Earth and Life Science formed what is called the cosmic

wave background radiation

The universe
E. Matter Domination (300,000 years)
 The universe is defined as all  Matter began to dominate and the
existing matter and space considered end of radiation era at this stage,
as a whole. The observable universe lithium atom began to formed.
is believed to be at least 93 billion Electrons joined with hydrogen
light years in diameter and and helium nuclei to make scales
constantly expanding since the big neutral atoms.
bang 13.8 billion years ago. F. Birth of the Stars
 The slightly irregular areas of gas
Big Bang Model of the Universe (1929) cloud, gravitational attract nearby
 It describes the universe as matter and became denser. The
originating in an infinitely tiny, dense gas clouds collapsed and
infinitely dense point or singularity eventually gain enough mass to
between to 13 to 14 billion years ignite producing light. The hue
ago. The essential statement of the gas cloud can be the birthplace of
theory is usually attributed to the dozens of stars. The group of stars
Belgian roman catholic priest became the galaxies.
Georges Henri Joseph Edouard The Solar System
Lemaitre in 1927.
 A model is a representation of an
The Big Bang timeline idea, an object or even a process that
A. Inflationary Epoch (10^-35s-10^33 is used to describe and explain
s) phenomena that cannot be
 The universe expanded from the experienced directly. Scientists use
size of an atom to 1035 meters models to predict a phenomena or
in width. event, such as the origin of the solar
B. Formation of the Universe (10^-6 system. Therefore, a model is a
sec) scientist’s description of an event at
 The universe continues to that time, demonstrating how
expand. It became distinct: science knowledge is tentative.
gravity, strong nuclear force that  There are two popular models about
held the nuclei together, weak the Solar System: Claudius
nuclear force and Ptolemy’s geocentric model, which
electromagnetic force. By the states that the earth is at the center
first second, the universe is of the Solar System, and Nicholas
made up of fundamental Copernicus heliocentric model,
particles and energy: quarks, which states that the sun is at the
electron, photons, and neutrinos. center of the Solar System.
C. Formation of the Basic Element (3  In the eighteenth century, the
sec) understanding of how the Solar
 Protons and neutrons combine to System originated became more
form hydrogen nucleic. Then than just descriptive models: it
hydrogen began to combine in became scientific. The following
pairs to form helium nuclei. This scientific theories present the
process is called explanation of the origin of the
nucleosynthesis. Solar System. It is important to note
D. Radiation era (10,000 years) that these theories build up on the
 Most of energy in the universe idea of angular is the quantity of
was in the form of radiation. rotation of a body, which is the
These include different product of its moment of inertia and
wavelengths of light, X-rays, its angular velocity.
radio waves and UV rays. They
 carbon dioxide that traps heat
causing greenhouse effect. It is the
second-brightest natural object in the
night sky after the moon.

Nebular hypothesis Earth

 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and  The third planet from the sun and it
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) is the largest and densest of the
were the first to propose the earliest terrestrial planet. It has one natural
theory pf how the solar system satellite, the moon, which is the
originated. The Kant-Laplace largest satellite among the terrestrial
nebular hypothesis presumes that the planet in the solar system. Due to its
solar system began as cloud of rotation, earth has geoid shapes. This
disperse interstellar gas called means that the rounded shape has a
nebula. The mutual gravitational slight bulge towards the equator.
attraction between particles caused
Mars
them to start moving and colliding,
and they were kept together by  Fourth planet from the sun, nest
electrostatic forces. The resulting planet beyond earth. Mars has about
nebular aggregates became larger one third the gravity of earth. It is
than others, grew more rapidly, and known as the red planet due its
ultimately become that planets. reddish appearance. It gets its red
color from the iron on its soil. Mars
The planets
has two small moons: Phobos and
 Currently, we have 8 official planets Domos.
present in our solar system. They are
Jovian Planet
divided into two classifications:
Terrestrial planets and Jovian planets  Jovian planets (also known as the
Gaseous Planet) were planets outside
Terrestrial Planets
the asteroid belt. These planets were
 Terrestrial planets were also known composed mainly of gasses and has
as the rocky planet. These are the metallic core. The following planets
first four planets in our solar system were the Jovian planets:
inside the asteroid belt. The 1. Jupiter
following are the terrestrial planets: 2. Saturn
1. Mercury 3. Uranus
2. Venus 4. Neptune
3. Earth
Jupiter
4. Mars
 The fifth planet from the sun. It is the
Mercury
biggest planet which is about two
 It is the smallest planet in the solar and a half times more massive than
system and it is closest to the sun. it all the other planets in the solar
orbits around the sun about 88 earth system. Jupiter’s strong internal heat
days which is much faster than any creates semi-permanent features in
other planet in the solar system. It its atmosphere, such as could band
has no natural satellites. and the great red spot. Jupiter has a
thin ring system composed mainly of
Venus dust particles. It has 67 known
 The second planet from the sun. it is satellites. The four largest were the
the hottest planet because of the Ganymede, Calisto, Io, and Europa
dense atmosphere. The thick, toxic that shows similarities to the
atmosphere consists of more the 96% terrestrial planets.
Saturn  There are two popular models about
solar system: Claudius Ptolemy’s
 The sixth planet from the sun and the
geocentric model. Which states that
second largest planet. It is known for
the earth is at the center of the Solar
its extensive ring system made up of
system, and Nicholas Copernicus
small ice and rocks particles. Saturn
heliocentric model, which states that
is the only planet of the solar system
the sun is at the center of the solar
that is less dense than water. It has
system.
62 confirmed satellites composed
 The Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis
largely of ice. Titan which is one of
presumes that the Solar System
the Saturn’s satellites also it is the
began as cloud of dispersed
second largest moon in the solar
interstellar gas called nebula.
system.
 The dense area of the nebula and the
Uranus gaseous matter surrounding it ceased
to rotate uniformly. Under the
 It is the seventh planet from the sun influence of turbulence and tidal
and the lightest of the outer planets. action, the nebula broke into
It is tipped over on its side with an whirlpools of gas within a rotating
axial tilt of 98 degrees. Uranus has mass called protoplanet.
27 known satellites where in the
largest include Tatiana, Oberon, Lesson 2: Earth and Earth system
Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda
Earth
Neptune
 Earth is characterized by its blue
 It is the most distant planet in the waters, rocky brown and green land
solar system. It is slightly smaller masses with white grounds set
than Uranus but it is more massive against the black background.
and denser. Neptune has very thin  It is made up of erratic complex and
collection of rings. It has 14 knowns interactive system that make it
satellites wherein the largest is the constantly changing planet.
Triton. It was also famous with its
Composition layer
Great Dark Spot.
1. Crust
Trivia:
2. Mantle
The 3 criteria of the IAU for full-sized 3. Core
planet
Mechanical layer
 It is in orbit around the sun.
1. Lithosphere
 It has sufficient mass to assume
2. Asthenosphere
hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly
3. Mesosphere
round shape).
4. Inner/outer core
 It has “cleared the neighborhood”
around its orbit. Composition layer
 Why Pluto is as downgraded as a
Crust
planet?
 It is made up of large racks divided
Summary
into two forms; oceanic crust and
 There are different theories about continental crust. The former is
origin of the universe that was composed of the elements iron(Fe),
believed on their own timeline. oxygen (0), Magnesium (Mg),
 The theories that were accepted by Aluminum (Al) while the latter
most of the people where Big-Bang granite, sedimentary and
Theory and Creationism. metamorphic rocks.
 Crust is 50-70 km depth.
  Outermost layer of the earth liquid liquid metal of the outer core
 has very low viscosity, which makes
it easily deformed.

Mantle
Inner core
 Is mostly solid rocks and minerals
and marked by malleable semi-solid  The final layer of the earth is the
magma. It represents about 85% if inner core which is an exceedingly
the total weight and mass of the bot, dense huge of mostly iron
planet. It is believe that the first 50 2500km wide. The temperature of
miles composed of a very hard rigid the inner core ranges from 5,000 C to
rock. The next 150 miles is said to 6,000 C which is enough to make
be super-heated solid rock. metal melt. It has strong pressure
 around it making the metal stay
solid. With this unusual set of
circumstances, some scientists tend
to assume that the inner core is not
totally solid but rather as plasma
behaving as solid.

Core
 The earth’s core is entirely made up
of metal alloy such as iron (Fe) and
nickel (Ni). Other elements found in
the earth’s core are siderophiles.
These are the elements that dissolve
in iron and are classified as precious Seismic waves
metals. It is divided into two: inner
core and outer core.  Is caused by breaking down of rocks
or explosions.
Outer core
The earth’s four subsystem
 It is the largest and second to the last
layer of our planet. It is about 2,200 1. Lithosphere
km thick ad composed of entirely 2. Hydrosphere
super-heated liquid molten lava of 3. Atmosphere
liquid iron and nickel. The NiFe 4. Biosphere
alloy of the outer core is extremely 1, Lithosphere
hot and its temperature range is
between 4,500 to 5,500 Celsius. The
  It is the outermost layer of a o Coastal zone is the region in which
terrestrial planet that consisting of sea bottom is exposed during low
the crust and the solid outermost tide and is covered during high tide,
layer of the earth. some animals have adapted to the
 The lithosphere is not continuous environment like sea stars, sea
layer. It is divided into a number of urchins and some species of coral.
huge plates that move in relation to o Pelagic zone is located sea ward of
another. the coastal zone’s low tide mark.
 It is believe that at the beginning of the This is always covered with water.
earth, the continents are all locked up There are two divisions: neritic zone
into a huge landmass called Pangaea and oceanic zone. Neritic zone lies
as proposed by Alfred Wegener above the continental shelf. It
 There are seven continents in the extends from the low tide mark
world namely: outwards from the seashore and
1. North America extends to a depth of 200m. sunlight
2. South America penetrates the water. Many sea
3. Europe animals are found in this zone.
4. Asia
5. Africa Vertical zones
6. Antarctica o Vertical zones begin at sea level and
7. Australia end at the deepest point in the ocean.
2, Hydrosphere There are five zones. Each zone
receives a different amount of
 It is composed of all the waters on sunlight.
near the earth. This includes water on
the surface like the oceans, rivers and
lakes.
 The earth’s hydrosphere can be in a
form of liquid, vapor and ice such as
glaciers, ice caps and ice bergs. This
frozen part is called cryosphere.
 Mostly ninety-seven (97%) percent of
the earth’s water is in the form of
oceans (salty) and the rest is fresh
water (non-salty). Three-quarters of
this fresh water is solid and exists in
the ice sheets.
 Earth major oceans
1. Arctic Ocean
2. Atlantic Ocean
3. Pacific Ocean
4. Indian Ocean
5. Southern Ocean
A, Mariana Trench
Ocean zones
o Oceans may be divided into layers
known as zones. The zones may be
o Epipelagic zone or the sunlight zone
horizontal or vertical.
(0-200m) is the zone that gets a lot of
o Horizontal zone divided the ocean
sunlight resulting to an abundance of
from land to the sea. It consists of
aquatic plants. Common animals
coastal and pelagic zone.
found in the zone include seals, see
Horizontal zones turtles, sea lions, ray, and sharks.
 o Mesopelagic zone or the twilight o Extends up to 50km high. It is the
zone (200-1000m) is characterized region where we can find the ozone
by dim light due to the limited layer which absorbs and scatter the
amount of sunlight it receives. Ono solar ultraviolet radiation.
plants are found in this region. Lilly
Mesosphere
fish, octopus, and squid are found in
this region. o This region is above the stratosphere
o Bathypelagic zone or the midnight and extends to 85 km. meteors
zone (1000-4000m) does not receive usually burn up in this region as they
any sunlight. Animals that live here approach our planet. The coldest
lack eyes. Some animals can be region in the atmosphere is the upper
found in this are like viperfish, mesosphere.
anglerfish, stripe eel, and tripod fish.
o Abyssopelagic or the abyss (4000- Thermosphere
6000m) is described as deep sea. o Extends up to 500 km above the
Most animals living, I this area are mesosphere. It is where aurora and
invertebrate like blind shrimps, small satellites occur. The temperature in
squids, and hagfish. this layer can rise to as high as 1500
o Hadalpelagic zone or the trenches degrees Celsius.
(6000-bottom) Is the deepest part of
the ocean. This zone is mostly found Exosphere
in deep water trenches and canyons. o Is the upper limit of our atmosphere.
Some animals exist here like see It extends from the top of
cucumber and tube worms. thermosphere up to 10,000km
3, Atmosphere (6,2000 mi).

 It is not merely the air we breathe but 4, Biosphere

also a blanket of a gas that surrounds  It is the part of the earth where life
our planet up to the edge of space. exist. It could occupy the oceans,
 This thin layer of gas envelops our surface of the land and can also be in
planet is necessary to sustain life the atmosphere.
because it contains gases essential for  The biosphere contains all the earth’s
humans and animals to breathe. It living things (plants and animals). It is
enables plats to make their own food, sometimes referred to as tha zone of the
traps heat to keep us warm, protect us life. From a geophysical standpoint,
from harmful radiation from the space biosphere is the global ecological
and drives ocean current that spread system integrating all living things and
heat which regulates our climate. The their relationship, including their
greenhouse gases help keep our interactions with the elements of the
planet’s temperature to a level lithosphere, hydrosphere ad atmosphere.
conducive to life. The term biosphere was coined by
geologist Edward Suess 1875.

Troposphere Biomes

o Lowest layer is the troposphere. It o The biosphere is divided into

contains about 80% of the total mass biomes. Biomes are the world’s
of the atmosphere. Most of the water major communities. They are
vapor present in the atmosphere is classified according to the
found in the troposphere. All weather predominant vegetation
associated cloud types are found in characterized by adaptations of
this layer. organism to that particular climate.

Stratosphere 1, Aquatic
 o Includes a. freshwater (ponds, lakes, o Is the coldest of all the biomes, it has
rivers, etc.) and marine (ocean, low biotic diversity and simple
estuaries, etc). the aquatic regions vegetation structure. Tundra is also
house numerous species of plants known for large stretches are bare
and animals. ground and rock and for patchy
mantles of low vegetation’s such as
2, Forests
mosses, lichens, herbs and small
o Includes tropical temperate, and shrubs.
taiga. Each type of forest has
distinctive features dominated by
grasses large shrubs and trees.
A, Tropical Rainforests
o Are found closer to the equator Summary
where it is warm. It is hot, moist  Earth is characterized by its blue
biome where it all rains all year long. water, rocky brown and green land
It is known for dense canopies of masses with white grounds set
vegetation that form 4 different against the black background.
layers: *Emergent Layer *Canopy  The lithosphere is not a continuous
Layer *Middle Layer layer. It is divided into a number of
(Understory)*Bottom layer (Forest huge plates that move in relation to
floor). one another.
B, Temperate Deciduous Forest  The earth’s hydrosphere can be a
form of liquid vapor and ice such as
o It is a biome that is always changing. glaciers, ice caps and ice bergs. This
It has four distinct seasons: winter, frozen part is called cryosphere.
spring, summer and fall. Because of  Atmosphere is a thin layer of gas
the seasons, leaves od deciduous envelops our planet is necessary to
trees change color and fall off in the sustain life because it contains gases
autumn and grow back in the spring. essential for humans and animals to
In the winter, when ground is frozen breathe.
it is difficult for them to absorb  Biosphere contains all the earth’s
water, so they drop their leaves living things (plant and animals). It is
deciduous trees stay dormant in the sometimes referred to as the zone of
winter bloom again in the spring. life.
C, Taiga Forest Fracture
o Also known as boreal forest. It is Absenceof cleavage
composed primarily of cone-bearing
needled of scale-leaved evergreen
trees, found in the northern
circumpolar forested regions
characterized by long winters and
moderate to high annual
precipitation.
3, Desert
o Is characterized by low rainfall (less
than 50 cm/year). Most deserts have
specialized animals that can adapt to
its condition.
4, Tundra
  It determines how easy mineral
breaks or deform when exposed to
stress. This can be determined by the
chemical bonds between each crystal
lattice. The term used to describe
mineral strength are tenacity,
hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
1, Tenacity
 Refers to the mineral’s resistance to
Lesson 3: earth materials and processes: breaking or deforming. This mineral
mineral and rocks can either be brittle malleable or
Minerals elastic.
 Mineral has the following 2, Hardness
characteristic: is inorganic,  Is the measure of a mineral’s
represented by a chemical formula is resistance to abrasion or scratching.
solid in nature. To determine the hardness of a
 A rock is an aggregate of one or mineral, a comparative hardness
more minerals scale assigning numerical values to
 For example, a coal is a sedimentary the hardness of a mineral was
rock is composed of carbon. Frederich Mohs.
Properties of minerals Fracture
A, Optical Properties  Absence of cleavage
1. Luster is the quality of light that Moh’s scale of hardness
being reflected by the surface of a
mineral. It can be metallic luster
(minerals that look like metal and are
shiny), and nonmetallic luster
(minerals that are described as
glassy, earthy, pearly, or greasy).
Optical properties
 a mineral’s ability to transmit light
determines whether it is opaque,
translucent or transparent. A mineral
is opaque when the light strike the
object does not pass through. When 3, Cleavage
the light strikes a translucent  Exhibited when a mineral breaks and
mineral, some of the light passes smooth flat surface are formed from
through. When light strikes a breakage.
transparent mineral, almost all the Specific Gravity
light will completely pass through.  Is a measurement done by
2. Color is the property of a mineral mineralogist to describe the density
that is easiest to identify. It is also of the mineral. It represents the ratio
considered an unreliable property of the mass of the mineral to the
when it comes to identifying the mass of equal volume of water. Most
minerals since slight impurities can rock-forming minerals have specific
affect color. gravity that is between 2 and 3.
3. Streak is the color of the mineral in Other properties
powdered form. This property is  Carbonate minerals like calcite,
often used in identifying the mineral dolomite, azurite react with
since it is very consistent unlike hydrochloric acid (HCI).
color. Streak can be obtained by  Minerals containing irons like
rubbing the mineral across. magnetite is attracted by a magnet.
B, Mineral Strength  Gold, silver and copper minerals are
good conductor of electricity.
 magma will solidify into igneous
rocks, starting the cycle.
Types of Rocks
1, Igneous Rocks
 Form by crystallization and
solidification of molten rock. They
made up of 80% of the mass of the
earth’s crust. It is mostly classified
based on their texture and mineral
composition.

Rocks
 A rocks is any solid that is naturally
found on Earth. It may consist of
minerals, other pre-existing rocks or
organize debris. Some rocks can A, Volcanic rocks
contain just one mineral while others  Are formed from magma erupted
can include a composite of several from a volcano. It is the most
mineral. But even if a variety of common rock types on earth’s
minerals are found in one rock, the surface, particularly in the ocean.
minerals retain their individual Basalt, rhyolite, andesite, and
chemical and physical properties. For komatiite are examples of volcanic
rocks to contain different these rocks.
different materials, they should go a B, Plutonic rocks
process.  Are crystallized slowly cooling
Rock cycle magma below the surface of the
 The process wherein rocks change earth. Gabbro, granite, diorite and
into sedimentary, metamorphic rock, peridotite are plutonic rocks.
and igneous rocks.
 Suppose you start with metamorphic
rocks. The magma cools and
solidifies through the process of
crystallization which may occur
either beneath the surface of the
earth or at the surface through
volcanic eruption. The resulting rock
is called igneous rocks.
 The igneous rocks undergo Classification of Igneous Rocks
weathering. The eroded materials are
deposited as sediments. The
sediments undergo lithification
(conversion into rocks) to become
sedimentary rocks when compacted
and cemented.
 If the sedimentary rocks are buried
deep within the earth. They will be
subjected to heat and pressure
changing them into metamorphic
rocks.
 If the metamorphic rocks are
subjected to higher temperature, they
will melt forming magmas. The
70% percent of the rocks in the earth surface
are sedimentary in origin. B, Chemical sedimentary rocks
 From when dissolved materials
2, Sedimentary Rocks precipitate. Precipitation I the
 Are formed from consolidation of process of separating a solid
materials (sediments) from pre- substance from a liquid.
existing rocks, from precipitation. Or
from life processes.
C, Organic Sedimentary rocks
 Are formed by accumulated
sedimentary debris caused by
organic processes. These are rocks
that may contain fossils of plant and
animals trapped in the sediments as
the rock was formed.

A, Detrital sedimentary rocks

 Are those that are forms by
accumulation, compaction and
cementation of different particles
that came from mechanical or
chemical weathering. These rocks,
therefore contain rocks particles of
different shapes and sizes. These are
classified into five classes, namely,
conglomerate, breccia, sandstone,
siltstone and shale.
 realign and certain minerals to
recrystallized. Example of this are
late, schist and gneiss.

 Biochemical sedimentary rocks. A.

This rock called coquina, consist of
shell fragments; therefore, it has a
biochemical origin. B. Seashells
cover the beach at Sanibel island, Non-foliated textures
Florida.  Are metamorphic rocks without
3, Metamorphic rocks layering, branding or alignment.
 Are derived from pre-existing rocks Marble and quartzite.
by mineralogical, chemical and/or
structural changes, in response to
marked changes in temperature,
pressure, or the introduction of the
chemically active fluids, without
melting the rocks

Common metamorphic rocks Summary

A, Foliated rocks  Mineral has the following
 Are brought about by pressure. characteristic: is inorganic,
Pressure causes mineral grains to
 represented by a chemical formula is is fractured, cracked or fragmented
solid found in nature. into smaller pieces.
 A rock is an aggregate of one or B, Chemical Weathering
more minerals.  Is the deposition of rocks due to
 Rock cycle shows the origin of the chemical reactions occurring
igneous rock, sedimentary and between the minerals in rock and the
metamorphic rocks and their environment. Chemical weathering
interrelationship. transform rocks and minerals
 The magma cools and solidifies exposed to water and gases in the
through the process of crystallization atmosphere into new chemical
which may occur either beneath the compound thus, forming different
surface of the earth or at the surface rocks and minerals.
through volcanic eruption. The Processes that can cause physical weathering
resulting is called igneous rocks. 1, Thermal and Pressure Change
 Sedimentary rocks are formed from  Rocks crumble and break into
consolidation of materials fragments because they are subjected
(sediments) from pre-existing rocks, to alternating hot and cold
from precipitation or from life temperature many times. During the
processes. day, the sun heats the rocks. When a
 Metamorphic rocks are derived from rock gets hot, it expands (an increase
any pre-existing rocks by in volume) while at night, the rock
mineralogical, chemical and/or gets cold causing contraction
structural changes, in response to (decrease in volume).
marked changes in temperature,  Repeated swing in temperature
pressure or the introduction of weakens the rock and in the process,
chemically active fluids, without mineral grains loosened from the
melting rocks. rocks and eventually the rocks break
Lesson 4: Exogenic Process down into pieces.
 Exogenic process are external 2, Winds and Waves
process that occur at/or near the  Winds and waves can all cause
surface of the earth. These part of the physical weathering. Tiny grains of
rock cycle and responsible for sand are picked up and carried off by
transforming rocks into sediment. the wind, which are then blasted on
Exogenic process include the surface of rocks, smoothening
degradation process (weathering, them. This could wear away the rock
mass wasting, erosion and and weather it.
transportation.) and aggradation  On the seashore, the action of wave
processes (deposition). chips away and cracks the rock.
 The physical breakdown and/or 3, Freeze and Thaw
chemical alteration of rocks at or  This happened particularly in cold
near the Earth’s surface is referred to climate. The freezing creates cracks.
as weathering. When the ice thaw, the water seeps
into new cracks and causes more
1, Weathering cracks as it freezes. Soon the rocks
 Is the mechanical and chemical break apart.
hammer that breaks down and 4, Organic Activity
sculpts the rock.  Animals and plants also take a heavy
There are two kinds of weathering: physical toll on rocks and causes them to wear
weathering and chemical weathering away. For example, there are animals
A, Mechanical/Physical Weathering that dig holes on the ground and
 Refers to the breakdown of rocks exposed rocks. It could also be an
without change in its composition. animal like rabbit that burrows into a
Breakdown would mean that the rock crack in the rocks as it constantly
burrows and makes the cracks
 bigger, it ends up ripping the rock  Water can carry almost any size of
apart. rocks. The greater the volume of
Processes that can cause chemical water and the steeper the slope, the
weathering bigger and more rocks can be
1, Hydration transported. Fast flowing rivers also
 Water is nature’s versatile tool can can carry heavier rocks or drag them
bring about chemical weathering. along the riverbed. In other words,
There are other chemical compounds this water flows rapidly has a very
in water that become the main agents high carrying capacity. This is the
of chemical weathering. Molecules reason why flood water is usually
of some substance in rocks destructive.
chemically combine with water B, Transport by Wind
molecules. This process is called  Wind is continuously blows away
hydration. loose particles of rocks and soil from
2, Carbonation place to place. This is common in
 Carbon dioxide may bond with other dry areas such as deserts. Wind
substance in process known as transport cab result in stunning
carbonation. Rain water is naturally landscapes as sand is blown away
acidic because CO2 gas from the and creates sand dunes. The wind
atmosphere chemically reacts with it can create sandstorms that contain
and produces carbonic acid, a weak dust particles.
acid that reacts slowly with III, Mass Movement (Mass Wasting)
carbonate minerals in rocks.  Mass wasting typically know as mass
Carbonic acid when synthesized with movement or slope movement is
calcium carbonate in limestone, from defined as a bulk movements of soil,
calcium bicarbonate. This chemical sand, and rocks debris downslopes in
reaction dissolves away part of the response to the force of gravity or
limestone and decreases its mass. gradual sinking of the Earth’s ground
3, Oxidation surface in a vertical direction. It is a
 Is another kind of chemical type of erosion that of capable of
weathering process. This occurs making big changes.
when oxygen, considered as an Types of Mass Movement
active gas, combines with another 1, Rock falls
substance like minerals in rocks,  The abrupt movement and free fall of
yielding compounds called oxides. loosened solid rock.
Iron, aluminum, copper and sodium 2, Creep
are examples of mineral that readily  Imperceptible downslope movement
react with oxygen which form of soil particles and rock debris
mineral oxides. 3, Landslide
II, Erosion  The multiplicity of downslope
 Involves the movement of the movements of bedrock and other
weathered rock (now soil, sand or debris caused by the separation of a
pebbles) from their site of slope section along a plane of least
weathering by agents of erosion such resistance or slip surface
as wind, moving water, ice and 4, Slump
gravity. Weathering does not always  The separation of mass moving down
occur before erosion. Erosion always a curved slip and collecting at the
follow after weathering. slope’s foot.
 Transport makes erosion complete 5, Earthflow
because it involves the movement of  The saturation of debris and
the eroded materials and sediments. weathered materials by rainfall in the
Weathering can continue during upper section of a slop or valley
transport. causing a slow downslope
A, Transport by Water movement.
6, Mudslide Endojenik/
 A rapidly moving earth flow Adjective GEOLOGY
containing higher water content.  Formed, located or occurring beneath
7, Avalanches the surface if the earth.
 A fast moving earthflow in  Magma is a mixture of molten rocks,
mountains region minerals and gases. This mixture is
8, Subsidence usually made up of a hot liquid base
 Sinking mass movement that occurs called the melt, minerals crystallized
in a relatively rapid fashion. by the melt, solid rocks incorporated
Subsidence involves the roof into the melt from the surrounding
collapse or breakdown of a confines and dissolve gas.
subsurface cavity forming a cave.  Lithosphere- crust together with a
9, Settlement hard upper part of the mantle
 Sinking mass wasting in gradual (PLATES, Crust under continents,
movement. crusts under the ocean.
Summary:  Asthenosphere- (Below lithospehre0
 Exogenic process are external so much pressure and heat the rocks
process that occur at/or near the can flow like a liquid. Allows
surface of the Earth. These are part lithosphere to float on top of it.
of the rock cycle and responsible for How magmas formed?
transforming rock into sediment  At about 30-65 km below the earth
 Weathering is the mechanical and surface, the temperature is high
chemical hammer that breaks down enough to melt rocks into magma.
and sculpts the rock. The reason why it is difficult to drill
 There are two types of Weathering; holes deep into the crust is that the
Mechanical and chemical temperature rises about 3o Celsius
Weathering. for every kilometer. The
 Erosion involves the movement of asthenosphere which is between 100-
the weathered rock (now soil, sand or 350 km deep is so hot that most of
pebbles) from their site of the rocks Is melted.
weathering by agents of erosion such What’s at the bottom of the deepest hole on
as wind, moving water, ice and earth?
gravity.  The kola superdeep borehole: the
 Mass wasting typically known as deepest hole on earth
mass movement or slope movement Formation of magma
is defined as a bulk movements of  Most of the mantle remains solid
soil, sand, and rock debris because of the large amount of
downslopes in response to the force pressure from the surrounding rocks.
of gravity or gradual sinking of the  Magma- liquid rock produced under
earth’s ground surface in a vertical earth’s surface
direction, Magma can form under three conditions
1. If the temperature of the rock rises
above the melting point of the
minerals the rock is composed of, the
rock will melt.
2. If enough pressure is removed from
the rock, the melting point will
decrease and the rock will melt.
3. The addition of fluids, such as water,
may decrease the melting point of
some minerals in the rock and cause
the rock to melt.
Lesson 5: Endogenic Processes Gases in Magma
En-do-gen-ic
  Deep in the earth, nearly all magmas  Magma leaves the confines of the
contain gas dissolved in the liquid. asthenosphere and crust in te=wo
As magma rises at the surface of the majors ways an intrusion and
earth, pressure is decreased and the extrusion.
gas forms a separate vapor phases 1. Magma can intrude low-density area
 The high pressure keeps the gas to be of another geologic form such as
dissolved in theliquid solution but sedimentary rock. When it cools and
with a decrease in pressure like when hardens, this intrusion develops into
the can or bottle is opened, the gas a pluton commonly known as
comes out of a solution and forms a intrusive igneous rock. Plutonism is
separate gas that you see as bubbles. a process whereby a pluton which is
How a volcano erupts an intrusion of magma rises from
 Magma at depth is under too much beneath the surface
pressure for gas bubbles to form 2. The most familiar way for magma to
(gases stay dissolved in magma) escape is through extrusion. Magma
 As magma rises toward surface, can extrude onto the earth’s surface
pressure decreases and gas bubbles as lava. (the term lava is derived
form and expand propelling the from the Italian word lavare: to wash
magma farther up it is originally referred to steams of
 Eventually gas bubble volume may water. Some magma is expelled in
overwhelm magma, fragmenting it volcanic vents. Lava flow is a thick
into pieces that explode out a gas jet. slow-moving river of molten
Viscosity of magmas material. Lava, when it cools, from
 Viscosity is the resistance of flow volcanic rock (volcanisim)
(an anatomy for fluid). Viscosity 3. Magma can also extrude into the
depends primarily on the earth’s atmosphere as part of a
composition and temperature of the violent volcanic eruption. This
magma magma when solidifies in the air
 Magma with the higher silica has forms volcanic rock called tephra. In
higher viscosity. Viscosity increases the atmosphere, tephra is more often
with increasing silica concentration referred to as volcanic ash. This
in the magma. tephra as it falls to earth forms a
 pyroclastic rock and that includes
pumince
Different ways to generate magma
Decompression Melting
 Involves the upward movement of
the earth’s mostly solid mantle. This
hot material rises to an area of lower
pressure through the process of
convection.
 Areas of lower pressure always have
a lower melting point that areas of a
high pressure. This reduction in the
pressure or decompression, enables
the mantle rock to melt and form
magma.
 Magma with low temperature has Transfer of heat
higher viscosity than those with high  Magma can be also be created when
temperature. Viscosity decreases hot, liquid rock intrudes into the
with increasing temperature of the Earth’s crust. As the liquid rocks
magma solidifies, it loses this heat and
Magma escape routes transfer it to the surrounding crust.
Repeated intrusions transfer enough
 heat to increase the local geothermal There are kinds of stress that rocks
gradient and cause the melting of the experience
surrounding rock and this creates a 1, Lithostatic sense
new magma,  Rock beneath the earth’s surface
Flux melting/wet melting experiences equal pressure exerted
 Flux melting occurs when water or on it from all directions because of
carbon dioxide is added to rocks. the weight of overlying rocks. It is
These compounds cause the rock to like the hydrostatic stress (water
melt at lower temperature. If the pressure) that a person feels pressing
addition of water or carbon dioxide all over his body when diving down
takes place deep in earth where the deep in the water.
temperature is already high, the
lowering of the melting temperature
could cause the rock to partially melt 2, Differential stress
and generate magma.  In many cases, rock may experience
Types of magma an additional unequal stress due to
Felsic magma tectonic forces. There are three basic
 It has the highest silica content of all. kinds
As a result, felsic magma has the A, Tension stress (stretching)
highest gas content and viscosity. It  This is when rock is stretched apart
has also the lowest temperature. or pull apart. Where crustal plates
Felsic magma is also low in iron, diverge, rocks are pulled apart.
magnesium and calcium, and is high B, Compressional Stress (squeezing)
in potassium and sodium.  This is when rock is pressed,
Intermediate magma squeezed or pushed together. It’s like
 Have the higher silica content than a car caught in the middle of a long
mafic magma. This result in a higher pile up on the highway, where crustal
gas content and higher viscosity. plate collide, rocks are compressed
 As a result of its higher viscosity and or pushed.
gas content, intermediate magma C, Shear stress
builds up pressure beneath the  Which results in slippage and
earth’s surface before it can be transition. With shear stress, the rock
released as lava. The more gaseous is being pulled in opposite directions.
and sticky lava tends to explode It is similar to the motion between
violently and cools as andesite rock individual playing cards when top of
Mafic magma the stack is moved relative to the
 Mafic magma has relatively low bottom.
silica content but high in iron and B, Strain
magnesium. This magma has a low  Rock deformation in response to
gas content and low viscosity. Mafic stress
magma has high average temperature  Rock respond to stress differently
which contributes too its low depending on the pressure and
viscosity. temperature and mineralogical
Ultramafic magma composition of the rock. The ability
 Today, our planet is too cool for of a rock material to handle stress
ultramafic magma to form. This is depends on the elasticity of the
probably a good thin, since rocks’ the different types of
ultramafic magma would be the deformation as follows.
hottest and fastest flowing magma.
Rock deformation
A, Are rocks stressed?
 Stress is defined as the force that
could create deformation on rocks in
their shape and volume.
 surface. Rocks become thinner under
tensional stress.
 When rocks are deform in ductile in
manner, instead if fracturing to form
faults or joints, they may bend or
folds and the resulting structure are
called folds. Folds are promoted by
high temperature and pressure at
Types of deformation great depth.
I, Elastic Deformation There are several kinds of folds
 For small differential stresses, less 1, Monoclines
than the yield strength, rock deforms  Are the simplest ytype of folds.
like a spring. It changes in shapes by Monoclines occur when the
a very small amount in response to horizontal layers are bent upwards so
the stress. The deformation is not that the two limbs of fold are
permanent. This deformation is horizontal.
reversible. The rock return to its
original shape.

II, Brittle deformation or Fracture 2, Synclines

 Near the earth’s surface rocks  Are fold structure when the original
behaves in its familiar brittle fashion. rock layers have been folded
If a differential stress is applied that downward and the two limbs of the
is greater than the rock’s yield fold dip inward toward the hinge of
strength, rock fracture. the fold.
A, Fracture 3, Anticlines
 Is an irreversible strain wherein the  Are fold structures formed when the
rocks break. originally rock layers have been
B, Faults folded upward and the two limbs of
 Are extremely long deep break or the two-fold dip away from the hinge
large crack in a rock. This fault is a of the fold.
result. Summary:
Types of fault  Endogenic process are internal
1, Dip-Slip (Normal fault) processes that occur beneath the
 Occurs when brittle rocks are surface of earth
stretched-tectonic-tensional forces is  Magma is a mixture of molten rock,
mainly in vertical direction (sinking minerals and gases. This mixture is
and rising). For dip-slip faults, the usually made up of a hot liquid base
block lying on the top of the fault called the melt, minerals crystallized
while one below is referred as the by the melt, solid rocks incorporated
footwall. into the melt from the surrounding
2, Strike-slip Fault confines and dissolved gas.
 Occurs when brittle rocks are  Types of magmas: felsic magma,
sheared (the opposing tectonic forces intermediate magma, mafic magma,
are at right angles to compression ultramafic magma
and tension directions) and the  Viscosity is the rsistence to flow (an
movement of blocks of rock is anatomy for fluidity). Viscosity
chiefly in the horizontal direction. depends primarily on the
III. Ductile deformation composition and temperature of the
 Rocks buried deep within the Earth’s magma
crust behave differently when  Magma leaves the confines of the
subjected to differential stress. It is asthenosphere and crust in two major
impossible to produce fracture in the ways: an intrusion or extrusion.
rocks the way it is at the earth’s
 There are different kinds of stress
that rocks experience
 Lithostatic stress – rock beneath the
earth’s surface experience equal
pressure exerted on it from all
directions because of the weight of
overlying rocks.