 = 5.5  Continental shelf: gentle portion of sea from
 Densest planet in the solar system: the beach; below sea level – coral – 200m
metallic core and rocky mantle – maliit  Continental slope: steep slope before sea
ang volume natin compare sa jupiter level
 Jupiter: 318 more massive than earth is  Continental rise: bulge portion dahil ditto
less dense bcs made up of gases such as naiipon ang mga materials from continental
hydrogen and helium shelf; no light
 EARTH’S HYPOMETRY
 Measure of all the land in the earth
 Measurement of land elevation relative to
sea level
 Bimodal due to the contrast between the
continents and ocean

 MID OCEANIC RIDGE

 As you go farther from MOR, rocks become
old bcs MOR ay divergent boundaries
 EARTH’S LARGE-SCALE FEATURES wherein you create new materials and pag
1. Continents creating napupush away yung dati changing
2. Ocean basins it to new ones
 CONTINENTAL LAND MASS  Red – mas bata; blue – mas matanda
 Creating new materials from mid oceanic,
pagtatanda namomove palayo sa mid
 Produces oceanic crust kaya mas bata ito
 PERO hindi nag eexpand ang earth dahil may
ibang process na nagrerecycle sa mga older
rocks called SUBDUCTION wherein it
destroys the materials
 CONTINENTS (7)
1. Mountains: elevated features of continents;
can be seen even in the outer space; a few
mountains na nakadikit
2. Mountain ranges: chains of mountains;
 TRENCHES
occupy ng masyadong malakin area (PH)
 Destroy new materials bcs depression at the
3. Mountain belts: mountain ranges that run
middle there’s subduction – pagkasira ng
across vast area; occupy ng one continent to
materials
another continent – sobrang haba
 Deepest portion
- the differences of the three is the degree of  Continental plus oceanic
interconnection/connectedness na area na
nasasakop nila
  The outermost “skin” of earth with
variable thickness
o Thickest under mountain
ranges 70km -40miles
o Thickest under mid ocean
ridegs 3km - 2 miles

 VOLCANIC PEAKS I. Oceanic (PH)

 Poke through sediment cover  Basaltic composition (Si Mg)
 Below sea level:  Generally younger
o Abyssal hills are less than 1km  3 to 15 km thick
-seamounts: undersea volcanoes  Density = 3 g/cm^3
 pink
II. Continental
 Granitic composition (Si Al)
 Generally older
o More than 1km above seafloor
 20-70 km thick
-guyots: tablemounts, rose above
 Density = 2.7 g/cm^3
sea level in the past and eroded to a
 black
flat top by waves
- Mas mabigat ang oceanic dahil mas
mabigat ang magnesium kaysa sa
aluminum ng continental
- Mas makapal ang continental bcs
mas mataas ang temp at pressure
condition na narereach ng rocks pag
 Above sea level: makapal ang continent; mas mataas
o Volcanic islands ang pressure many diamonds
 HOW DID WE KNOW THAT THE EARTH IS LAYERED? - Mas younge ang oceanicr dahil mas
 Seismic waves – body and surface waves prone sya sa subduction at sa MOR
o Body – primary oceanic ang nabubuo
 Solid and liquid - Oldest rock = continental
- Youngest rock - oceanic
- secondary
 OLDEST CRYSTAL
 Solid only
 4.4 billion-year-old ZIRCON CRYSTAL found
 Nawawala pag napapad
in sandstone
sa outer core
 Jack hill, Australia
o Surface – destruction sa surface
 Density of earth – density ng layers iba iba
2. MANTLE
 Solid rock layer between crust and the core
 Extends to a depth of 2900 km; 82% of
earth’s volume
 Three subdivisions: upper, transitional, lower
 Mainly Fe and Mg rich silicate minerals

3. CORE
 LAYERS OF THE EARTH IN 2 WAYS
 Iron rich sphere with small amounts
1. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
of Ni, Fe, and other elements
2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (density and state of
 An iron-rich sphere with a radius of
matter)
3471 km
 High density, high temp, high
pressure

*FORMATION OF THE CRUST nov 13

 CONDIE’S MODELS 1989

1. INHOMOGENOUS MODEL

= last elements to condense in the solar nebula are the

 COMPOSITIONAL (chemical) LAYERS OF THE EARTH lightest and producing first crust, the basis of this is the
1. CRUST chemical differentiation
 Low density mainly silicate materials
= requires that the crust formed by condensation from the 3. MESOSPHERE
solar nebula
= lower mantle; from 660km depth to the core mantle
= galing sa formation ng mga nebulas condense boundary

= pero ang problema kailangan sabay sabay at maiiwan ang = solid, puro rock layer
mga light sa surface at di pa nagfoform ang planet nung
4. OUTER CORE
nagform ang crust
= 2270km thick
2. IMPACT MODEL
= liquid: iron-nickel-sulfur
= asteroids of similar composition to crust produced the first
continents and led to melting and producing both = density: 10-12 g/cm^3
continental and oceanic crust
= where you can find the flow of electromagnetic field
= basalt formed in the moon’s surface after impact bcs of bcs it protects the atmosphere bcs makapal ito and bcs it
LATE HEAVY BOMBARGMENT na dapat light elements na rin is free flowing (GEODYNAMO = tumataas ang temp
pero it is made up of basalt habang papasok)
= lahat ng asteroid na tumama ay same composition sa crust 5. INNER CORE
which is light elements
= solid sphere: iron-nickel alloy
= ang problem is since nagkaroon ng LHB na nagsasabing
asteroids is made up of light elements dapat naaffect din nya = radius: 1216km
yung composition ng moon kasi ang moon ay basaltic na may = density: 13 g/cm^3
heavy composition
 as you go deeper, high temp and high pressure but
3. TERRESTRIAL MODEL why mantle di nagmemelt compare sa outer core na
= similar to dott and protrhero’s discussion molten na agad?
= dahil walang radioactive elements na nagbibigay ng
= based on chemical differentiation or differentiation that’s additional heat malibban sa mismong temp nya
why it is the most accepted  WHY INNER CORE IS SOLID
= same with differentiation na may naiiwan sa surface na = solid bcs high pressure and high melting temp na
light elements and heavier inside pinipigilan nya itong magmelt

- as you go deeper, high temp high pressure, high density

 PHYSICAL LAYERS OF THE EARTH

1. LITHOSPHERE (TECTONIC PLATES)

= float above the asthenosphere

= behaves as a non-flowing, rigid material

 DISCONTINUITIES
= crust and upper mantle
1. MOHOROVICIC
- upper crust: brittle; 4-15km depth (marupok)
= crust – mantle
- lower crust/upper mantle: ductile; 15-
100 or 200km depth 2. GUTENBERG

= the plates are ductile (pizza example) = mantle – core

2. ASTHENOSPHERE 3. LEHMANN

= solid pero ang behavior parang fluid = outer core – inner core

= weak plastic layer of the upper mantle

= flows as a soft ductile solid

= contains a small percentage of melt <2%, small magma

= nagmomove ang lithosphere dahil nagmomove ang

asthenosphere bcs of its plastic characteristic/movemnt
 = example: mas mahaba ang mountain sa
continental sa baba dahil mas mataas ito
compare sa oceanic

- Discontinuities happen because of SEISMIC WAVES  FLEXULAR MODEL

 The lithosphere acts as an elastic plate and
= pag mas rigid/solid, tumataas ang velocity
its inherent rigidity distributes local
= pag less rigid/liquid, bumababa ang velocity topographic loads over a broad region by
bending
- The markers which is the velocity are the discontinuity
 Glacial isostatic adjustment: rise of land
masses that were depressed by the huge
weight of ice sheets during the last glacial
period, through a process known as isostasy

= nagbebend ang crust depending sa pressure na

binibigay or inapply

= pero after tanggalin ang pressure, magmemelt

at magririse up ulit
 ISOSTASY
 From the greek word meaning same
standing
 Concerned with the buoyancy of the blocks
of the earth’s crust as they rest on the  CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
mantle  Very recent idea 1950-1960
 Changes in the load over certain regions  ALFRED WEGENER – the origins of continents
causes the lithosphere to make adjustments and oceans 1915
until isostatic equilibrium is reached  Continents are moving relative to each other

= crust is adjusting and changes depending on = “drifted” to their current positions and
the stress you give “broke off” through oceanic crust

- How? Pagpapatong ng weight gaya  Single large ocean surrounding PANGEA

ng glaciers and volcano “PANTHALASSA”
 PRATT’S THEORY
= TETHYS SEA – sea separates Lau and Gond
 Elevation is inversely proportional to density
 The higher the mountain, the lower the = India – south to north fast movement
density that’s why light rocks float higher
= Antarctic – doesn’t move
- Tallest = light elements
- Smallest = heavier elements = PANGEA – dikit dikit pa before nagseparate into
 Example is the mountain in continental - continents
lighter and mountain in the oceanic - heavier

 AIRY’S THEORY
 Mountains have “roots” which extend down
into the mantle. Thus, elevation is
proportional to the depth of the underlying
“root”

= taller mountains, mas mahaba sa ilalim or

extension sa baba pero not necessarily same
kahaba sila

= directly proportional ang elevation sa depth

= ice berg
  RODINIA AND PANNOTIA
 SUPERCONTINENTS that have formed prior
to PANGEA

3. SIMILAR LITHOLOGY AND STRUCTURES

= same rock type, same age, same faults

RODINIA - Ex. Both sides of atlantic

(n. America = Europe + Africa)

4. PALEOCLIMATE

= glacial deposits in the tropic (southern hemisphere) and

coal deposits at high altitude (northern hemisphere;
equatorial; pag maraming vascular plants)
PANNOTIA
= only make sense pag irereconstruct ang pangea
 EVIDENCES OF PANGEA
 REJECTED CONTINENTAL DRIFT
- PANGEA pinakakilala dahil maraming evidences
 Continents couldn’t possibly move through
maraming remnants as compared to other
the rocks of the sea floor like an icebreaker
1. JIGSAW PUZZLE FIT  No great alternative theory
 Wegener’s degree is on astronomy and
= EDWARD BULLARD: fit continents at 137m water
interest in meteorology. – his theory of
depth
continental movement was not seriously
= filled the gaps in Wegeners’s puzzle map but still considered by most leading geologist, who
“qualitative” regarded him as a mere meteorologist and
an outsider meddling in their field
= pag inextend mo until the continental shelf mas  ACCEPTED when he died
lalong magfifit pa ang continents in terms of qualitative
= walang mechanism kung paano nagmove ang
= CONTINENTAL SHELF: the lining tectonic plates at di nya field ang geology,
astronomy ang field nya – walang process

 EXPLAINING SEPARATION OF SIMILAR SPECIES

1. RAFTING
2. ISLAND LINKS
3. LAND LINKS
4. CONTINENTAL DRIFT

2. FOSSILS SPREAD OVER CERTAIN AREAS

- mesosaurs

= they were not strong swimmers & incapable of

crossing an ocean.

= their fossil remains found in these areas are an

indication that the continents were at one time together *SEA FLOOR SPREADING nov 15
= seen in south Africa and america  In 1960, HARRY HESS proposed seafloor spreading
-glossopteris - Seafloor moves away from MOR
due to mantle convection
= suggests the same climatic conditions in the - CONVECTION is circulation driven
disparate areas where the plants were found – including by rising hot material and/or sinking
ones that today are far too cold to support lush plant growth cooler material
- Mid oceanic + convection
= this will only make sense kung sasabihing dikit dikit
 Hot mantle rock rises under MOR
noon ang mga continents dahil hindi naman nakakagalaw
ang glossopteris
 - Ridge elevation, high heat flow, & - BAKIT NAGKAKAROON NG MAGNETIC REVERSAL: the
abundant basaltic volcanism are magnetic field of the planet is dependent in the outer core
evidence of this
- Pagpapalit ng hot plates sa MOR –
basaltic hot
- Oceanic crust = bago kasi nilalabas
ng MOR

 SEAFLOOR SPREADING & GEOMAGNETIC

REVERSALS – how to use in plate tectonics
- Kahit di alam ang age ng seafloor,
malalaman mo thru magnetic properties of
seafloor
- Ex. STRIPES – markers: paglabas ng new
material that record the new condition and
after how may years may papasok ulit na
new material at magssplit into 2 yung
dating material at papasok yung new
material dahil may alternating patterns it
 PALEOMAGNETISM means that the seafloor is opening up
 Earth’s magnetic field - Evidence: Sea floor is opening up dahil sa
magnetic properties nung mga rocks na
= provies direction in the form of compasses nasa seafloor
= provide us a record of the direction and distance
to the magnetic poles at the time a rock was magnetized

= EARTH PERIODICALLY REVERSES POLARITY

= Last reversal: 780,000 years ago (Ave. ~300,000yrs

= At least 183x in the last 83 m.y.

= Magnetic minerals (e.g. magnetite/Lodestone) in

rocks (evidence sa plate tectonics)  RATE OF MOTION by MAGNETISM/ROCKS
- align themselves in the direction of the  Seafloor age increases with distance from MOR
existing magnetic field at the time they were - Rate of plate motion equals distance from
formed. If Rocks are formed at the same time - ridge over age of rocks R=d/t
record of magnetic field should be the same - Symmetric age pattern reflects plate
motion away from ridge
- Magma with high temp = random
direction muna pag nag start crystallization to
become rocks align sa direction ng magnetic field

 Geographic north NOT SAME magnetic north

= difference of 11.5

= magkaiba ng position

o GEOGRAPHIC NORTH: fixed location 23.5

: pinagrorotate ng earth  AS EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT

: Rotational axis 22-24 - rocks of the same age at different places point to different
locations of magnetic north; rocks of different ages in the
o MAGNETIC NORTH/SOUTH: tinuturo ng
same place shows that the magnetic north have moved
compass
through time (apparent polar wandering); It would make
: Different rotation
more sense if the magnetic north did not move but rather,
 Magnetic reversal: magpapalitan ng polarity pero
the continents have moved!
fixed ang Geographic north
 APPARENT POLAR WANDERING
: nagpapalitan ng current
- A moving continent will retain a record of changing
paleomagnetic directions through time that reflect the
changing orientations and distances to the pole (which is  SUBDUCTION ZONES & VOLCANIC ARCS
held fixed). The resulting path of observed pole positions is - Creates volcanic arcs/ belts
called an “apparent polar wander path” or APWP because in - Ex. Juan de Fuca plate in N. Ame
this case the pole is actually fixed and only appears to move - Pag covered ng subduction zones maraming
when viewed from the continental frame of reference. active volcanoes
- Volcano not random distribution rather
 PLATE TECTONICS
naka parallel sa trenches
- Unifying theory of geology bcs plate
- Wala tayo sa PH plate dahil nagsusubduct
tectonics relate everything na distribution
ang EURASIAN PLATE AT PH PLATE
sa earth
- 24 active volcano
- Motion of earth’s lithosphere
 VOLCANIC ISLAND ARC
- Lithosphere is made up of moderately rigid
- Tumutubo sa sea ang mga volcano above
plates (oceanic or continental lithosphere)
sea plates na nakaalign sa trench
- 7 major plates + several smaller plates
 ISLAND ARCS
- All geological features and processes are
- Produces volcanic arcs from the bottom of
related
the sea
- Concepts were drawn together in 1968
- PH
- If you have 2 areas located in the same
- Ex. Ph Sea Plate & Eurasian Plate (Ph Mobile
plate, hindi nagbabago ang distance nila sa
plate)
isat isa
 MOUNTAIN BELTS
- MOR increase
- Convergence induces mountain building
- TRENCH decrease
- Ex. Indian plate & Eurasian Plate
 ANGLE OF SUBDUCTION
o HOW TO KNOW?
= EARTHQUAKES (shape of
earthquake, epicenter, intensity and
magnitude) AND SEISMIC WAVES

2. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY/CONSTRUCTIVE
 PLATE BOUNDARIES  Places where plates are being pulled away from
each other
1. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY/DESTRUCTIVE
 Ex. East African Rift, Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 Places where plates crash into each other and  MOR
where deep earthquakes occur  RIFT VALLEYS – dumadaan sa land (rift first before
 May magsisink at yung nagsink na yun ay ridge)
magmemelt and will suddenly destruct - Ridge pag dumadaan sila sa loob ng
 TYPES: continents or loob ng land masses
A. oceanic + continental - Rift valleys then dagat: first stretch like a
- Ocean trench, benioff zone, volcanic arc, clay na manipis sa gitna like crust and pag
mountain belt manipis na nagiging valleys/depression and
B. oceanic + oceanic dahil dun makakabuo ng lakes and then
- Ocean trench, benioff zone, volcanic island hiwalay then open up as lumalaki yung
arc depression then rift valley then dagat then
 OCEANIC OCEANIC ocean
- Mas lumulubog yung mas dense at mas
matanda. If mas dense matanda na
- The younger buoyant, hotter kaya sila ang
nagrorotate sa surface
- PH
C. continental + continental 3. TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES/ CONSERVATIVE
- Mountain belts, thrust faults  Places where plates slide past each other
 Strike slip fault
 Shallow but strong earthquakes
 Faults. Ex. San Andreas Fault
 ROLE: absorb the stress na hindi nakaya ng trench &
MOR at taga kabit ng naghihiwalay na MOR &
trench at lahat ng structure sa earth
 Transform faults may connect:
o Two offset segments of mid-oceanic ridge
o A mid-oceanic ridge and a trench
o Two trenches
 PLATE BOUNDARIES IN THE EDGE OF PLATES
1. VOLCANISM (found in edges in plates)
2. EARTHQUAKES (found in edges in plates)
- breaking (deformation) only occurs in
narrow zones
- Mostly in oceans: wide zones around
Pacific Trenches
- Narrow zones at MOR
- trenches
- convergent boundary
 Additional evidence for plate tectonics:

(1) Hotspots

- Relatively small, long-lasting, and exceptionally

hot regions which exist below the plates

- Thermal (mantle) plumes sustain volcanism

- Traces the direction of plate motion

- e.g. Emperor Seamount Chain vs. Hawaii (why do

they have different orientation?)

(2) Global Positioning System (GPS) data

- Allows us to monitor plate movement

- Plate motion can be measured using satellites,

radar, lasers and global positioning systems

- Measurements accurate to within 1 cm

- Motion rates closely match those predicted using

seafloor magnetic anomalies

- dependent sa magnetic model

(3) Thickness and age of seafloor:

- Some of the most convincing evidence has come

from drilling directly into ocean floor sediment.

 What causes the plates to move?

- Convection currents (one layer and two
layers?)
- Slab pull (due to sinking of cold magma) -
subduction zones
- ridge push (due to rising of hot magma) -
divergent boundaries