9780198399629
9780198399629
9780198399629
7
0.0
D.C. circuits
Heading A
104
differences across the three resistors. This is because each coulomb of charge
from the battery delivers energy to each resistor as it flows round the circuit. V1
The p.d. across each resistor is the energy delivered per coulomb of charge to
V0
that resistor. So the sum of the potential differences across the three resistors
is the total energy delivered to the resistors per coulomb of charge that passes V2
through them, which is the p.d. across the battery terminals.
• The p.d. across components in parallel is the same.
V3
In Figure 4, charge carriers can pass through either of the two resistors in
parallel. The same amount of energy is delivered by a charge carrier, regardless
of which of the two resistors it passes through. Fig 3 Adding potential differences
If the variable resistor is adjusted so the p.d. across it is 4 V, and if the battery V0
p.d. is 12 V, the p.d. across the two resistors in parallel is 8 V (12 V − 4 V). This
is because each coulomb of charge leaves the battery with 12 J of electrical
energy, and uses 4 J on passing through the variable resistor. Therefore, each
coulomb of charge has 8 J of electrical energy to deliver to either of the two
parallel resistors.
• For any complete loop of a circuit, the sum of the e.m.f.s round the
loop is equal to the sum of the potential drops round the loop.
This statement is known as Kirchhoff’s second law. It follows from the
fact that the total e.m.f. in a loop is the total electrical energy per coulomb
produced in the loop, and the sum of the potential drops is the electrical V1 V2
energy per coulomb delivered round the loop. The above statement follows, V0 = V1 + V2
therefore, from the conservation of energy. Fig 4 Components in parallel
For example, Figure 5 shows a 9 V battery connected to a 6 V light bulb in 9V
series with a variable resistor. If the variable resistor is adjusted so that the
p.d. across the light bulb is 6 V, the p.d. across the variable resistor must be 3 V
(9 V − 6 V). The only source of electrical energy in the circuit is the battery, so
the sum of the e.m.f.s in the circuit is 9 V. This is equal to the sum of the p.ds
round the circuit (3 V across the variable resistor + 6 V across the light bulb).
In other words, the battery forces charge round the circuit. Every coulomb of
charge leaves the battery with 9 J of electrical energy and supplies 3 J to the
variable resistor and 6 J to the light bulb.
3V 6V
Fig 5 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law
QUESTIONS
6V
1 A battery, which has an e.m.f. b The variable resistor is adjusted so that the p.d.
of 6 V and negligible internal across the torch bulb is 2.5 V. Calculate:
resistance, is connected to a i the p.d. across the variable resistor,
6 V, 6 W light bulb in parallel ii the current in the torch bulb.
with a 6 V, 24 W light bulb, as
3 A 6.0 V battery is connected in series with an ammeter,
shown in Figure 6. 6V 6W a 20 resistor and an unknown resistor R.
Calculate: a Sketch the circuit diagram.
a the current in each light b The ammeter reads 0.20 A. Calculate:
bulb, i the p.d. across the 20 resistor,
6V 24 W
b the current in the battery, ii the p.d. across R,
c the power supplied by the iii the resistance of R.
battery. Fig 6 4 In question 3, when the unknown resistor is replaced
2 A 4.5 V battery is connected with a torch bulb, the ammeter reads 0.12 A. Calculate:
in series with a variable resistor and a 2.5 V, 0.5 W torch a the p.d. across the torch bulb,
bulb. b the resistance of the torch bulb.
a Sketch the circuit diagram for this circuit.
105
Resistance heating
The heating effect of an electric current in any component is due to the resistance
of the component. As explained in topic 6.3, the charge carriers repeatedly collide
Mains cable Heating
with the positive ions of the conducting material. There is a net transfer of
element energy from the charge carriers to the positive ions as a result of these collisions.
After a charge carrier loses kinetic energy in such a collision, the force due to the
Fig 3 Heating element in a kettle p.d. across the material accelerates it until it collides with another positive ion.
106
For a component of resistance R, when current I passes through it: Base plate
p.d. across the component, V = IR
V2
Therefore the power supplied to the component, P = IV = I2R =
R
Hence the energy per second transferred to the component as thermal energy = I 2R
• If the component is at constant temperature, heat transfer to the surroundings
takes place at the same rate. Therefore:
Cable – must be
Rate of heat transfer = I 2R kept away from
the base plate
• If the component heats up, its temperature rise depends on the power supplied
to it (i.e. I 2R), the rate of heat transfer to the surroundings and the heat Heating element –
capacity of the component. on inside of base plate
• The energy transfer per second to the component (i.e. the power supplied to Fig 4 Heating element in an iron
it) does not depend on the direction of the current. For example, the heating
effect of an alternating current at a given instant depends only on the
magnitude of the current not on the direction of the current.
QUESTIONS
1 Calculate the total resistance of each of the resistor Calculate:
combinations in Figure 5. a the combined resistance of the 3 resistor and the
4Ω 12 Ω 6 resistor in parallel,
a b the total resistance of the circuit,
c the battery current,
4Ω d the power supplied to the 4 resistor.
3 A 2 resistor and a 4 resistor are connected in series
b with each other. The series combination is connected in
12 Ω parallel with a 9 resistor and a 3 V battery of negligible
internal resistance, as shown in Figure 7.
3Ω 3V
2Ω
c 6Ω
2Ω 4Ω
Fig 5
107
Power
Multiplying each term of the above equation by the cell current I gives:
Power delivered Power supplied by the cell, IE = I 2R + I 2r
to load
In other words,
Power supplied by the cell = power delivered to R + power wasted in the cell due
to its internal resistance
E2R E
The power delivered to R = I 2R = 2 since I =
(R + r) R+r
0 Figure 3 shows how the power delivered to R varies with the value of R.
0 It can be shown that the peak of this power curve is at R = r. In other words,
r Load
resistance R when a source delivers power to a ‘load’, maximum power is delivered to the
Fig 3 Power delivered to a load v. load
load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the
resistance source. The load is then said to be ‘matched‘ to the source.
108
Measurement of internal resistance x-axis gives a straight line with a gradient −r and a
y-intercept E. See topic 26.4.
The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when
the cell is in a circuit can be measured by connecting a Figure 5 shows the gradient triangle ABC, in which AB
high-resistance voltmeter directly across the terminals of represents the lost p.d. and BC represents the current.
the cell. Figure 4 shows how the cell p.d. can be measured AB lost voltage
for different values of current. The current is changed So the gradient = = internal resistance r.
BC current
by adjusting the variable resistor. The lamp limits the
maximum current that can pass through the cell. The Note The internal resistance and the e.m.f. of a cell can
ammeter is used to measure the cell current. be calculated, if the cell p.d. is measured for two different
values of current. A pair of simultaneous equations can
therefore be written, as follows:
V
– For current I1, the cell p.d. V1 = E − I1r
– For current I2, the cell p.d. V2 = E − I2 r
E r Subtracting the first equation from the second gives:
A
V1 − V2 = (E − I1 r) − (E − I2 r) = I2 r − I1 r = (I2 − I1)r
Cell terminals
(V1 − V2)
Therefore, r =
(I1 − I2 )
Fig 4 Measuring internal resistance So r can be calculated from the above equation and then
substituted into either equation for the cell p.d. to enable E
to be calculated.
Graph of p.d. v. current
V/ V
The measurements of cell p.d. and current for a given cell
may be plotted on a graph, as shown in Figure 5. AB 0.5
Gradient = =
2.0 BC 1.2
The cell p.d. decreases as the current increases. This is e.m.f. = 1.5V Hence internal resistance = 0.42 Ω
because the ‘lost’ p.d. increases as the current increases.
A
• The cell p.d. is equal to the cell e.m.f. at zero
current. This is because the ‘lost’ p.d. is zero at zero
current. 1.0
B C
• The graph is a straight line with a negative
gradient. This can be seen by rearranging the equation:
E = IR + Ir to become IR = E − Ir
0
Because IR represents the cell p.d. V, then V = E − Ir. By 0 0.5 1.0 I/A
comparison with the standard equation for a straight line
y = mx + c, a graph of V on the y-axis against I on the Fig 5 A graph of cell p.d. v. current
QUESTIONS
1 A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 1.5 c the power delivered to the 2.5 resistor,
was connected to a 4.5 resistor. Calculate: d the power wasted in the cell.
a the total resistance of the circuit,
3 The p.d. across the terminals of a cell was 1.1 V when
b the current through the battery, the current from the cell was 0.20 A and 1.3 V when the
c the lost p.d., current was 0.10 A. Calculate:
d the p.d. across the cell terminals. a the internal resistance of the cell,
2 A cell of e.m.f. 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.5 is b the cell’s e.m.f.
connected to a 2.5 resistor. Calculate: 4 A battery of unknown e.m.f., E, and internal resistance,
a the current, r, is connected in series with an ammeter and a
b the terminal p.d., resistance box, R. The current was 2.0 A when R = 4.0 ,
and 1.5 A when R = 6.0 . Calculate E and r.
109
On these pages you will learn to: • The total internal resistance is the sum of the
individual internal resistances. This is because the cells,
• Solve circuit problems in which circuits include two or
and therefore the internal resistances, are in series.
more sources of e.m.f. in series or in parallel
• Solve circuit problems in which circuits include diodes
Circuits with cells in parallel
Kirchhoff’s laws are used to analyse circuits where cells and
Circuits with a single cell and one or more resistors batteries are in parallel. For example, consider the circuit in
Here are some rules: Figure 2.
• Sketch the circuit diagram if it is not drawn. To determine the current through the 2.0 resistor, let x
• To calculate the current passing through the cell, and y represent the current through the 2.0 V and 1.5 V
calculate the total circuit resistance using the resistor cells, which have internal resistances of 6.0 and 4.0 ,
combination rules. Don’t forget to add on the internal respectively. The current through the 2.0 resistor is
resistance of the cell, if that is given: therefore x + y.
cell e.m.f. 2.0 V
Cell current = 6.0 Ω
total circuit resistance
• To work out the current and p.d. for each resistor, start x+y x
with the resistors in series with the cell which pass the
same current as the cell current:
y 4.0 Ω
P.d. across each resistor current × the resistance 1.5 V
in series with cell = of each resistor
• To work out the p.d. across the parallel resistors, find 2.0 Ω x+y
the difference between the cell e.m.f. and the sum of
the p.d.s across the series resistors and the internal Fig 2
resistance.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law
The current through any parallel resistor is then given
by dividing the p.d. across the parallel resistors by the • to the outer loop (consisting of the 2.0 V cell with its
resistance of that resistor. internal resistance of 6.0 and the 2.0 resistor) gives
2.0 = 6.0 x + 2.0 (x + y) or 2.0 = 8.0 x + 2.0 y
Circuits with two or more cells in series • to the middle loop (consisting of the 1.5 V cell with its
internal resistance of 4.0 and the 2.0 resistor) gives
The same rules as above apply, except the current through
1.5 = 4.0 y + 2.0 (x + y) or 1.5 = 2.0 x + 6.0 y
the cells is calculated by dividing the overall (i.e. net)
e.m.f. by the total resistance. Solving these two simultaneous equations (see topic 26.4)
gives x = 0.205 A and y = 0.182 A. Hence the current
• If the cells are connected in the same direction in the
through the 2.0 resistor = x + y = 0.387 A.
circuit (Figure 1a), the net e.m.f. is the sum of the
individual e.m.fs. For example, in Figure 1a the net e.m.f. Note In such calculations, a negative value for a current
is 3.5 V. would mean the current is in the opposite direction to that
• If the cells are connected in opposite directions to assumed initially.
each other in the circuit (Figure 1b), the net e.m.f. is
the difference between the e.m.fs in each direction. Diodes in circuits
For example, in Figure 1b, the net e.m.f. is 0.5 V in the
Assume that a semiconductor diode has:
direction of the 2.0 V cell.
• zero resistance in the forward direction when the
2.0 V 1.5 V 2.0 V 1.5 V
p.d. across it is 0.6 V or greater,
• infinite resistance in the reverse direction or at p.ds
less than 0.6 V in the forward direction.
a b
Fig 1 Cells in series
110
0.9 V
therefore 6.0 × 10−4 A = . Fig 3 Using a diode
1500
QUESTIONS
1 A cell of e.m.f. 3.0 V, and negligible internal resistance, Extension
is connected to a 4.0 resistor in series with a parallel
combination of a 24.0 resistor and a 12.0 resistor b A 1.0 resistor is connected in parallel with the
(Figure 4). 12.0 V battery and the 3.0 resistor. Calculate the
3.0 V
current through i the 1.0 resistor, ii the 12.0 V
battery.
3.0 Ω 2.0 Ω
P Y
15.0 Ω
5 kΩ
Fig 5
Fig 6
111
On these pages you will learn to: The theory of the potential divider
• Explain the principle of a potential A potential divider consists of two or more resistances in series connected
divider circuit as a source of fixed to a source of fixed potential difference. The source p.d. is divided beween the
p.d. or of variable p.d. resistors, as they are in series with each other. A potential divider can be used to
• Recall and solve problems supply a p.d. of any value between zero and the source p.d.
using the principle of the
Figure 1 shows a potential divider consisting of two resistors R1 and R2, in series
potentiometer as a means of
connected to a source of fixed p.d. V0.
comparing potential differences
• Explain the operation of an Total resistance of the combination = R1 + R2
electronic sensor consisting of a
p.d. across the resistors V0
sensing device and a circuit that Therefore, current through the resistors, I = =
total resistance R1 + R2
provides a voltage output
V0 R1
• Explain the use of thermistors so the p.d. across resistor R1, V1 = IR1 =
R1 + R2
and light-dependent resistors in
potential dividers V0 R2
and the p.d. across resistor R2, V2 = IR2 =
R1 + R2
Dividing the equation for V1 by the equation for V2 gives:
V1 R1
R1 V1
=
V2 R2
V0
This equation shows that:
The ratio of the p.ds across each resistor is equal to the
resistance ratio of the two resistors.
R2 V2
To supply a variable p.d.
The source p.d. is connected to a fixed length of uniform resistance wire. A
sliding contact on the wire can then be moved along the wire, as illustrated in
Fig 1 A potential divider Figure 2, giving a variable p.d. between the contact and one end of the wire. A
uniform track of a suitable material may be used instead of resistance wire. The
track may be linear or circular (Figure 2a,b). The circuit symbol for a variable
potential divider which is also known as a potentiometer is shown in Figure 2c.
The variable potential divider in Figure 2c can be used to vary the brightness of a
bulb by connecting the bulb between C and B. In contrast with using a variable
resistor in series with the light bulb and the source p.d., the use of a potential
divider enables the current through the light bulb to be reduced to zero. With a
variable resistor at maximum resistance, there is a current through the light bulb.
A Sliding contact A
Sliding
contact C
C A
A Uniform C
M resistance B
wire
B B
a Slide wire b Circular track c
C
Driver Fig 2 Potential dividers used to supply a variable p.d.
cell Ex
X To compare potential differences
The slide-wire potentiometer can be used to compare cell e.m.f.s and potential
differences. Figure 3 shows the circuit used to compare the e.m.f.s of two cells,
X and Y. One of the cells (X) is shown connected in series with a centre-reading
B meter M between end B of the wire and the sliding contact C on the wire. The
Fig 3 Comparing cell e.m.f.s driver cell provides a constant p.d. across the wire.
112
The position of the sliding contact on the wire is adjusted the variable resistor is adjusted so that the p.d. across the
until the meter reads zero. The cell e.m.f. Ex is then opposed thermistor at 20 °C is exactly half the source p.d.; if the
equally (or ‘balanced’) by the p.d. between B and C. The temperature of the thermistor is then raised, its resistance
length Lx of the wire from B to C is then measured. falls so the p.d. across it falls.
The procedure is repeated using the other cell (Y). The ratio
A light sensor
of the cell e.m.f.s, Ex /Ey is equal to the ratio of their balance
The circuit is similar to Figure 4 except a light-dependent
lengths, Lx /Ly.
resistor (LDR) is used instead of a thermistor. The p.d.
across the LDR changes when the incident light intensity
Sensor circuits on the LDR changes. If the light intensity increases, the
resistance of the LDR falls and the p.d. across the LDR falls.
A sensor circuit produces an output p.d. which changes
as a result of a change of a physical variable, such as
The Wheatstone bridge
temperature or pressure.
A Wheatstone bridge can be used to compare two resistances.
In Figure 5, the two resistances, R1 and R2, provide a fixed
A temperature sensor
p.d. which is compared with a variable p.d. across a uniform
This consists of a potential divider made using a thermistor
resistance wire AB. The sliding contact C is adjusted until the
and a variable resistor (Figure 4).
centre-reading meter reads zero. For this ‘null’ reading,
R1 l1
=
R2 l2
where l1 and l2 are the lengths of AC and BC respectively.
A
V M
l1
R1
QUESTIONS
1 A potential divider consists of a 1.0 k resistor in series 3 a A potential divider consists of an 8.0 resistor in series
with a 5.0 k resistor, and a battery of e.m.f. 4.5 V and with a 4.0 resistor and a 6.0 V battery. Calculate:
negligible internal resistance. i the current,
a Sketch the circuit and calculate the p.d. across each ii the p.d. across each resistor.
resistor. b In the circuit in part a, the 4 resistor is replaced by
b A second 5.0 k resistor is connected in the above a thermistor with a resistance of 8 at 20 °C and a
circuit in parallel with the first 5.0 k resistor. resistance of 4 at 100 °C. Calculate the p.d. across
Calculate the p.d. across each resistor in this new the fixed resistor at: i 20 °C, ii 100 °C.
circuit. 4 A light sensor consists of a 5.0 V cell, an LDR and a
2 A 12 V battery, of negligible internal resistance, is 5.0 k resistor in series with each other. A voltmeter is
connected to the fixed terminals of a variable potential connected in parallel with the resistor. When the LDR is
divider (which has a maximum resistance of 50 ). in darkness, the voltmeter reads 2.2 V.
A 12 V light bulb is connected between the sliding a Calculate:
contact and the negative terminal of the potential i the p.d. across the LDR,
divider. Sketch the circuit diagram and describe how the ii the resistance of the LDR when the voltmeter
brightness of the light bulb changes when the sliding reads 2.2 V.
contact is moved from the negative to the positive b Describe and explain how the voltmeter reading
terminal of the potential divider. would change if the LDR was exposed to daylight.
113
1 Two resistors of resistances 6.0 and 12.0 , in parallel, 4 The circuit diagram below is for the rear windscreen
are connected to a 2.0 resistor and a 6.0 V battery. The heater of a car. It consists of 4 heating elements, each of
diagram below shows the circuit diagram. resistance 6.0 , connected to a 12.0 V battery of internal
6.0 V resistance 2.0 .
12.0 V 2.0 Ω
6.0 Ω
6.0 Ω 6.0 Ω
2.0 Ω
114
b When one heater only is on, calculate: 10 In a Wheatstone bridge experiment, a 5.00 resistor
i the total current passing through the heater, and a slide-wire potentiometer were used as shown
ii the power supplied by the electricity supply. in topic 7.5 Figure 5 to determine the resistance R of a
resistor. Length of wire = 1.00 m.
7 The diagram shows a potential divider circuit consisting
of a 10 k resistor R connected in series with an a Draw a circuit diagram to show the Wheatstone
n.t.c. thermistor and a 6.0 V battery. A high resistance bridge circuit.
voltmeter is connected across the thermistor. b In such an experiment, the balance point on the wire
was found to be 420 mm from the end of the wire
which the 5.00 resistor was connected to.
R 10 kΩ
6.0 V i Calculate R.
ii If the precision of the balance point was ± 4 mm
and the percentage uncertainty in the 5.00
V resistor was 2.0%, show that the percentage
uncertainty in R is 3.6%.
Fig 7.1 11 A network of resistors, each of resistance R, is shown in
Figure 11.1.
a The voltmeter reads 2.0 V when the thermistor‘s
A Z
temperature is 20 °C. Calculate the resistance of the
thermistor at this temperature.
R R
b A second 10 k resistor was connected in parallel
with R. Calculate the voltmeter reading with this R
second resistor in the circuit when the thermistor is B Y
at the same temperature.
c Describe and explain how the voltmeter reading R
C X
would change if the the temperature of the
thermistor were increased. Fig 11.1
a Calculate the total resistance, in terms of R, between
8 The diagram shows a circuit in which two 5.0 k
points
resistors are connected in series with each other and a
i A and C, (1 mark)
5.0 V battery, of negligible internal resistance. A diode,
ii B and X, (1 mark)
is connected in parallel with each resistor, as shown.
iii A and Z. (1 mark)
b Two cells of e.m.f. E1 and E2 and negligible internal
5.0 kΩ D1 resistance are connected into the network in a, as
5.0 V
shown in Figure 11.2.
E1
5.0 kΩ D2 A Z
Fig 8.1 R R
a Calculate: I1
I3 R
i the p.d., B Y
ii the current through each resistor.
b Calculate the current through each resistor if the I2 R
C X
5.0 V battery was replaced with a 9.0 V battery, also
E2
of negligible internal resistance.
Fig 11.2
9 In a potentiometer experiment using a slide-wire The currents in the network are as indicated in
potentiometer as shown in topic 7.5 Figure 3, a cell X is Figure 11.2.
compared with a standard cell S of e.m.f. 1.50 ± 0.01 V.
Use Kirchhoff’s laws to state the relation
The balance length for S was 735 ± 3 mm and for X was
i between currents I1, I2 and I3, (1 mark)
530 ± 3 mm.
ii between E2, R, I2 and I3 in loop BCXYB, (1 mark)
a Calculate the e.m.f. of cell X. iii between E1, E2, R, I1 and I2 in loop ABCXYZA.
b Calculate the percentage uncertainty in (1 mark)
i the e.m.f. of S, ii each balance length. Cambridge International A & AS Level Physics 9702
c Hence calculate the uncertainty in the e.m.f. of X. Paper 21 Q7 June 2009
115
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