ss1 2nd Term Chem Note1 1

SS 1 SECOND TERM 2015/2016 ACADEMIC SESSION
CHEMISTRY NOTE
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC CONTENTS

1. Week 7 of first term note
2. Week 8 of first term note
3. Chemical combination Electronic configuration and periodic table. Types of
chemical bonding; electrovalent, covalent, coordinate
covalent and weak bonds
4. States of matter and kinetic States of matter. Kinetic theory and its applications.
theory of matter Brownian movement and inter-conversion of states
5. Gas laws Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and General gas equation
6. Gas laws Ideal gas equation, Dalton’s law, Gay Lussac’s law,
Avogadro’s law and Graham’s law.
7. Acids, bases and salts Acids – types, properties, preparations and uses.
8. Acids, bases and salts Bases and alkalis – properties, preparations, measurement
of acidity and alkalinity, indicator, buffer solution
9. Revision and examination
10. Examination
11 Compilation and vacation
NOWASEC, Karshi SS 1 Chemistry Note for Second Term 2015/2016 Academic Session. By T.R. Onibon Page 1
WEEK: 1
TOPIC: LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
Chemical changes take place according to some basic laws. There are four laws of chemical
combination which describe the general features of a chemical change.
1. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS (MATTER): It states that, during ordinary chemical
reactions, matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
EXPERIMENT
AIM: To verify the law of conservation of mass
REAGENT: Lead (II) trioxonitrate (v) and potassium chloride
PROCEDURE: Put some lead (II) trioxonitrate (V) solution in a conical flask. Fill a small test tube with
potassium chloride solution and by means of a string round the neck of the test tube, suspend it in
the conical flask. Do not allow the two solutions to mix together. Cork the conical flask with a
rubber bung and weigh the whole apparatus. Record your result.
Mix the two solutions by releasing the string and weigh the whole apparatus again.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + KCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + KNO3(aq)
White ppt
RESULT: after mixing the two solutions together, a white precipitate of lead (II) chloride and
potassium trioxonitrate (V) are formed indicating that a chemical reaction has occurred. The masses
of the system taken before and after the reaction are the same, indicating that the mass of the
reactants equal to the mass of the products.
CONCLUSION: since the two masses obtained are the same, it confirms that matter is neither
created nor destroyed during the chemical reaction.
2. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS OR CONSTANT COMPOSITIONS: it states that all pure samples
of a particular chemical compound contain the same elements combined in the same proportion by
mass.
EXPERIMENT
AIM: To verify the law of definite proportions
PROCEDURE: Three samples of black copper (II) oxide are prepared by different methods.
SAMPLE A (from copper) – put some copper turnings in a crucible and add concentrated
trioxonitrate (V) acid, a little at a time until all the copper have dissolved. Brown fumes of nitrogen
(IV) oxide evolved and green copper (II) trioxonitrate (V) solution is formed.
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
Brown fumes of NO2 are always produced during the process because the nitrogen (II) oxide formed
reacts with oxygen.
Evaporate the green solution [Cu(NO3)2] to dryness. Continue to heat the residue until it
decomposes to give a black solid of copper (II) oxide and no more brown fumes of NO 2 are evolved.
2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Sample B: from copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) : add some excess sodium hydroxide solution to
some copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
The resulting solution is then boiled to change the Cu(OH) 2 to CuO
Cu(OH)2(aq) CuO(s) + H2O(l)
Sample C: from CuCO3: put some CuCO3 into a crucible and heat strongly to decompose it into black
copper (II) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
Analysis of the samples
Weigh three clean dry boats. Add a reasonable amount of each of the prepared sample of copper
(II) oxide in each boat. Re-weigh to determine the mass of each sample. Arrange the three boats
inside a combustion tube. Pass dry hydrogen gas through the tube and heat the sample strongly.
After some time, a reddish – brown copper residue is left in each boat.
CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l)
When the reaction is complete, put off the flame and allow the copper to cool down, keeping the
passing of the hydrogen gas to prevent the re-oxidation of the hot copper residues by atmospheric
oxygen. A fused CaCl2 is used to absorb any water formed in the process. When the copper residues
have cooled, weigh all the three boats again and calculate the percentage of copper in each sample.
Result
Sample A B C
Mass of CuO 1.70g 1.44g 3.02g
Mass of copper residue 1.36g 1.15g 2.42g
% of copper in CuO 1.36 X 100 1. 15 X 100 2.42 X 100
1.70 1.44 3.02
= 80.0g 79.9g 80.1g

CONCLUSION: it is found that whatever samples of a given compound are prepared, they always
contain the same elements combined in definite proportion by mass.
Worked example:
Two samples of Iron(II) sulphide were prepared by (a) heating a mixture of iron fillings and sulphur
and (b) passing hydrogen sulphide gas into a solution of iron (II) chloride and filtering.
Analysis of both samples of iron (II) sulphide showed that in (a) 0.8g of sulphur combined with 1.4g
of iron while in (b) 5.5g of iron (II) sulphide combined with 2.0g of sulphur. Show that this result
illustrates the law of constant composition
Solution
Sample Mass of FeS Mass of Fe Mass of S
A 2.20g 1.40g 0.80g
B 5.50g 3.50g 2.00g
% by mass of Fe in sample A = 1.40 x 100 = 63.6%

2.20 x 1
% by mass of Fe in sample B = 3.50 x 100 = 63.6%
5.50 x 1
Percentage of sulphur in both samples = (100 – 63.6)%
= 36.4%
The result shows that the samples of iron (II) sulphide (FeS) contain the same element (Fe and S) in
the same proportion by mass. Hence, it illustrates the law of constant composition.
Tutorial questions
1. Two different samples A and B of zinc oxide were obtained from different sources. When heated
in a stream of hydrogen, they were reduced to yield the following results:
ZnO Mass of sample Mass of zinc residue
Sample A 10.0g 8.11g
Sample B 13.2g 10.70g
Show that the figures above illustrate the law of constant composition.
2. State the law of conservation of matter.
WEEK: 2
TOPIC: LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION (contd)
3. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
It states that if two elements A and B combined to form more than one compound, then the various
masses of A which combines with a fixed mass of B are in simple whole number ratio.
EXPERIMENT
AIM: To verify the law of multiple proportions
PROCEDURE: weigh two dry boats, put some copper (I) oxide in one and copper (II) oxide in the
other and weigh again to find the mass of the oxides. Place the two boats containing the oxides in a
combustion tube and reduce the oxides to copper in a stream of dry hydrogen. When the samples
are cooled, weigh the copper residues obtained to know their masses.
RESULT
Samples Cu2O CuO
Mass of boat 3.55g 3.75g
Mass of boat and oxide 7.73g 6.83g
Mass of boat and copper 7.08g 6.00g
Mass of copper 3.53g 2.25g
Mass of oxygen 0.65g 0.83g
Calculation: calculate the various masses of copper which would combine separately with a fixed
mass (say 1g) of oxygen.
In Cu2O
0.65g of oxygen combines with 3.53g of copper
:- 1g of oxygen will combine with 3. 53 X 1
0.65 = 5.4g
In CuO
0.83g of oxygen combines with 2.25g of Cu
:. 1g of oxygen will combine with 1 X 2.25
0.8 = 2.7g
Copper (I) oxide copper (II) oxide

Mass of copper 5.4g 2.7g
Ratio of copper 2 1
CONCLUSION: the mass of copper which has separately combined with a fixed mass (1g) of oxygen
in the two oxides are in simple multiple ratio of 2:1
LAW OF RECIPROCAL PROPORTION
It states that the mass of several elements A,B,C which combine separately with a fixed mass of
another element D are the same as, or simple multiples of the masses in which A,B,C themselves
combine with one another.
CHEMICAL EQUATION
Chemical equations are representation of chemical reactions in terms of the symbols and formulae
of the elements and compounds involved. The reactants are written at the left hand side while the
products are written at the right hand side. The reactants and the products are linked by the arrow
pointing towards the product.
A + B C+ D
Reactants products
For a chemical equation to truly represent a chemical reaction, it must be balanced i.e. the number
of atoms at the left hand side must be equal to the number of atoms at the right hand side.
THINGS TO CONSIDER IN BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

1. The subscript numbers written within the formulae should not be changed but coefficients
in front of the formulae can be changed
2. Common gases like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine are diatomic in their free states
3. Elements such as sodium, potassium, copper and iron in their free states are represented by
their atomic symbols.
4. In simple chemical reactions, radicals remain unchanged during the reaction.
CALCULATIONS FROM CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
1. Calculate the mass of lead which would be obtained by heating 35.25g of trilead tetraoxide
in a stream of hydrogen and the mass of water formed at the same time. ( Pb=207, H=1,
O=16)
Solution
Pb3O4(s) + 4H2(g) 3Pb(s) + 4H2O(g)
Reacting masses: 685g 621g 71g
(i)
From the equation;
685g of Pb3O4 produced 621g of Pb
:- 35.25g of Pb3O4 will produce 35.25 x 621 = 31.96g of Pb
685
(ii)
From the equation;
685g of Pb3O4 produced 72g of H2O
:- 32.25g of Pb3O4 will produce 32.25 x 72 = 3.71g of H2O
685
2. If 23g of impure calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) reacts with excess acid liberating 4.2dm 3 of
carbon (IV) oxide at s.t.p. calculate the percentage purity of the impure salt. (Ca=40, C=12,
O=16, H=1)
Solution
CaCO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
100g 22.4dm3
22.4dm3 of CO2 was produced by 100g of CaCO3 at s.t.p
:- 4.26 of CO2 will be produced by 4.26 x 100 = 19g of CaCO3

22.4
The mass of pure CaCO3 therefore is 19g
% purity = mass of pure CaCO3 x 100
Mass of impure CaCO3
= 19 x 100
23
= 82.61%
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION (EXAMPLE)

To balance the equation for the combustion of ammonia in air
Step 1: write the reactants and products
NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + H2O(g)
Step 2: balance the number of hydrogen atoms on both sides by placing 4 in front of NH3 and 6 in
front of H2O
4NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Step 3: place 4 in front of NO to balance with the 4 atoms of nitrogen at the left hand side
4NH3(g) + O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Step 4: place a 5 in front O2 to balance the number of oxygen atoms on both sides
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Assignment
1. State 6 information provided and 3 in formation NOT provided by a balanced chemical equation
2. A metal J forms two different chlorides. If 12.7g of chloride A and 16.3g of chloride B contain 7.1g
and 10.7g of chlorine respectively, show that the figures agree with the Law of Multiple
proportion. Write their formulae.
Tutorial questions
1. In the reaction represented by the equation

2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2HCl.
Calculate the volume of hydrogen chloride gas that can be obtained at s.t.p. from 5.85g of
sodium chloride. ( Na=23, H=1, Cl=35.5)
2. Balance the following chemical equations
a. H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
b. Fe(s) + Cl2(g) FeCl3(s)
c. KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
d. C6H12O6(aq) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
e. KClO3(s) KCl(s) + O2(g)
3. The following table shows the masses of two oxides of copper and the corresponding mass of
cupper in each oxide.
Oxide 1 Oxide 2
(in g) (in g)
Mass of oxide 5.78 5.22
Mass of copper 5.44 4.64
i. Calculate the mass of copper which combines with 1.0g of oxygen in (a) oxide 1 (b) oxide 2
ii. Calculate the ratio of the different masses of copper which combined with 1.0g of oxygen in
the two oxides
iii. Which law is being demonstrated?
iv. State the law
WEEK 3
TOPIC: CHEMICAL COMBINATION
Electronic configuration and the periodic table
The periodic table is an organizational chart of elements following a particular pattern. The
elements are arranged in horizontal rows (called Periods) and vertical columns (called Groups).
Elements whose atoms have the same number of electron shells occupy the same period. Elements
with the same physical and chemical properties and whose atoms have the same number of valence
electron occupy the same Group.
There are 7 Periods and 8 Groups in all. Moving from Group 1 to Group 8, the properties of
elements changes gradually from that of very reactive metal (Group 1) to very reactive non-metals
(Group 7 or halogens) and finally, the unreactive Group 8/0 (the noble gases). The noble gases are
stable and unreactive because they possess 8 electrons in their outermost shell i.e. they have
attained octet structure. For Helium, the K –shell is completely filed with two electrons (duplet
structure)
The tendency of every other element is to attain the duplet or octet structure of the noble gases
and become stable. This is the basis for chemical combination. In chemical combination, the
valence electrons react by being shared or exchanged.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING
1. Ionic or electrovalent bonding
2. Covalent bonding
3. Co-ordinate covalent bonding (dative ) bonding
4. Hydrogen bond
5. Metallic bond
6. Vander waal’s force
ELECTROVALENT (IONIC) BONDING
Electrovalent bond is the one in which there is transfer of electrons from metallic atoms to non –
metallic atoms during a chemical reaction. It is otherwise known as donor-acceptor principle
The metal, after donating its valence electrons becomes positively charged while the non –metals
become negatively charged after gaining electrons. The two elements become held together by
strong electrostatic force of attraction which constitute the electrovalent or ionic bond.
Examples
1. Formation of NaCl (Na+ Cl-)
2. Formation of calcium oxide (Ca2+ O2-)
Other examples of electrovalent compounds include calcium chloride (CaCl 2), Magnesium Oxide
(MgO), Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), etc.
The factors influencing the formation of ionic bonding include; ionization energy, electro affinity,
electronegativity difference.
Properties of electrovalent (ionic) compound
1. They are solids at room temperature
2. They possess high melting and boiling points
3. They do not contain molecules but aggregates of ions
4. They dissolve readily in water and other polar solvents
5. They conduct electricity when molten or in solution. i.e. they are good electrolytes
6. They do not dissolve in non-polar solvents like benzene, toluene, ether, trichloromethane,
etc.
COVALENT BOND
Covalent bond occurs when a pair of electrons is shared by two atoms. It can also be regarded as
resulting from the overlap of electron clouds. The shared electrons are each contributed by the
reacting atoms. The sharing of electrons occurs between atoms of the same elements or atoms of
comparable electronegativities. A shared pair of electrons is represented by a horizontal bar
between the two atoms e.g. H – H, H – Cl. Where two or three pairs of electrons are shared, they
are represented as and respectively.
Examples
1. Formation of ammonia (NH3) molecules – single covalent bond
2. Formation of ethene (C2H4) – double covalent bonds
3. Formation of nitrogen molecule (N2) – triple covalent bonds
The factors influencing the formation of covalent bonding include: ionization energy, electon affinity
and electronegativity difference
Properties of covalent compounds
1. They consist of molecules which have definite shapes
2. They are gases or volatile liquids at room temperature
3. They have low melting and boiling points
4. They dissolve readily in non – polar solvents like toluene and disulphide
5. They do not conduct electricity i.e. they are non – electrolytes
CO-ORDINATE COVALENT BOND (DATIVE BOND)
It is another type of covalent bonding in which the lone pairs of electrons shared is donated by only
one of the participating atoms. It is denoted by an arrow pointing from the donor to the acceptor.
Example
Formation of hydroxonium ion (H3O+)
Other compounds with co-ordinate covalent bonding include
1. Ammonium ion (NH4+)
2. Hydrated copper (II) ion [Cu(H2O)4]2+
3.
Tetraamine copper (II) ion [Cu(NH3)4]2+
4. Phosphorus oxochloride (POCl3)
Compound with co-ordinate covalent bonding have similar properties as covalent compound.
However, co-ordinate covalent bonding tends to make a compound less volatile.
HYDROGEN BOND
Hydrogen bond is a dipole – dipole intermolecular attraction which occurs when hydrogen is
covalently bonded to highly electronegative elements of small atomic size e.g. O 2, N2 and F2.
Because of their high affinity for electrons, the highly electronegative elements attract the shared
pair of electrons towards themselves resulting in the formation of a dipole, hence hydrogen
becomes partially positively charged while the highly electronegative element becomes partially
negatively charged. An electrostatic force of attraction is then set up between the two dipoles. This
electrostatic force is known as hydrogen bond.
The strongest hydrogen bonds are found in hydrogen fluoride. Hydrogen bond, though weak, has
important effect in the physical properties of compounds like hydrogen fluoride and water.
Importance of hydrogen bond

1. It account for the crystalline shape of solid water
2. It provides the attractive force that keeps water molecules together.
3. It accounts for the high solubilities of some compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and
fluorine in certain hydrogen – containing solvents e.g. ammonia and alkanols dissolve readily
in water.
4. It plays an important role in determining the structures and properties of molecules of living
systems e.g. proteins
Compounds that contain hydrogen and one other element are called hydrides e.g. HF, H 2O, NH3,
CH4 etc.
METALLIC BOND
Metallic bond can be described as the forces of attraction which hold metal atoms together in
crystal lattice. In a metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively
charged. The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalized.
They move freely between the positive metal ions as a cloud of negative charges.
Factors influencing the formation of metallic bonding include: atomic radius, ionization potential
and number of valence electrons.
VAN DER WAAL’S FORCES
Van der waal’s forces are intermolecular forces arising from induced fluctuating dipoles in atoms
and molecules brought about by movement of electrons around the atomic nucleus. They can also
be described as the attractive forces which make it possible for non – polar molecules like nitrogen
and carbon (IV) oxide to form liquids and solids. Although, they are weak they are important in the
liquefaction of gases and in the formation of molecular lattices in iodine and naphthalene crystals.
Vander waal’s forces increase with increase in the number of electrons. They are strong in iodine
than in bromine and less in chlorine.
Assignment
1. Differentiate between intermolecular forces and intra-molecular forces
2. Answer question 1 on page 50 of your textbook.
Tutorial questions
- State five properties of covalent compounds
- State five properties of electrovalent compounds
- State four importance of hydrogen bond
- Show the formation of CaCl2 from Calcium and Chlorine atoms
- Show the formation of ammonium ion from ammonia and hydrogen ion
- Show the formation of nitrogen gas from nitrogen atoms
WEEK 4
TOPIC: STATES OF MATTER; KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. The three states of matter are solid, liquid and
gas.
Kinetic theory of matter.
Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms, molecules or ions. The kinetic theory of matter
postulates that the tiny particles of matter are always in constant random motion and so possess
kinetic energy. An increase in temperature causes an increase in the average kinetic energy of the
particles. The kinetic theory of matter can be used to explain:
a. The states of matter
b. Changes of state
The kinetic theory of matter helps the scientists in predicting the behaviour of matter.
The three states of matter as explained by the kinetic theory
State of matter Structure Inference
 Particles are packed closely  Has fixed shape and
together in an orderly pattern. volume and cannot be
Solid  Particles vibrate in fixed position compressed
 Particles are less closely packed  Does not have fixed
together than in solid, in a shape but fixed volume
disorderly pattern.
Liquid  Particles move about at random  Cannot be compressed
and slide over one another
 Particles are very far apart from  Do not have fixed shape
one another or volume
 Particles move about rapidly at  Can be compressed
Gas random, colliding and bouncing off
one another
Note:
 Degree of disorderliness increases from solid to gas and vice versa.
 Random motion of particles increases from solid to gas
 Kinetic energy of particles increases from solid to gas
Changes of state and the kinetic theory of matter
The changes in states of matter can be summarised as follows.
Particles possess kinetic energy because of their motion. As the temperature rises, the kinetic
energy of the particles increases.
Condensation: as the temperature of gases drops, the particles lose energy and move more slowly.
The particles move closer together and the effect of the force of attraction between them becomes
significant. Eventually, the gas changes to liquid.
Melting: when a solid is heated, the particles gain heat energy and start to vibrate about their fixed
position. When the temperature is high enough, the vibration of the particles become high enough
to overcome the attractive forces between them. The particles break away from their fixed
positions and slide over one another. The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid is known as
the melting point.
Boiling: when a liquid is heated, the particles gain heat energy and move faster. This happens until
eventually all the particles in the liquid have enough energy to overcome the force holding them
together. The particles spread far apart and move rapidly in all directions. The temperature at which
a liquid boils to become a gas is called the boiling point.
Evaporation: a liquid can turn to gas at temperature lower than the boiling point through the
process called evaporation. This occurs because some particles have enough energy to escape into
the air from the surface of the liquid. Liquids that evaporate quickly at room temperature are called
volatile liquids e.g. petrol and perfumes.
Differences between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
1. Occurs only at the boiling point Can occur at temperatures lower than the boiling point
2. Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only at the surface of the liquid
3. Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly
Saturated pressure (i.e. saturated vapour pressure): when evaporation takes place in a closed
container, the evaporation will continue until there are as many molecules returning to the liquid as
there are escaping (i.e. dynamic equilibrium). At this point, the vapour is said to be saturated and
the pressure generated by this vapour is called saturated vapour pressure (svp). The temperature at
which the S.V.P is equal to the atmospheric pressure is called the boiling point.
Phenomena supporting the kinetic theory of matter
1. Brownian motion: this is the constant erratic movement of particles in a liquid or gas. The
movement is the result of collision between particles. The Brownian motion can be
demonstrated by using either pollen or sulphur suspended in water, smoke particles in the
air or dusty room being swept and viewed from outside under sunlight.
2. Diffusion: this is the process by which particles move freely to fill any available space. It is
defined as the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration an area of lower
concentration. It occurs as a result of random motion of particles. The higher the
temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Demonstration of diffusion
i. In Liquid:
Procedure: place a small crystal of potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) in a beaker of
distilled water. Leave the beaker to stand for about 24hours.
Result: the KMnO4 crystal slowly dissolve in the water to form a purple solution at the
bottom of the beaker. Diffusion then takes place until the solution becomes uniformly
purple.
ii. In Gases:
a. If a bottle of ammonia is left opened for sometimes, the pungent smell of the ammonia
soon spread through the entire room. This is as a result of the movement of the particles
of NH3 from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration
(diffusion).
b. If an air gas jar is place over a gas jar containing bromine vapour (or iodine or NO 2
vapour). A cover is place between the gas jars to separate the two gases i.e. air and
bromine vapour. When the cover is removed, the gas in both jars look alike after a few
minutes. This is because the particles of both gases diffuse to fill up all available empty
spaces. Bromine vapour is denser than air.
Generally, gases with lower molecular mass diffuse faster than those with higher
molecular masses.
iii. In solids: diffusion may be observed in solids but the process is extremely slow. If a gold
bar and a silver bar are tied together firmly and left for years, some gold particles would
have diffused into the silver bar, and vice versa.
3. Osmosis: this is a special case of diffusion which involves the movement of water molecules,
through a semi-permeable membrane, from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration. If a dry beans seed is placed in a beaker of water, it swells after some
time because water molecules have moved through the semi-permeable skins into the seed
by osmosis. There is more sugar concentration inside the beans seed than outside. Thus
water molecule moves into the beans seed.
Postulates of the kinetic theory of gases.
1. Gas molecules are in constant rapid, straight motion and collide with one another and with
the walls of the container.
2. The collision of the gas molecules is perfectly elastic i.e. the gas particles do not lose kinetic
energy after each collision.
3. Gases consist of molecules widely separated in space.
4. The cohesive forces of attraction between the gas molecules are negligible.
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is a measure of the temperature of the gas
molecules.
Ideal gases (or perfect gases) fulfil the kinetic theory postulates but real gases like N 2, O2, H2 and
CO2 show deviation at low temperature and high pressure. Under these conditions the molecules
are close together and intermolecular attraction becomes appreciable.
Pressure exerted by gases
The particles of a gas contained in a vessel move randomly at high speeds colliding with one
another and with the wall of the container. This collision results in exertion of force on the wall of
the container. The force exerted by the gas particles per unit area (of the container’s wall) is known
as the gas pressure. Gas pressure is commonly measured in atmosphere (atm) other units are
millimetre Mercury (mmHg) and Newton per square metre (Nm -2). The relationship between them
is as follows:
1 atm = 760mmHg = 101325Nm-2.
Assignment
Write out the properties of each state of matter.
Tutorial questions
- State the postulate of the kinetic theory of matter
- What is meant by saturated vapour pressure
- Define (a) diffusion (b) osmosis
- Briefly describe an experiment to demonstrate diffusion in gases.
- State the five postulates of the kinetic theory of gases.
- State three differences between boiling and evaporation
- With the aid of a diagram, show the conversion of substances involving the three states of
matter
WEEK 5
TOPIC: GAS LAW
BOYLE’S LAW: Robert Boyle in 1662 was the first to state the relationship between volume and
pressure of a gas. The Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure, provided that the temperature remains constant.
V ά 1/p
Where: V = volume and P = pressure
V = k/p or PV = k; hence P1V1 = P2V2
Where P1 = pressure at V1 and P2 = pressure at V2
According to the kinetic theory, the gas pressure is caused by molecular collisions with the walls of
the container. Therefore, the larger the number of molecules per unit volume, the larger the
number of collisions and the higher the pressure. If the volume of a gas is reduced, the gas
molecules will be packed in a given space producing a larger molecular concentration and higher
pressure. Thus, if the pressure is doubled, the volume is reduced to half its former value.
A representation of Boyle’s law

Example:
375cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 770mmHg. Find its volume if the pressure is reduced to
750mmHg.
Solution:
V1 = 375cm3, P1 = 770mmHg, V2 = ?, P2 = 750mmHg
P1V1 = P2V2 ...................... Boyle’s Law
V2 = P1V1/P2 = 375 x 770 / 750 = 385cm3
Graphical representation of Boyle’s Law
CHARLES’ LAW
The Charles’ law shows the relationship of temperature and volume in a given mass of gas.
The Charles’ law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its
temperature in Kelvin, provided that pressure remains constant.
V ά T; where V = volume and T = absolute temperature
V = kT; V/T = k; Hence V 1/T1 = V2/T2
According to the kinetic theory of gases, if a given mass of a gas is confined in a vessel with a
moveable piston, the molecules acquire more kinetic energy when the gas is heated and move
faster. They collide more often with the walls of the vessel, thereby increasing the pressure they
exert. To keep the pressure in the vessel constant, the piston moves up so that the volume of the
gas is increased.
A representative of Charles’ law
Graphical representation of Charles’ law

KELVIN TEMPERATURE
Charles, a French scientist, discovered that the volume of a given mass of gas will increase or
decrease by 1/273 of its volume at 00C for every 10C rise or fall in temperature provided that the
pressure remains constant. Hence, theoretically, the volume of a gas is reduced to zero at -2730C.
The Kelvin temperature scale has -273 as its starting point. The Kelvin temperature is called the
absolute temperature. All temperature must be converted to Kelvin scale before being applied in
any calculation involving gases.
Temperature conversion
00C = 273K; -2730C = 0K
K = 0C + 273 or 0
C = K – 273
Examples
1. Convert the following Celsius temperature to Kelvin temperature (a) 148 0C (b) 00C (C) -1320C
2. Convert the following Kelvin temperature to Celsius temperature (a) 125K (b) 405K (C)
298K
Solution
1. K = 0C + 273
a. K = 148 + 273 = 421K
b. K = 0 + 273 = 273K
c. K = -132 + 273 = 141K
0
2. C = K – 273
0
a. C = 125 - 273 = -1480C
0
b. C = 405 - 273 = 1320C
0
c. C = 298 -273 = 250C
Calculations on Charles’ law
1. A sample of gas has a volume of 125cm 3 at 170C. What will be the volume at 100 0C if the
pressure remains constant?
Solution
V1 = 125cm3, T1 = 170C = 17 + 273 = 290K;
V2 = ?, T2 = 1000C = 100 + 273 = 373K
V1/T1 = V2/T2 ..................... Charles’ law
V2 = V1T2/T1 = 125 x 273 / 290 = 161cm3
GENERAL GAS EQUATION
V ά 1/P .............. Boyle’s law
V ά T .................. Charles’ law
:- V ά T x 1/P
V = kT/P
VP = kT; VP/T = k ............ General gas equation; k is a constant for a fixed mass of gas
The general gas equation states that for a fixed mass of gas under any set of conditions of V, P and
T, the value of PV/T must remain constant.
Thus; P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 ............... = PnVn/Tn ................... general gas equation
STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (S.T.P) – since the volumes of gases change with
changes in temperature and pressure, scientists defined a standard condition of temperature and
pressure to avoid discrepancies in scientific investigations at different regions of the world. At s.t.p
T = 00C or 273K
P = 760mmHg or 1.01 x 105 Nm-2 or 1 atm
Example:
A given mass of gas occupies 850cm3 at 320K and 0.92 x 105Nm-2 pressure. Calculate the volume of
the gas at s.t.p
Solution
V1 = 850cm3, T1 = 320K, P1 = 0.92 x 105Nm-2
V2 = ?, T2 = 273, P2 = 1.01 x 105Nm-2
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 ..................... General gas equation

V2 = P1V1T2/T1P2 = 0.92 x 105 x 850 x 273/1.01 x 105 x 320 = 660.5cm3
Assignment
If some oxygen gas at 1.01 x 105Nm-2 and 250C is allowed to expand from 5dm3 to 10dm3 without
changing the temperature, what pressure will the oxygen gas exert?
Tutorial questions
- State (a) Boyle’s law (b) Charles’ law
- Use kinetic theory of gases to explain Boyle’s law and Charles’ law
- A given mass of gas has a volume of 7.0dm3 at 200K and 80,000Nm-2. Calculate the pressure
at which it will have a volume of 9.2dm3 at 250K
- The table below gives the volume/pressure data for a particular sample of a given gas at a
given temperature.
Volume/dm3(V) 4.00 2.00 1.00
Pressure/atm (P) 1.00 2.00 4.00
(i) Deduce a mathematical relationship between volume (V) and Pressure (P)
(ii) Name the law that can be deduced from the data
(iii) State the law
(iv) Calculate the pressure of the gas when the volume is 3.2dm 3
- Show the graphical representation of (a) Boyle’s law (b) Charles’ law
- Convert the following Kelvin scales to Celcius scales (i) 780K (ii) 274K (iii) 25K (iv) 105K
- Convert the following Celcius scales to Kelvin scales (i) 23 0C (ii) 00C (iii) 10000C (iv) 970C
WEEK 6
TOPIC: GAS LAW (CONTD)
IDEAL GAS EQUATION
In all experimental works, four quantities are important. They are volume, pressure, temperature
and number of moles or mass.
It has been proven that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
the same number of molecules and that one mole of any gas at s.t.p occupies a volume of 22.4dm 3.
Combining these facts with Boyle’s law and Charles’ law, the ideal gas equation is obtained as
follows:
PV = RT;
For n moles of gases,
PV = nRT
Where P is in atm, V in dm3, T in K
R = PV/nT = 0.082 atmdm3K-1mol-1 (R = molar gas constant)
Example:
1. A certain amount of gas occupies 5.0dm3 at 2atm and 100C. Calculate the number of moles
present (R = 0.082atmdm3K-1mol-1)
Solution
PV = nRT ............ ideal gas equation
P = 2atm, V = 5dm3, T = (10 + 273)K = 283K, R= 0.082 atmdm3K-1mol-1
n = PV/RT = 2 x 5/0.082 x 283 = 0.431moles
2. 1.5 moles of an ideal gas are at a temperature of -150C and a pressure of 2 atm. What volume in
dm3 will the gas occupy at that temperature? (R= 0.082 atmdm 3K-1mol-1)
Solution
n = 1.5 moles, T = -15 + 273 = 258K, P = 2atm, R= 0.082 atmdm3K-1mol-1
PV = nRT .................... ideal gas equation
V = nRT/P = 1.5 x 0.082 x 258/2.0 = 15.87dm 3
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
It states that if there is a mixture of gases which do not react chemically together, then the total
pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases that make
up the mixture.
Ptotal = PA + PB + PC ........ Pn
Example: A certain mass of hydrogen gas collected over water at 6 0C and 765mmHg pressure has a
volume of 35cm3. Calculate the volume when it is dry at s.t.p (s.v.p of water at 6 0C = 7mmHg)
Solution
The actual pressure of hydrogen = (765 – 7) = 758mmHg
P1 = 758mmHg, V1 = 35cm3, T1 = 6 + 273 = 279K
P2 = 760mmHg, V2 = ? , T2 = 273K
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 ................... General gas equation
V2 = P1V1T2/T1P2 = 758 x 35 x 273/760 x 279 = 34.2cm3
GAY – LUSSAC’S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUME
Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that when gases react, they do so in volumes which
are in simple ratios to one another and to the volumes of the products if gaseous provided that the
temperature and pressure remains constant
Example: what volume of oxygen is required for the complete combustion of 15cm 3 of ethane -
C2H6, if all gases are measured at s.t.p? (b) what is the total volume of the products of the reaction?
Solution
(a) Equation of the reaction
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
According to Gay – Lussac’s law;
2 volumes of ethane combine with 7 volumes of oxygen
i. e. 2cm3 of ethane combines with 7cm3 of oxygen
:- 15cm3 of ethane requires 15 x 7/2 cm3 of Oxygen
= 52.5cm3 of oxygen
(b) From the equation;
2cm3 of ethane produced 4cm3 of CO2
:- 15cm3 of ethane will produce 15 x 4/2 cm3 of CO2
= 30cm3
Also 2cm3 of ethane produces 6cm3 of H2O
:- 15cm3 of ethane will produce 15 x 6/2cm3 of H2O
= 45 cm3
Total volume of gases = (30 + 45) cm3 = 75cm3
AVOGADRO’S LAW
It states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules e.g.
Reaction; 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
Gay-Lussac’s ratio; 2 volumes 1 volume 2 volumes
Avogadro’s ratio; 2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
MOLE, AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND MOLAR VOLUME
A mole of any substance is the amount of it which contains as many elementary particles as there
are atoms in 12g of carbon – 12.
The number of specified particles present in one mole of any substance is equal to 6.02 x 1023. This
value is known as Avogadro’s number or constant.
Therefore, a mole refers to Avogadro’s number of particles of any substance. A mole of a diatomic
element such as Nitrogen contains 6.02 x 10 23 molecules of nitrogen. A mole of sodium ion contains
6.02 x 1023 ions.
From Avogadro’s law, one mole of any gas at s.t.p has a volume of 22.4dm 3; this value is known as
the molar volume of gases.
Examples
1. How many molecules are there in 4.0 moles of glucose – C6H12O6?
Solution
1 mole of glucose contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules
:- 4 moles of glucose will contain 4 x 6.02 x 1023 molecules
= 24.1 x 1023 molecules
2. How many fluoride ions are there in 1.46 moles of aluminium fluoride – AlF3?
Solution
1 mole of AlF3 contains 1 mole of aluminium ion, Al3+ and 3 moles of fluoride ion, F-.
Hence, 1 mole AlF3 contains 3 moles of F-.
:- 1.46 moles of AlF3 contains 3 x 1.46 moles of F-.
= 4.39 moles of F-
But, 1 mole of F- contains 6.02 x 1023 ions
:- 4.39 moles of F- contains 6.02 x 1023 x 4.39 ions
= 26.88 x 1023 ions
3. What volume of oxygen at s.t.p will be produced when 24.5g of potassium trioxocarbonate
(V) crystals are heated? ( O = 16, K = 39)
Solution
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
Molar mass of KClO3 = 39 + 35.5 + (3 x 16) = 122.5gmol-1
From the equation
2 moles of KClO3 produced 3 moles of Oxygen
2 x 122.5g of KClO3 produced 3 x 22.4dm3 of oxygen
245g of KClO3 produced 67.2dm3 of oxygen
:- 24.5g of KClO3 will produce 67.2 x 24.5/245dm3 of Oxygen
= 6.72dm3 of oxygen
4. If 0.8g of gas M occupies 0.56dm3 at s.t.p. calculate its relative molecular mass. (molar
volume of gas is 22.4dm3)
Solution
0.56dm3 of gas M has a mass of 0.8g
1 mole i.e. 22.4dm3 of gas M has a mass of 22.4 x 0.8/5.6 = 32g
The relative molecular mass of gas M = 32
RELATIVE VAPOUR DENSITY
The vapour density of a gas (or vapour) is expressed as the number of times a given volume of the
gas (or vapour) is as heavy as the same volume of hydrogen at a particular temperature and
pressure.
V.D = mass of a given volume of the gas or vapour
Mass of an equal volume of hydrogen
2 x V.D = mass of 1 molecule of the gas or vapour

Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
2 x V.D = relative molecular mass of gas/ vapour

V.D. = Relative molecular mass of gas or vapour /2
Example: Calculate the vapour densities of the following gases from the data given.
(a) Sulphur (IV) oxide (b) 560cm3 of oxygen weighing 0.8g at s.t.p ( S = 32, O = 16)
Solution
a) Molar mass of SO2 = 64gmol-1
2 x V.d = rmm of SO2
V.D = rmm/2
V.D = 64/2 = 32
b) 560cm3 of oxygen weigh 0.8g
22400cm3 of oxygen will weigh 0.8 x 22400/560
= 32g – rmm of O2
2 x V.D = 32
V.D = 32/2 = 16
GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION OF GASES
The law states that at a particular temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas is
inversely proportional to the square root of its density.
R ά 1/√ᵨ where R = rate of diffusion and ᵨ = density of the gas
Where two gases are involved
R1/R2 = √ᵨ2/ᵨ1
Since the density of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to the molecular mass
R ά 1/√M
:- R1/R2 = √M2/M1
Also t1/t2 = √ᵨ1/ᵨ2 = √M1/M2 where t1 and t2 are time taken by gases 1 and 2 respectively to
diffuse. M1 and M2 are the relative molecular mass of gas 1 and gas 2 respectively.
The lighter a gas is, the faster the rate of diffusion. Thus gases with lower relative molecular masses
diffuse faster than those with high relative molecular masses. Hence, hydrogen is the fastest gas.
Example:
1. If 280cm3 of hydrogen diffuse in 40sec. How long will it take for 490cm 3 of a gas, X whose
vapour density is 25 to diffuse under the same condition? Rmm of H 2 = 2
Solution
280cm3 of H2 diffuses in 40 sec
:- 490cm3 of H2 will diffuse in 490 x 40 /280 = 70sec
Rmm of H2 = 2
:- V.D of H2 = 2/2 = 1
t1/t2 = √ ᵨ1/ᵨ2
70/t2 = √ 1/25
70/t2 = 1/5
t2 = 5 x 70 = 350 sec
2. Under the same condition of temperature and pressure, hydrogen diffuse 8 times as fast as
a gas, Y. Calculate the rmm of Y. (rmm of H2 =2)
Solution
RY/RH = √ MH/MY
1/8 = √2/MY
(1/8)2 = 2/MY
1/64 = 2/ MY
MY = 64 x 2
MY = 128
Assignment
Answer questions 3 and 10 of pages 68 and 69 of the Essential Chemistry for SSS.
Tutorial questions
- A given volume of oxygen diffuses through a porous partition in 8 seconds. How long would
it take the same volume of carbon (IV) oxide to diffuse under the same condition? [C=12,
O=16]
- What is the volume of Oxygen required to burn completely 45cm3 of methane according to
the following equation?
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
- A mixture of two gases P and Q occupying volumes 300cm 3 and 100cm3 respectively exerts
a total pressure of 800mmHg. What is the partial pressure of Q?
- What volume will 1.51 x 1023 molecules of carbon(IV) oxide occupy at s.t.p?
- State Graham’s law of diffusion
- A gas X diffused through a porous portion at the rate of 3cm 3 per seconds. Under the same
condition, hydrogen diffused at the rate of 15cm3 per second. What is the relative molecular
mass of X?
- State Gay Lussac’s law of combining volume
- 20cm3 of methane was burnt in 20cm3 of oxygen. Determine which of the gases was in
excess and by how much.
- 2 moles of an ideal gas are at a temperature of -130C and a pressure of 2atm. What volume
in dm3 will the gas occupy at that temperature? (R= 0.082atmdm 3K-1mol-1).
- A given mass of a gas occupied 150cm3 at 270C and a pressure of 1.013 X 105Nm-2. Calculate
the temperature at which its volume will be double at the same pressure.
WEEK: 7
TOPIC: ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS
An acid is a substance which, when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ion, H + as the only
positive ion, e.g. HCl H+ + Cl-
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-
This process is called ionization.
An acid can also be defined as a substance which in aqueous solution produces hydronium
(oxonium) ion, H3O+, as the only positive ions e.g.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
CLASSES OF ACIDS
1. Organic acids – they occur naturally in plants and animals. Examples include:
a. Ethanoic acid from vinegar
b. Lactic acid from milk
c. Citric acid from lime or lemon
d. Amino acids from proteins
e. Fatty acids from fats and oils
f. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) from oranges
g. Tartaric acid from grapes
2. Inorganic or mineral acids – they can be prepared from inorganic matters or mineral
elements e.g.
a. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) from hydrogen and chlorine
b. Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid (H2SO4) from hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen
c. Trioxonitrate (V) acid (HNO3) from nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen
STRENGTH OF ACIDS
The characteristic properties of an acid in a solution are due to the presence of hydrogen ions. The
strength of acid therefore is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions in its solution.
a. Strong acids – they ionize completely in water to give hydrogen ions and anions e.g.
HCl H+ + Cl-
HNO3 H+ + NO3-
b. Weak acids – they ionize partially in water to yield very small concentration of hydrogen ion
e.g. ethanoic acid; CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO-
Other examples of weak acids are trioxocarbonate (IV) acid – H2CO3, tetraoxophosphate (V) acids –
H3PO4, trioxosulphate (IV) acid – H2SO3 and most organic acids.
An acid can be concentrated or dilute depending on the quantity of water present in the acid
solution.
BASICITY OF AN ACID
This is the number of replaceable hydrogen ion, H+ in one mole of the acid e.g.
HCl monobasic (1)
H2SO4 dibasic (2)
H3PO4 tribasic (3)
CH3COOH monobasic (1)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
1. Dilute acids have sour taste
2. Acids turn blue litmus paper red
3. The concentrated form of strong acids are corrosive
To dilute an acid, add concentrated acid to water and not water to acid.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
1. Reaction with metals – metals that are more electropositive than hydrogen react with dilute
acids to liberate hydrogen gas. E.g
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Exemptions: (i) dilute HNO3 is exempted from the above rule because dilute HNO 3 is an
oxidizing agent. It oxidizes hydrogen to water. (ii) lead which is slightly more electropositive
than hydrogen does not liberate hydrogen from dilute acids but from hot concentrated
hydrochloric acid – HCl alone.
Pb(s) + HCl(aq) PbCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2. Reaction with bases and alkalis – acids react with insoluble bases and alkalis to form salt
and water only. This reaction is called neutralization reaction. E.g.
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2HCl(aq) + CaO(s) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
3. Reaction with trioxocarbonates (IV) – acids reacts with trioxocarbonates (IV) to liberate
carbon(IV)oxide e.g.
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
PREPARATION OF ACIDS
1. By the reaction between an acid anhydride and water e.g.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Note: acid anhydrides are oxides of non-metals which dissolve in water to produce acids.
2. Direct combination of then constituents elements in the presence of suitable catalyst e.g.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) activated charcoal 2HCl(g) ; HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+Cl-
H2(g) + Br2(g) platinum 2HBr(g); HBr(g) + H2O(l) H3O+Cl-
3. By displacement of weaker or more volatile acids from its salt by a stronger or less volatile
acid e.g
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g); HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+Cl-
Concentrated H2SO4 displaces the more volatile hydrogen chloride gas when heated with a chloride
salt. The hydrogen chloride gas dissolves readily in water to give hydrochloric acid.
More examples;
2KNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)
Conc.
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaCl2(aq) + H2CO3(aq); H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Dilute
4. Precipitation of an insoluble sulphide from its metallic salt solution by passing hydrogen
sulphide, H2S, gas into it;
Pb(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)
Lead(II)ethanoate ethanoic acid
USES OF ACIDS
1. They are used in the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes, detergents, explosives, paints, soaps,
textiles, drugs, plastics and other chemicals
2. In dissolving metal or to remove rust
3. In the production of salts, soft drinks and baking powder
4. As food preservatives and mild antiseptic or germicide
5. In oil refineries
6. As an electrolyte in lead acid accumulator
7. As a drying, dehydrating and oxidizing agent
Tutorial questions
- State four physical properties of an acid
- Describe three chemical properties of an acid
- State five uses of acids
- Briefly explain four ways by which acids can be prepared in the laboratory.
- Give six examples of organic acids and name the source of each
- Why is tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid able to produce two types of salt?
- With one example each, describe strong and weak acids
WEEK 8
TOPIC: BASES AND ALKALIS
A base is a substance which neutralizes an acid to yield salt and water only. Most oxides and
hydroxides of metals are bases. Most of the metallic oxides are insoluble in water. The few which
dissolve in water form hydroxides when they dissolve e.g. Na2O, K2O and CaO
A soluble hydroxide is known as alkalis. Many basic hydroxides like Cu(OH) 2, Al(OH)3 are insoluble in
water. An alkali is defined as a basic hydroxide which is soluble in water. An alkali produces hydroxyl
ion when dissolved in water. E.g.
NaOH(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
STRENGHT OF ALKALIS
Strong alkali – strong alkalis ionize completely in aqueous solution to produce hydroxyl ion, OH - and
a positively charged metallic ion. KOH and NaOH are the two strong alkalis.
Weak alkalis – weak alkalis ionize only slightly in solution to produce relatively few ions e.g. Ca(OH)2
and aqueous ammonia.
Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
NH3.H2O NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NEUTRALIZATION
Neutralization reaction is the process in which an acid reacts completely with an appropriate
amount of an alkali (or any other base) to produce a salt and water only.
During neutralization, H+ or H3O+ from an acid combines with OH- from an alkali to form water –
H2O. A salt is also produced in the process e.g.
H3O+Cl-(aq) + K+OH-(aq) K+Cl-(aq) + 2H2O(l) or
HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS
1. Alkalis have a bitter taste
2. Alkalis are soapy to touch
3. Alkalis turn red litmus blue
4. Concentrated form of the two caustic alkalis – KOH and NaOH are corrosive.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS
1. Reaction with acids: all bases react with acids to form salts and water only e.g
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
2. Reaction with ammonium salts – alkalis react with ammonium salts in the presence of heat
to generate ammonia gas. This reaction can be used as a test for alkalis.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) heat CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
NaOH(aq) + NH4NO3(aq) heat NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
PREPARATION OF BASES/ALKALIS
1. Thermal decomposition of metal trioxocarbonate (IV) salt – with the exception of Na2CO3
and K2CO3, many trioxocarbonate (IV) of metals decompose on heating to produce metal
oxides and carbon(IV) oxide eg.
CuCO3(s) heat CuO(s) + CO2(g)
Aluminium (III) trioxocarbonate (IV) - Al2(CO3)3 and iron (III) trioxocarbonate (IV) - Fe2(CO3)3
are too unstable to be heated.
2. Preparation of insoluble metal hydroxides by precipitation or double decomposition – when
an alkali is added to soluble metal salts, the metal hydroxide is precipitated e.g
Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
3. Reaction between some metals and oxygen – most metals (except the noble metals i.e.
metals that are resistant to oxidation and corrosion) form their metal oxides when heated in
oxygen e.g.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
USES OF ALKALIS/BASES
1. NaOH – used in the manufacture of soap, sodium salts and plastics. Also used in oil refining
2. KOH – used in the manufacture of liquid soap, in dyeing and electroplating
3. Ca(OH)2 – Used in the manufacture of mortar, cement and plaster. Used in neutralizing
acidic soil
4. Mg(OH)2 – used in the manufacture of toothpaste. Used as a laxative
5. NH3.H2O – Used for bleaching cloths and as a detergent.
MEASUREMENT OF ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY
pH SCALE: The pH scale is a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 used to measure the acidity and alkalinity
of substances. A solution with pH value 7 is neutral i.e. neither acidic nor alkaline. A solution with
pH value less than 7 is acidic while that with pH value more than 7 is alkaline. Acidity increases with
decreasing pH value while alkalinity increases with increasing pH values.
Hydrogen ion concentration
Pure water ionizes slightly to yield equal number of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. At 25 0C, the
concentration of H+ and OH- are both 10-7 moldm-3. The product of the two ionic concentrations is
the ionic product of water (Kw) represented as:
Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10-7 x 10-7(moldm-3)2
= 10-14mol2dm-6 at 250C
Hence, all neutral aqueous solution contain 10 -7moldm-3 H+ and OH- each. If a solution is acidic, the
H+ ion concentration will be more than 10-7moldm-3 while the OH- will be less than 10-7moldm-3. But
if the solution is alkaline, the OH- concentration will be more than 10-7moldm-3 while H+
concentration will be less. Whatever the case, the value of Kw must be maintained as 10 -14mol2dm-
6
.
Sorensen in 1909 devised the logarithmic pH scale as an easier way of determining the acidity and
alkalinity of a solution. Thus;
pH = -log10[H+]
:- if [H+] = 10-x, then pH = x
Since [H+][OH-] = 10-14
pH + pOH = 14
pOH = 14 – pH
Examples
1. Find the hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentrations in (a) 0.01M H 2SO4 (b) 0.001M KOH
solution
Solution
(a) H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-
[H+] = 2 x 0.01 = 2 x 10-2moldm-3
:-[ 2 x 10-2][OH-] = 10-14
[OH-] = 10-14/2x10-2
= 0.5 x 10-12 or 5.0 x 10-13
(b) KOH K+ + OH-
[OH-] = 0.001moldm-3
= 10-3moldm-3
But [H+][OH-] = 10-14
:- [H+] = 10-14-10-3
[H+] = 1 x 10-11moldm-3
2. The concentrations of H+ in two solutions are (a) 1 x 10-14moldm-3 and (b) 5 x 10-9moldm-3.
What is the pH of each solution
Solution
(a) [H+] = 10-14moldm-3
:- pH = -log1010-14 = -(-14) = 14
(b) [H+] = 5 x 10-9
:- pH = -log10(5x10-9)
= -log100.000000005 = -(-8.30) = 8.30
3. A solution has a pH of 3.4. What is its hydrogen ion concentration?
Solution
pH = -log10[H+]
3.4 = -log10[H+]
Log10[H+] = -3.4
[H+] = 10-3.4 (i.e. antilog of -3.4)
[H+] = 3.98 x 10-4moldm-3
= 4.0 x 10-3moldm-3
INDICATORS
Indicators are weak organic acids or bases which produce different colours in solution according to
the hydrogen ion H+, concentration in that solution.
Since they are weak organic acids or bases, indicators ionize slightly in solution. The colours of the
ions produced are different from that of the undissociated molecules. Thus, the colour of the
indicator is dependent on the relative proportion of the ions and the molecules. This is determined
by the degree of dissociation of the indicator which in turn is dependent on the hydrogen ion
concentration or pH of the medium.
Table 1: colour change of some indicators
Indicator Methyl orange Litmus Phenolphthalein
pH range for colour change 3.1 – 4.6 5.0 – 8.0 8.3 – 10.0
Colour in the range Orange Purple Pale pink
Acidic medium Red Red Colourless
Alkaline medium Yellow Blue pink
During acid – base titration, there is a change in pH as the acid is added to the alkali. The change in
pH depends on the strength of the acid and alkali used.
Buffer solution
A buffer solution is the one which resists changes in pH on dilution or addition of small amount of
acids or alkalis.
The pH of aqueous solution is extremely sensitive to the addition of small amount of acids or alkalis.
The presence of buffer solution is used to resist the change in pH such addition could cause.
A buffer solution usually consists of a weak acid or base in the presence of one of its salts. E.g.
 Ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate – CH3COOH/CH3COONa
 Aqueous ammonia and ammonium chloride – NH3.H2O/NH4Cl
 Trioxocarbonate (IV) acid and sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV) – H2CO3/NaHCO3
Importance of buffer solution
1. In biochemistry and medicine – injection into the bloodstream is usually buffered to avoid
upsetting the pH of the blood.
2. In the industries – it is used in the production of processed foods and drinks to prevent
excess acidity e.g. in fermentation processes and enzyme reactions.
Tutorial questions
- What is buffer solution?
- Human blood has a pH of 7.40, calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of human blood.
- State two importance of buffer solution
- Find the pH in which hydrogen ion, H+ concentration is 6.38 X 10-6 moldm-3
- The pH of a solution is 3.42, what is the pOH?
- State five uses of alkalis
- What are indicators?
- State four physical properties of alkalis
- Describe two chemical properties of alkalis
- Explain two ways by alkalis can be prepared in the laboratory

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SS 1 SECOND TERM 2015/2016 ACADEMIC SESSION

WEEK TOPIC CONTENTS

= 80.0g 79.9g 80.1g

% by mass of Fe in sample A = 1.40 x 100 = 63.6%

Copper (I) oxide copper (II) oxide

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

:- 4.26 of CO2 will be produced by 4.26 x 100 = 19g of CaCO3

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION (EXAMPLE)

1. In the reaction represented by the equation

2. Formation of calcium oxide (Ca2+ O2-)

2. Formation of ethene (C2H4) – double covalent bonds

3. Formation of nitrogen molecule (N2) – triple covalent bonds

Importance of hydrogen bond

A representation of Boyle’s law

A representative of Charles’ law

Graphical representation of Charles’ law

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 ..................... General gas equation

Volume/dm3(V) 4.00 2.00 1.00

Pressure/atm (P) 1.00 2.00 4.00

2 x V.D = mass of 1 molecule of the gas or vapour

2 x V.D = relative molecular mass of gas/ vapour

TOPIC: ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

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