Thomas A.

Edison
‘’I believe that the science of
chemistry alone almost
proves the existence of an
intelligent creator."-

CHEMISTRY SS 1 Compiled by Prosper Nwonu

(2022)

Third term
 Scheme of work

WEEK TOPIC CONTENTS

1. WATER - Water as an oxide of hydrogen

- Sources
- Properties (physical and chemical)
- Test for water
- Water pollution, pollutants and control
2 CARBON & ITS COMPOUNDS - Properties, allotropes, structures and
properties of allotropes.
- Coal; types, destructive distillation, uses
of products.
3. CARBON & ITS COMPOUNDS - Coke; gasification of coke, synthetic
gases; manufacturing and uses, fuel
gases.
4. CARBON & ITS COMPOUNDS - Oxides of carbon, trioxocarbonate (IV)
acid; preparation, properties and uses.
- Hydrogen trioxocarbonates (IV):
Trioxocarbonates (IV) salt; preparation,
properties and uses.
5. HYDROCARBONS - Classification of hydrocarbons,
tetravalency of carbon
- Reasons why carbon form many
compounds, properties of organic
compounds, homologous series;

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 isomerism, saturated and unsaturated,
organic compounds
6. HYDROCARBONS - Alkanes: naming, properties, isomerism,
preparation, uses
7. HYDROCARBONS - Alkenes: naming, isomerism; structural
and geometric isomerism, physical and
chemical properties: additional and
polymerization reactions, test for
unsaturation; bromine water etc.
8. HYDROCARBONS - Alkynes: Naming, ethyne; preparation,
properties, uses
- Benzene; structure, properties,
derivatives, uses.
9. PETROLEUM - Occurrence, origin and composition.
- Nigeria and world crude oil reserves,
location of refineries in Nigeria
- Fractional distillation of crude oil and
major products.
- Cracking and reforming, quality of petrol
and octane number
10. PETROLEUM - Petrochemicals as starting materials for
organic synthesis,
- Natural gas: packing as LNG. Economic
importance of petroleum & natural gas.
- Environmental impact of petroleum

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11. PETROLEUM - Alternative sources of energy;
- Hydrogen as a potential fuel for use in
future, reacting with oxygen to generate
electricity
- In fuel cells: advantages and
disadvantages
- Explain how photosynthesis can provide
renewable energy source
12. REVISION - Revision

13. EXAMINATION - Examination

WEEK 1: WATER

Water is one of the most common substances known. It is a good solvent for
many substances and rarely occurs in its pure form in nature.

Water an Oxide of Hydrogen

When dry hydrogen is ignited, it burns with a pale blue flame to give steam.
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g)

Sources of water

1. Rain
2. Streams and rivers
3. Spring and underground
4. Seas and Oceans

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Physical properties of water

1. Pure wate is clear, colourless, tasteless and odourless

2. Has a boiling point of 100oC
3. A freezing point of 0oC
4. Maximum density of 1 g/cm3 at 4 oC
5. It is neutral to litmus

Chemical properties of water

1. water react with metals in a number of ways. Degree of reactivity depends

on the position of the metal in the activity series
i. Na, K and Ca react with water to liberate hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
ii. Mg and Zn
Mg(s) + H2O(g)  MgO(s) + H2(g)

iii. Fe reacts only with excess steam at red heat.

3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) ⇋ Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)

iv. Cu, Au, Ag and Hg do not react with water in any form

2. Non-metals like Chlorine also react with water

Cl2 + H2O  HOCl + HCl
3. Oxides of alkaline metals readily form strong alkalis or hydroxides with
water. E.g slaking of lime
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
4. Certain oxides of non-metals like carbon, sulphur and nitrogen form acid
with water (acid anhydrides)
CO2 + H2O ⇋ H2CO3
5. Water reacts with organic and inorganic compounds. Such reactions are
generally referred to as Hydrolysis

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Test for Water

When a few drops of water are added to

1. White anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, it turns blue
CuSO4(s) (white) + 5H2O(l)  CuSO4.5H2O(s)(blue)

2. blue cobalt (II) chloride, it turns pink

CoCl2(s)(blue) + 6H2O(l)  CoCl2.6H2O(s) (Pink)

Water pollution
this is the contamination of water bodies as a result of human activities. The main
cause of water pollution is the indiscriminate dumping of solid and liquid wastes
into water bodies. It threatens aquatic life and changes water bodies in to foul
smelling and unsightly scenes

Pollutants

1. Refuse and sewage

2. Industrial and agricultural wastes
3. Crude oil spills

Control of water pollution

1. Refuse should be buried or burnt in an incinerator or recycled

2. Sewages should be processed to fertilizers
3. Chemical wastes should be made biodegradable before disposal
4. Safety measures should be implemented to prevent crude oil spills
5. Strict laws must be passed to control water pollution by individuals and
companies

WEEK 2-4: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is non-
metallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent
chemical bonds. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Carbon makes up
only about 0.025 percent of Earth's crust.

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Allotropy

This is the ability of an element to exist in various forms in the same physical
state. Elements that exhibit allotropy include carbon, sulphur, tin, oxygen,
phosphorus etc

Allotropes of Carbon

1. Crystalline allotropes: diamond and graphite

2. Amorphous allotropes: coal, coke, charcoal, soot etc

Structure of diamond and graphite

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7
Properties and uses of diamond

1. Diamond is the hardest substance known in nature. They are dense, hard
and resistant to high temperatures and chemical attacks;
i. They are used industrially in drills for mining,
ii. as abrasives to sharpen very hard tools and for cutting glass and metals.
2. it is a non-conductor of electricity due to the absence of free mobile
electrons
3. they are transparent with high refractive index and dispersion power giving
it a sparkling brilliance when it is cut and polished;
i. making it valuable as jewellery.
4. It occurs as octahedral crystals

Properties and uses of Graphite

1. Graphite is soft and flakes easily because of its layered crystalline structure
held together by van der waals forces. This allows one layer to slide over
one another easily;
i. making it useful as a dry lubricant,
ii. it is mixed with clay to make lead in pencils,
iii. it is usually used on bicycle chains and for the bearings of some motor
cars.
2. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity due to the presence of free
mobile electrons
i. it is often used as electrodes in electroplating and in dry cells
3. It can with stand high temperatures
i. it is used to line crucibles used for making high grade steel and other
alloys.
ii. It is used as a neutron moderator in atomic piles
4. It is black and opaque
i. graphite is used as black pigment in paint.
5. It occurs as hexagonal crystals

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Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock

strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other
elements; chiefly hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen

Types of coal

1. Peat
2. Lignite or brown coal
3. Bituminous coal or soft coal
4. Anthracite coal which is about 95% pure carbon

Destructive distillation of coal

This is a chemical process in which coal is heated to a high temperature in the
absence of air.

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Products and uses
Coal  coke + coal tar + ammoniacal liquor + coal gas

Coke (solid)
• This is a fuel and a reducing agent

Coal tar(liquid)
• A mixture of different carbon compounds.
• It is used to make soap, fats, dyes, plastics, explosives
and more

Ammoniacal liquor(liquid)
• Used to make fertilizers

Coal gas(gas)
• Also called town gas is a mixture of hydrogen,
methane and carbon monoxide and is used as a fuel

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Coke

Coke is a fuel with few impurities and high carbon content. It is formed through
destructive distillation of good quality bituminous coal.

Gasification of coke

This is a process that converts organic or fossil fuel based carboniferous materials
into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

Fuel gases

1. Producer gas
2. Water gas

Industrially, producer and water gas are made in the same plant known as the
producer by passing air and steam alternatively through heated coke. The heat
generated when producer gas is formed is sufficient for water gas formation.

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  Producer gas: this is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon (II) oxide prepared by
passing a stream of air through red hot coke in the producer
O2(g) + N2(g) + 2C(s)  2CO(g) + N2(g) + heat

 Water gas: this is a mixture containing equal volumes of hydrogen and

carbon (II) oxide prepared by passing steam over white-hot coke at 1000 oC
C(s) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + H2(g)

Critical thinking

Why does water gas make a better fuel than producer gas?

What is the implication of using water gas as a domestic fuel?

Oxides of Carbon

Carbon forms two kinds of oxides, carbon (IV) oxide, CO2, and carbon (II) oxide, CO.
Both oxides are obtainable as the products of combustion of carbon.

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Carbon (IV) Oxide

Preparation:

1. Carbon (IV) oxide is made in the laboratory through the action of dilute
hydrochloric acid or trioxonitrate (V) acid on metallic trioxocarbonate (IV) or
hydrogen trioxocarbonate.

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

CaCO3 + 2HNO3 → Ca (NO3) + H2O + CO2

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

A Kipp’s apparatus is used to provide intermittent supply of the gas when ever it
is needed in the laboratory

2. Action of heat on metallic trioxocarbonate (IV) apart from those of sodium

and potassium or the hydrogen trioxocarbonates (IV) of sodium and
potassium
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + 2CO2

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Carbon (IV) oxide is acquired industrially as by-product in the fermentation process
and manufacture of quicklime (CaO) from limestone (CaCO3).

Physical properties:

 CO2 is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.

 It is around 1.5 times denser than air.
 This is moderately soluble in water.
 It turns damp blue litmus paper red as CO2 dissolves in water to form an
acidic oxide, trioxocarbonate (IV) acid.
 This can readily be liquefied and solidified (- 78°C). Solid CO2 is termed as
cardice or dry-ice.

Chemical properties:

1. CO2 doesn't burn nor does it support the combustion. Though burning
magnesium decomposes CO2 leaving a black carbon deposit and magnesium
(II) oxide ash.

CO2 + 2Mg → 2MgO + C

2. CO dissolves in the water to form trioxocarbonate (IV) acid (that is, soda
water). This is a weak acid.

CO2 + H2O ⇋ H2CO3

3. CO2 reacts directly by alkalis example: NaOH, to form trioxocarbonates (IV).

NaOH + CO2 + H2O → 2NaHCO3

Test for CO2

Whenever CO2 is passed via the alkali, calcium hydroxide (that is, limewater), the
lime water turns milky due to the precipitation of insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate
(IV). This reaction is employed to test for CO2.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Limewater Insoluble

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Though, whenever excess gas is bubbled, the milkiness disappears leaving a clear
solution as the Soluble trioxocarbonate (IV) is transformed to soluble hydrogen
trioxocarbonate (IV). (This is used as a test for carbon dioxide)

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2

Uses

1. Most of the fire extinguishers make use of carbon (IV) oxide to put out fires
as the gas doesn't support combustion.
2. Carbon (IV) oxide is employed in the manufacture of trioxocarbonates.
3. Yeast and baking powder are employed in baking to produce carbon (IV)
oxide that causes the dough to rise, making dough light.
4. Solid carbon (IV) oxide that is, dry ice is employed as a refrigerant for
perishable goods, and as a coolant in the nuclear reactors.
5. Carbon (IV) oxide is employed to give carbonated (or aerated) drinks a
pleasant and refreshing taste.
6. Green plants make use of CO2 throughout photosynthesis.

Carbon (II) Oxide:

CO is made by the incomplete combustion of carbon compounds, like octane, C8H18,

found in petrol.

2C8H18 (l) + 17O2 (g) → 16 CO (g) + 18 H2O (l)

Preparation:

1. Carbon (II) oxide is made by passing carbon (IV) oxide over red-hot
carbon

CO2 + C → 2CO

2. This can as well be made by dehydrating methanoic acid, HCOOH, or

ethanedioic acid, C2H2O4, by utilizing concentrated tetraoxosulphate
(VI) acid, that act as the dehydrating agent.

15
The preparation of CO should be done in the fume cupboard as the gas is
poisonous. In the later reaction, the CO2 is eliminated by passing gaseous products
via concentrated sodium hydroxide.

Physical Properties:

 Carbon (II) oxide is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.

 It is insoluble in water, however dissolves in a solution of ammoniacal copper
(I) chloride.
 It is to some extent less dense than air.
 It consists of no effect on litmus

Chemical Properties:

1. Act as a reducing agent:

PbO (s) + CO (g) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)

H2O(g) + CO(g)  H2(g) + CO2(g)

2. It burns in air having a blue flame to provide carbon (IV) oxide

2C0 + O2 → 2CO2

3. The poisoning nature of Carbon (II) oxide is as a result of its reaction having
haemoglobin in the red blood cells and therefore prevents the
haemoglobin from transporting oxygen in our body. Death resultant from
CO poisoning take place whenever the supply of oxygen to the body
becomes not enough as the carrier haemoglobin is not available for this
function.

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Uses:

1. CO is utilized as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals example: iron

from its ores.
2. CO is the significant constituent of gaseous fuels such as producer gas (CO +
N2) and water gas (CO + H2).

Trioxocarbonate (IV) and Hydrogen Trioxocarbonate (IV)

Trioxocarbonates (IV) and hydrogen trioxocarbonates (IV) are the inorganic

compounds of carbon. Trioxocarbonates (IV) acid reacts with some free metals,
metallic oxides and alkalis to form trioxocarbonate (IV) salts.

Zn + H2CO3 → ZnCO3 + H2

CaO + H2CO3 → CaCO3 + H2O

2NaOH + H2CO3 → Na2CO3 + 2H2O

Trioxocarbonate (IV) salts are of two kinds:

 Normal trioxocarbonate (IV) MCO3 and

 Acidic hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) MHCO3

Preparation of soluble trioxocarbonate (IV) salt:

The water soluble trioxocarbonate (IV) salts are sodium, potassium and ammonium
trioxocarbonate (IV). They are generally made by passing carbon (IV) oxide via a
solution of corresponding alkali.

2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O

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Preparation of insoluble trioxocarbonate (IV) salts:

Most of the metallic trioxocarbonate (IV) are insoluble in water. The common
methods for preparing them are:

1. Reaction of a base, metals or metallic oxide with trioxocarbonate (IV)

acid

Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2H2O

Zn + H2CO3 → ZnCO3 + H2

MgO + H2CO3 → MgCO3 + H2O

2. By adding a solution of sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) to a solution of

the corresponding metal salt.

Na2CO3 + CaCl2 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Na2CO3 + 2AgNO3 → 2NaNO3 + Ag2CO3

Hydrogen Trioxocarbonate (IV) salts:

These are the acid salts of trioxocarbonate (IV) acid made whenever a metal or
ammonium radical substitutes one of the two hydrogen atoms in the molecule.
They are soluble in water.

Hydrogen trioxocarbonates (IV) might be prepared through passing CO2 via a

solution of the corresponding hydroxides or trioxocarbonates (IV).

NaOH + CO2 → NaHCO3

Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2NaHCO3

Properties of trioxocarbonates (IV) salts:

1. All trioxocarbonate (IV) salts apart from those of sodium, potassium and
barium, decompose on heating to release carbon (IV) oxide.

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 ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2

(NH4)2CO3 → 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O

The entire hydrogen trioxocarbonates (IV) as well decompose on heating the solid
or solution to provide carbon (IV) oxide, water and the corresponding
trioxocarbonates (IV).

2KHCO3 → K2CO3 + H2O + CO2

2. All the trioxocarbonate (IV) and hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) salts react by
dilute acids to form carbon (IV) oxide water and a salt.

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2CO2

3. All trioxocarbonate are insoluble except that of sodium, potassium and

ammonium. While all hydrogen trioxocarbonates are soluble

Uses of some significant trioxocarbonate (IV) salts:

i) Na2CO3 is utilized in the manufacture of glass, soap and detergents, and also in
the production of paper and pulp.

ii) NaHCO3 is employed in baking powder to discharge CO2 gas that helps the dough
to rise throughout baking. It is as well employed as medicine to relieve indigestion
example: in Andrews liver salts. This is utilized in dry-powder fire extinguishers.

iii) CaCO3 is utilized in the production of cement, chalk and significant industrial
chemicals example: CaO and NH3.

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 WEEK 5-8: HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of only two elements- carbon

and hydrogen

Hydrocarbons can be classified as

1. Aliphatic – (cyclic or acyclic)
2. Aromatic

Tetravalency of carbon

A carbon atom completes its octet only by sharing its valence electrons with other
atoms. As a result, a carbon atom forms four covalent bonds by sharing valence
electrons with other atoms. This is known as tetravalency of carbon ("tetra"
means four).

Why Does Carbon Form a Large Number of Compounds?

1. its ability to catenate. Catenation is the ability of carbon to combine with one
20
another to form straight chains, branch chains and ring compounds containing
many carbon atoms

2. The ease with which it bonds with other elements

3. Its Ability to Form Single, Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
4. The stability of the carbon-carbon single, double and triple bonds

Characteristic features of organic compounds

1. Organic compounds are generally covalent and hence they do not dissolve
in water (polar solvents) but dissolve in organic solvents (non-polar
solvents) such as ether, alcohol, benzene etc.

2. Due to maximum catenation and tetravalency of carbon, they have

tendency to form long open and closed chain compounds.

3. They are volatile, inflammable and possess low boiling points and melting
points.

4. Some organic compounds exhibit the phenomenon of polymerization. For

example, ethylene polymerizes to poly ethylene.

5. They are non-conductors of electricity.

What is hybridization?

This is the joining together of two or more orbital of the same principal quantum
number to form a new set of orbitals that are degenerate or equivalent

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Homologous series

A homologous series is a family of organic compounds which follows a regular

structural pattern in which each successive member differs in its molecular
formula by –CH2 or a molecular mass of 14

Characteristics

1. Similar method of preparation

2. Differ in their molecular formula by CH2 or a molecular mass of 14
3. Similar chemical properties and a graduation in their physical property
4. The same functional group and the same general formula

Assignment

With the aid of examples differentiate between molecular formula, empirical

formula and structural formular

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What is a functional group?

A functional group is a group of atoms or bonds common to the series of organic

compounds and determines the chemical properties of the series

Alkyl groups

The general term alkyl group includes all groups derived from the alkanes by the
loss of a hydrogen. Examples CH3-methyl, CH3CH2-ethyl, CH3CH2CH2 -propyl

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Saturated and unsaturated compounds

• If an organic compound contains atoms joined only by single bonds, the

compound is said to be saturated.

• If it contains carbon atoms joined by double or triple covalent bonds, it is

said to be unsaturated

Naming Hydrocarbons

In general, an IUPAC name will have three essential features:

• A root or base indicating a major chain or ring of carbon atoms found in

the molecular structure.
• A suffix or other element(s) designating functional groups that may be
present in the compound.

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 • Names of substituent groups, other than hydrogen, that complete the
molecular structure.

(practice on naming of organic compounds)

Isomerism

This is the existence of organic compounds having the same molecular formula
but different structural formula

Types of isomerism

1. Chain isomerism
2. Positional isomerism
3. Functional group isomerism
4. Geometric or Cis-Trans isomerism
5. Optical isomerism

Chain Isomerism

It is also known as skeletal isomerism. Chain isomers differ in the branching

of carbon. Example; C5H12

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Position Isomerism

The positions of the functional groups or substituent atoms are different in

position isomers. Example; C3H7Cl

Functional Isomerism

it refers to the compounds that have the same chemical formula but
different functional groups attached to them. Example: C3H6O

Geometric Isomerism

It is popularly known as cis-trans isomerism. These isomers have different spatial

arrangements of atoms in three-dimensional space. Example; But-2-ene molecule
is provided

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Optical Isomerism

Compounds that exhibit optical isomerism feature similar bonds but different
spatial arrangements of atoms forming non-superimposable mirror images. These
optical isomers are also known as enantiomers.

Dextro enantiomers rotate the plane of polarized light to the right whereas laevo
enantiomers rotate it to the left, as illustrated below.

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 The alkanes

The Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with a general formula: CnH2n+2.

Sp3 hybridized.

Laboratory preparation of Alkanes (methane, CH4)

Methane is usually prepared by heating anhydrous sodium ethanoate with an

alkali, usually soda lime. soda lime is used in preference to caustic soda because it
is not deliquescent and does not attack glass readily.

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Anhydrous sodium ethanoate is ground with an equal mass of soda lime and
heated in a hard glass test tube. Methane is given off and can be collected over
water.

CH3COONa + NaOHNa2CO3 + CH4

The other alkanes in the series can be prepared by heating an appropriate sodium
salt with soda lime.

Physical properties of methane

1. Colourless and odourless gas

2. Slightly soluble in water
3. Less dense than air
4. No action on litmus

Chemical properties

1. Combustion: methane burns in air with a pale blue non-luminous flame.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  2H2O(g) + CO2(g)

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 2. Substitution reaction (chlorination): methane reacts with chlorine in the
presence of UV light, which acts as a catalyst, to yield a mixture of products

Uses

1. Used as a domestic fuel

2. Used for making hydrogen, carbon black, carbon (IV) sulphide e.t.c

Alkenes

The alkenes are homologous series of hydrocarbons with a general molecular

formula CnH2n. they are sp2 hybridized and unsaturated

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Laboratory preparation of Ethene

Ethene is prepared by dehydration of ethanol. On heating ethanol with sulphuric

acid in the ratio 1:2 at a temperature of 170 ° C, ethene forms. The reaction
occurs in two stages

C2H5OH + H2SO4  C2H5HSO4 + H2O

C2H5HSO4 C2H4 + H2SO4

Physical properties (ethene)

1. Colourless gas with a faint sweetish smell.

2. Ethene is completely soluble in organic solvents and slightly soluble in
water.
3. It is lighter than air.
4. No action on litmus
5. Boiling point of ethene is -102 ° C and melting point is –169° C.

Chemical properties of Ethene

1. Combustion: Ethene on combustion produce carbon dioxide, water and

heat.
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 C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat.
2. Addition reaction: A chemical reaction is said to be an addition reaction if
two substances combine and form a third substance. In general,
unsaturated hydrocarbons like alkenes and alkynes prefers to undergo
addition reactions.
In addition reactions, molecules add across double bond or triple bond.

i. Addition of hydrogen to ethene: Gives ethane after catalytic

hydrogenation in presence of nickel.

ii. Addition of chlorine: When treated with halogens, ethene forms 1,

2-dihaloethanes.

3. Polymerization: Polymerization is a process in which large number of

unsaturated hydrocarbons join together to form a big molecule. The big
molecule formed in this process is called a polymer.

The polymer polythene is formed by the polymerization of ethene at high

temperature and pressure.

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 Where, n = more than 1000

Uses

1. To ripen green fruits

2. An essential ingredient in manufacture of synthetic chemicals such as
ethylene glycol, diethyl ether, ethylene oxide and mustard gas
3. To manufacture polymers like poly ethylene and poly vinyl chloride
4. It is also useful in the synthesis of important chemicals useful in industries.

Assignment

With the aid of equations, describe the addition reaction of ethene with
1. Hydrogen halides
2. Bromine water
3. Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid
4. Tetraoxomanganate (VII)
5. With air or oxygen

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 Alkynes

The alkynes are homologous series of hydrocarbons with a general molecular

formula CnH2n-2. They are SP hybridized and Unsaturated

Laboratory preparation of Ethyne (acetylene)

Calcium Carbide (CaC2) is made to react with cold water. The reaction is
performed on a heap of sand inside the flask to prevent the flask from cracking
as large amount of heat is released.

CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2

the ethyne produced is passed through acidified copper sulphate to remove

phosphine, PH3, as impurity

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Physical properties

1. Ethyne (acetylene) is a colorless gas with ether-like odour when pure.

Ethyne prepared from calcium carbide has garlic odour due to the presence
of impurities like phosphine (PH3) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
2. Ethyne is slightly soluble in water, but highly soluble in organic solvents like
acetone and alcohol.
3. It is lighter than air.
4. It is a poisonous gas. Liquid ethyne (acetylene) is highly explosive.
5. It has a boiling point of -840C.

Chemical properties of Ethyne

1. Combustion: Ethyne on combustion produce carbon dioxide, water and

heat.

2C2H2 + 5O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat.

2. Addition reaction:
i. Addition of hydrogen to ethyne gives ethane after catalytic
hydrogenation in presence of nickel.

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 ii. Addition of halogen forms 1,1,2,2-tetrahaloethanes.

3. Substitution reaction
i. Terminal alkynes react with ammoniacal solution of copper(I)
chloride at room temperature. A reddish-brown precipitate of
copper(I) dicarbide is formed.
C2H2(g) + 2CuCl(aq) Cu2C2(s) + 2HCl(aq)
ii. Terminal alkynes react with ammoniacal solution of AgNO3 at room
temperature. A whitish-yellow precipitate of silver dicarbide is
formed.
C2H2(g) + 2AgNO3(aq) Ag2C2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
4. Polymerization: ethyne polymerize to form the aromatic hydrocarbon,
benzene, when it is passed through a hot tube containing a complex orgno-
nickel catalyst.

Uses

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 1. Substances like ethanol, acetic acid, vinyl polymer and plastic like
substances can be prepared from it.
2. Ethyne is used in oxyacetylene flame used for welding of metals.
3. On kite flying day, acetylene gas is filled in rubber balloons and the balloons
are flown high in the sky.

Summary

Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

1 Saturated Unsaturated Unsaturated

2 Sp3 hybridized Sp2 hybridized Sp Hybridized

3 It is prepared by heating This is prepared by the reaction It is prepared by the

anhydrous sodium ethanoate, of an alcohol with hot H2SO4 in reaction of calcium
CH3COONa, with an alkali usually the ratio 1:2 carbide, CaC2, with
soda-lime CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 CH2CH2 + water
CH3COONa + NaOHNa2CO3 + H2O + H2SO4 CaC2 + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2
CH4 + C2H2

4 Burns with a blue flame (least Yellow luminous flame (smoky) Smoky flame
smoky)
5 They undergo substitution They undergo addition reaction They also undergo
reaction addition reaction

6 Does not react with bromine Decolorizes bromine water Decolorizes bromine
water water

7 No reaction with acidified Decolorizes acidified KMnO4 Decolorizes acidified

KMnO4 KMnO4

8 No reaction with acidified Changes acidified K2Cr2O7 from Changes acidified

K2Cr2O7 orange to green K2Cr2O7 from orange to
green

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 9 Deos not react with AgNO3/Ag2O Does not react with AgNO3 AgNO3/Ag2O reacts with
terminal alkynes to
produce a white ppt

10 No reaction with Copper (I) No reaction with CuCl CuCl reacts with terminal
Chloride, CuCl alkynes to produce a
reddish brown ppt

11 They do not polymerize They polymerize They polymerize

Assignment.

1. How would you differentiate between three hydrocarbons; alkane, alkene

and alkyne by chemical test?
2. With the aid of equations, describe the addition reaction of ethyne with
i. Hydrogen halides
ii. water
iii. Tetraoxomanganate (VII)

Benzene

Benzene, C6H6, is the simplest member of a large family of hydrocarbons,

called aromatic hydrocarbons. These compounds contain ring structures and
exhibit bonding that must be described using the resonance hybrid concept of
valence bond theory or the delocalization concept of molecular orbital theory.
The resonance structures for benzene, C6H6, are:

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Derivative of benzene

Examples of simple benzene derivatives are phenol, toluene, and aniline,

abbreviated PhOH, PhMe, and PhNH2, respectively.

Physical properties of benzene

1. It is a colourless liquid with a sweet smell

2. It is insoluble in benzene
3. It has a boiling point of 800c

Chemical properties

1. Substitution reaction

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 2. Addition reaction

Petroleum

Petroleum also known as crude oil is a dark, sticky liquid comprising mainly
branched and unbranched alkanes and cycloalkanes.

Crude oil is usually found together with natural gas in underground deposited
hundreds or thousands of meters below the surface of the earth. The oil is
trapped between layers of non-porous rocks and the gas is often found above the
oil. Deep wells have to be drilled to get them out

Crude oil and natural gas were formed by the decay of tiny sea creatures and
plants which sank to the sea bed when they died. The dead creatures and plants
were slowly covered by mud and sand. Eventually, the action of heat and pressure
on the remains of these organism over millions of years produced crude oil and
natural gas

Assignment
write short note on
1. Nigeria and world crude oil reserves,
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 2. location of refineries in Nigeria

Fractional distillation of crude oil

Crude oil must be separated into fractions before it can be useful. The separation
of crude oil into useful fractions is called refining the oil. Each fraction of crude oil
is a mixture of hydrocarbons which boils over a certain range of temperatures

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Petroleum Fractions and their Uses

What is cracking and Reforming?

Cracking

 Cracking Is thermal decomposition of a heavy petroleum fraction to

produce petrol/gasoline

 Cracking is used to produce high grade petrol

 Cracking is used to produce short chain alkanes

C18H38(l)  C6H14(l) + 6C2H4(g)

 Cracking is used to produce hydrogen

C18H38(l)  C8H16(l) + C10H20(l) + H2(g)

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Reforming

 Reforming is the process of restructuring hydrocarbons molecules involving

heat, high pressure and the use of a catalyst. Depending on the conditions,
straight chain alkanes may be converted to branched alkanes or aromatics.
These products are useful in providing better quality petrol. Eg
C6H14(l)  C6H6(l) + 4H2

 the condition for this reaction is

- a temperature of 5000 C
- a catalyst and
- a pressure of about 20 atm

The petrochemical industry

About 90% of the crude oil produced is used as a fuel to generate electricity and
drive motor vehicles. Another 10% is used as petrochemical feed stock.

Crude oil is

• Used As petrochemical feed stock

• A source of hydrocarbons (e.g methane, ethane, propane e.t.c).

Used for manufacturing:
- polymers
- fertilizers and pesticides
-cosmetics
- solvents
-dyes

• Used for the synthesis of other organic compounds

(alcohols, alkanoic acids, ethers, aldehydes, amines e.t.c)

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Quality of Petrol

Under high compression, petrol vapour in car engines often explodes before
electrical sparking. This produces a knocking sound. Low grade petrol consisting of
mainly straight chain alkanes, knocks easily. As petrol burns prematurely, the
energy is wasted

Octane number is a value used to indicate the resistance of motor fuel to knock.
The fuel knock is compared on a scale with a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane
(iso-octane) that has a rating of 100(minimum knock) and heptane has a rating of
zero (bad knock)

Natural Gas

Natural gas is usually found together with crude oil in between rock layers it is
predominantly methane (about 90%). Other gases present include ethane
propane, butane pentane and a small fraction of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
helium

Packaging as liquefied natural gas (LNG)

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Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with
some mixture of ethane, C2H6) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease
and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the
volume of natural gas in the gaseous state.
It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability
after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia.
The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as
dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause
difficulty downstream. The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close

Uses of natural gas

Natural gas is a non-renewable hydrocarbon used as a source of energy for

heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as a fuel for vehicles
and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other
commercially important organic chemicals.

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Alternative Sources of Energy

What is renewable energy?

Renewable energy is energy that has been derived from earth’s natural resources
that are not finite or exhaustible, such as wind and sunlight. Renewable energy is
an alternative to the traditional energy that relies on fossil fuels, and it tends to
be much less harmful to the environment.

Renewable energy sources

Solar, Wind, Hydroelectric, Geothermal, Ocean, Hydrogen, Biomass

Hydrogen as a potential future fuel

Hydrogen energy involves the use of hydrogen and/or hydrogen-containing

compounds to generate energy to be supplied to all practical uses needed with
high energy efficiency, overwhelming environmental and social benefits, as well
as economic competitiveness

Fuel cells

 In a fuel cell there are two electrodes, usually platinum, in an electrolyte

and the reactants are continually being supplied to the electrodes. This
type of cell can supply electrical energy continuously.

 When hydrogen react with oxygen to form water in a fuel cell, electrical
energy is produced

 Fuel cells prove a potable convenient source of power. Hydrogen fuel cells
are used in space to provide the electrical power for space shuttles and
other space vehicles

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Assignment

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cell?

2. Explain how photosynthesis can provide renewable energy source

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