8 Ss Highlght
8 Ss Highlght
8 Ss Highlght
Social Science
(Revised Textbook)
8
eiGHTH STanDaRD
I
Preface
The Textbook Society, Karnataka has been engaged in producing
new textbooks according to the new syllabi prepared which in turn are
designed based on NCF – 2005 since June 2010. Textbooks are prepared
in 11 languages; seven of them serve as the media of instruction. From
standard 1 to 4 there is the EVS and 5th to 10th there are three core
subjects namely mathematics, science and social science.
NCF – 2005 has a number of special features and they are:
• Connecting knowledge to life activities
• Learning to shift from rote methods
• Enriching the curriculum beyond textbooks
• Learning experiences for the construction of knowledge
• Making examinations flexible and integrating them with
classroom experiences
• Caring concerns within the democratic policy of the country
• Make education relevant to the present and future needs.
• Softening the subject boundaries-integrated knowledge and the
joy of learning.
• The child is the constructor of knowledge
The new books are produced based on three fundamental approaches
namely.
Constructive approach, Spiral Approach and Integrated approach
The learner is encouraged to think, engage in activities, master
skills and competencies. The materials presented in these books are
integrated with values. The new books are not examination oriented
in their nature. On the other hand they help the learner in the total
development of his/her personality, thus help him/her become a healthy
member of a healthy society and a productive citizen of this great
country, India.
II
In Social science especially in standard V the first chapter
deals with the historical, geographical, cultural and local study of the
division in which learners live. Chapters on sociology, business studies
and commerce are introduced in standard VIII as per the guidelines of
NCF-2005. A lot of additional information is given through box items.
Learners are encouraged to work towards construction of knowledge
through assignments and projects. Learning load of memorizing dates
has been reduced to the minimum. Life values have been integrated with
content of each chapter.
The Textbook Society expresses grateful thanks to the chairpersons,
writers, scrutinisers, artists, staff of DIETs and CTEs and the members
of the Editorial Board and printers in helping the Text Book Society in
producing these textbooks.
III
Foreword
The text book which is being prepared for the high school students
has come out differently and distinctively. This book has come out
with unique features while compared with the previous texts that have
appeared in the Text book. It should be noted that the 8th standard
text book has incorporated Political Science, Sociology, Economics and
Business Studies along with the traditional subjects like History and
Geography as per the guidelines of NCF-2005.
We have made all the attempts to make this text easily
understood and read comfortably, since this is a project of the
Government oriented towards the common man. The present text has
included the creative curriculum in order to discourage rote-learning
in the system. We have designed the texts as it should correlate with
the experiences of the students. We have deleted unnecessary dates
and data that are burdensome to the students. Instead, the text gives
attention to the historical understanding and the process. Besides,
the text has provided ample information in order to understand
contemporary affairs in the boxes throughout the text. We have
endeavoured to project these issues as part of the experience
of both the students and teachers. Members of the text book
preparation committee dedicated themselves to prepare this text on
international academic standards.
I acknowledge the members of the text book preparation committee
for bringing this text successfully. I extend my gratitude to the Editorial
Board, Translation Committee, Scrutinizers and Chief Advisors for their
valuable suggestions in bringing out this text book.
I am grateful to Prof. G.S. Mudambadithaya, Officers
and technical assistant of the Karnataka Text Book Society
for their dedication in involving in the text book preparation
project. I thank Dr. Shashikantha Koudur of NITK, Surathkal for his
effort in editing the language in the text book.
IV
Text Book committee
cHaiRPeRSon
Dr. Vijay Poonacha Thambanda, Professor, Department of History, Kannada University, Hampi,
Vidyaranya, Ballari.
MeMBeRS
Dr. M. Shashidhar, Associate Professor, Department of History, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56.
Sri n. Sathyaprakash, Asst. Master, Vidyavardhaka Sangha High School, Ist Block, Rajajinagar,
Bengaluru-10.
Sri P. a. Kumar, Retd. Head Master, Vijaya High School, 3rd Block, Jayanagara, Bengaluru-11
Dr. lakshmipathi .c .G, Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Smt. VHD Home Science College,
Sheshadri Road, Bengaluru- 01.
Sri K. R. Manjunath, Principal, MES Pre-University College, BTM Layout, Bengaluru-76.
Sri B. Hanumantharao, Lecturer, Govt. Pre-University College, Chikkaballapura.
Sri G.n. Kempaiah, Lecturer, Govt. Pre-University College, Dandinasivara, Turvekere Tq., Tumakurukur Dist.
Sri a.S. Dikshit, Retd. Principal, Vani Education Centre, Basaveswaranagar, Bengaluru-79.
Sri Shaik irfan, Drawing Teacher, Police Public School, KSRP Campus, Koramangala, Bengaluru.
ScRUTiniZeRS
Dr. Rajaram Hegde, Professor, Deparment of History, Kuvempu Univesity, Shankaraghatta, Shivamogga.
Prof. T.D. Devegowda, Professor, Deparment of Political Science , Dean (study centers) K S O U, Mysuru.
Dr. Ranganatha, Professor and Head, PG center of Geography , Maharani’s woman Arts & Commerce
College, Mysuru.
Dr. Jogan Shankar, Professor, Department of Sociology, Mangaluru University, Mangaluru.
Dr. S.R. Keshav, Faculty, Department of Economics, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56.
Dr. K. R. Srilakshmi, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Govt. First Grade College,
6th Block, Jayanagar, Bengaluru.
eDiToRial BoaRD
Dr. R. l. M. Patil, Retd. Professor, Department of Political Science, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56.
Dr. eshwarappa, Professor, Department of Geography, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56.
Sri Ramprasad, (History ) Principal, Sri ARS PU College, Hariharapura, Chikkamagaluru District.
TRanSlaToRS
Prof. Geetha Sreenivasan, 329/1, 1st Cross, 23rd Main, Sarakhikere Village, 5th Phase, JP Nagar,
Bengaluru-78.
Dr. Ranganatha, Professor and Head, PG center of Geography , Maharani’s woman Arts & Commerce
College, Mysuru.
Sri K. R. Manjunatha, Principal, MES Pre- University College, BTM Layout, Bengaluru-76.
cHieF cooRDinaToR
Prof. G.S.Mudambadithaya, Coordinator, Syllabus Revision and Text Book preparation committee,
Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru.
cHieF aDViSoR
Sri nagendra Kumar, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru- 85.
Smt nagamani c. Deputy Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85.
PRoGRaMMe cooRDinaToR
Sri a. T. Rangadasappa, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85.
V
about the Revision of Textbooks
Honourable Chief Minister Sri Siddaramaiah who is also the Finance
Minister of Karnataka, in his response to the public opinion about the
new textbooks from standard I to X, announced, in his 2014-15 budget
speech of constituting an expert-committee, to look into the matter. He
also spoke of the basic expectations there in, which the textbook experts
should follow: “ The textbooks should aim at inculcating social equality,
moral values, development of personality, scientific temper, critical
acumen, secularism and the sense of national commitment”, he said.
Later, for the revision of the textbooks from class I to X, the
Department of Education constituted twenty seven committees and
passed an order on 24-11-2014. The committees so constituted were
subject and class-wise and were in accordance with the standards
prescribed. Teachers who are experts in matters of subjects and
syllabi were in the committees.
There were already many complaints, and analyses about the
textbooks. So, a freehand was given in the order dated 24-11-2014 to the
responsible committees to examine and review text and even to prepare
new text and revise if necessary. Eventually, a new order was passed
on 19-9-2015 which also gave freedom even to re-write the textbooks
if necessary. In the same order, it was said that the completely revised
textbooks could be put to force from 2017-18 instead of 2016-17.
Many self inspired individuals and institutions, listing out the
wrong information and mistakes there in the text, had sent them
to the Education Minister and to the Textbook Society. They were
rectified. Before rectification we had exchanged ideas by arranging
debates. Discussions had taken place with Primary and Secondary
Education Teachers’ Associations. Questionnaires were administered
among teachers to pool up opinions. Separate meeting were held
with teachers, subject inspectors and DIET Principals. Analytical
opinions had been collected. To the subject experts of science, social
science, mathematics and languages, textbooks were sent in advance
and later meeting were held for discussions. Women associations
and science related organistation were also invited for discussions.
Thus, on the basis of all inputs received from various sources, the
textbooks have been revised where ever necessary.
VI
Another very important aspect has to be shared here. We constituted
three expert committees. They were constituted to make suggestions after
making a comparative study of the texts of science, mathematics and social
science subjects of central schools (NCERT), along with state textbooks.
Thus, the state textbooks have been enriched basing on the comparative
analysis and suggestions made by the experts. The state textbooks have
been guarded not to go lower in standards than the textbooks of central
schools. Besides, these textbooks have been examined along side with
the textbooks of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra
states.
Another clarification has to be given here. Whatever we have done
in the committees is only revision, it is not the total preparation of the
textbooks. Therefore, the structure of the already prepared textbooks
have in no way been affected or distorted. They have only been revised
in the background of gender equality, regional representation, national
integrity, equality and social harmony. While doing so, the curriculum
frames of both central and state have not been transgressed. Besides,
the aspirations of the constitution are incorporated carefully. Further, the
reviews of the committees were once given to higher expert committees for
examination and their opinions have been inculcated into the textbooks.
Finally, we express our grateful thanks to those who strived in all
those 27 committees with complete dedication and also to those who
served in higher committees and experts of revised text also. At the same
time, we thank all the supervising officers of the Textbook Society who
sincerely worked hard in forming the committees and managed to see the
task reach it’s logical completion. We thank all the members of the staff
who co-operated in this venture. Our thanks are also due to the subject
experts and to the associations who gave valuable suggestions.
VII
Text Book Revision committee
cHaiRMan in cHieF
Prof. Baraguru Ramachandrappa, Chairman, State Textbook Revision Committee,
K.T.B.S. Bengaluru.
cHaiRPeRSon
Dr. aswathanarayana, Professor, Department of History, University of Mysore, Mysuru.
MeMBeRS
Dr. aswathanarayana, Professor, Department of History, Bangalore University,
Bengaluru-56.
Dr. J. Somashekar, Professor, Department of Political Science, Vijayanagar Sri
Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari.
Dr. H.D. Prashant, Professor, Department of Developmental Studies, Kannada
University, Hampi, Vidyaranya.
Dr. S.T. Bagalkoti, Professor, Department of Studies in Economics, Karnatak
University, Dharwad.
Prof. P. Mallappa, Professor (Retd.), Department of Geography, J.S.S. College, Mysuru.
Dr. B. Shekhar, Professor, Department of Studies and Research in Commerce, Tumkur
University, Tumakuru.
Sri a.S. Dikshit, Principal (Retd.), Vani Education Centre, Basaveswaranagar,
Bengaluru-79.
Sri iaranna M. ambi, Asst. Teacher, G.H.S. Tadakodu, Dharwad Taluk and District.
Sri D.n. Venkatesh, Drawing Teacher, G.H.S. Uramarkasalagere, Mandya Taluk and
District.
ScRUTiniZeRS
Sri. ashok V.Shettar, Associate Professor, Deparment of History and Archaeology,
Karnatak Univesity, Dharwad.
Dr. M.S. Talawar, Professor (Retd.), Deparment of Studies in Education, Bangalore
University, Bengaluru.
Dr. Dhasharath naik, Professor, Department of Economics, Gulbarga University,
Kalaburagi.
Dr. Haseen Taj, Professor, Deparment of Studies in Education, Bangalore University,
Bengaluru.
TRanSlaToRS
Sri R. Sadananda, Lecturer, Government Pre University College, Arkalavadi,
Chamarajnagar District.
Sri nisar ahamad, Lecturer, Government Pre University College, Kamalapura, Hosapete,
Ballari District.
cHieF aDViSoR
Sri. narasimhaiah, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru- 85.
Smt. nagamani, c., Deputy Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85.
PRoGRaMMe cooRDinaToR
Sri a. T. Rangadasappa, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85.
VIII
conTenTS
Sl. Page no
no.
HiSToRY
1. SOURCES 1
PoliTical Science
2. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 98
IX
SocioloGY
1. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY 129
2. CULTURE 140
GeoGRaPHY
1. THE EARTH–OUR LIVING PLANET 159
2. LITHOSPHERE 166
3. ATMOSPHERE 182
4. HYDROSPHERE 194
5. BIOSPHERE 202
econoMicS
1. INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS 208
BUSineSS STUDieS
1. COMPONENTS OF BUSINESS STUDIES 245
X
History
CHapter - i
sourCes
in this chapter you learn :
• Sources required to the study of history.
• Types of sources of history.
• Importance of the archaeological sources.
• Importance of the inscription.
• Importance of Oral sources in history
1
can bring the contemporary social life of the times of the writer alive to
us. A literary work portrays the then existing aspects of life either directly
or indirectly. There are two types in written literary forms.
Native Literature: The literature created by Indians in native
languages is called as the Native Literature. Literary works in
Sanskrit, Prakruth, Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri,
Gujarathi, Oriya and in many others native languages are the
sources. Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’, King Hala’s “Gathaspathasathi’,
Vishaka Dutta’s ‘Mudrarakshas’, Kalhana’s ‘Rajatarangini’, Banabhatta’s
‘Harsha Charitha’, Chand Bhardayi’s ‘Prithiviraja Raso’, Pampa’s
‘Vikramarjunavijaya’, sangam literature, and many other such literary
works can be named as native literature. These works portray then
contemporary social, religious, economic, cultural and political life of
people.
Foreign Literature : Many foreigners who visited India as travellers,
ambassadors, businessmen, officials and missionaries have recorded
their observations and experiences in their works. These works are
considered as foreign literature. Megasthanese’s ‘Indica’, Fa-hien’s
-Gho-ko-ki’, Hiuen Tsang’s ‘Si-yu-ki’, Tolemy’s ‘Geography’, Ferishta’s
‘Tarikh-i-Ferishtha’, Babar’s ‘Tuzk-e-Babri’, and others are the important
sources. Apart from these, there are many other writings that serve
as the sources. In these works also one can get the depiction of then
contemporary social, political, economic, cultural and administrative
aspects.
Exaggeration, hyperbole and loyalty to one’s master are apparent
in native literature. Similarly in foreign literature, due to lack of local
knowledge, many misgivings are recorded. These are the drawbacks of
written literary sources. Historians have the challenge of writing history
keeping in mind all these limitations.
2. oral Literautre
Oral literature means the folk story, folk songs, folk legends,
ballads, and others that pass on from one person to another by word of
mouth. Since the beginning of human life, human beings are passing
on their experiences in the form story, songs, and ballads orally from
generation to generation. The folk people have created ballads about
their local heroes. There are ballads on Kumararama, the Nayakas of
2
Chitradurga, Kempegowda, Tippu Sultan, Sangolli Rayanna, Kittur
Chennamma, Sindhoora Laxamana, Meadows Taylor and others.
Legends mean the local mythological stories. Every place will have their
own legends. There are legends behind the names and places like
Shravanbelagola, Bengaluru, Koppala, Patadakallu, Gokarna and
Mysuru. Similarly, every village and town have their own legends.
archaeological sources
Archaeological sources are divided into four types :
1. Inscriptions. 2. Coins. 3. Monuments. 4. Other ruins.
Archaeological sources are available not only on the surface of the
earth but also hidden deep in the depths of the Earth. The hidden things
in the earth are dug out by using scientific methods. This process is
called as excavation. Harappan civilisation came to light only due to the
process of excavation. During excavation, ruins of buildings, inscriptions,
coins, terracotta pieces, bangles, seals, beads, bone pieces, metal and
others have been found. These are analysed by applying various scientific
methods to understand the life of people of those times.
inscriptions : Inscriptions mean engraved
writing. Inscriptions are written on stone, rock,
metal, ivory, terracotta and other materials
that last longer. Inscriptions are more reliable
as these have a direct relationship with
then events. Ashoka’s inscriptions are the
earliest inscriptions found in India. Most of
his inscriptions are in Bhramhi script. Their
language is Prakrit. Thousands of inscriptions
are found in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Sanskrit,
Prakrit languages. Samudra Gupta’s Allahabad
pillar inscription, Immadi Pulukeshi’s
Aihole inscription, Kharavela’s Hathigumpa
inscription and other inscriptions portray the
inscription
military achievements of then rulers. The
Uttarameruru inscription narrate the rural administration of
Chola kings. Apart from this, many political, social, cultural, economic,
educational, religious aspects are reflected in these inscriptions.
3
Coins : Though the coins are small in shape,
they contain many important aspects. They
are helpful in understanding the geographical
extent of the ruler’s kingdom who minted
the coins. They also aid us in knowing the
language of administration, titles that the kings
possessed their religion, economic conditions
of the times and metal technology in vogue of
the particular kingdoms. Samudra Gupta had
minted seven different types of gold coins.
Based on the pictures on those coins, it is
said that Samudra Gupta was a lover of music
and he had conducted Ashwamedha Yaga too.
Gouthamiputra Shakarani got the name of
Coins
Nahapana erased on his coins, and engraved his
name on them. This supports the view that Gouthamiputra had defeated
Nahapana. The availablitiy of Roman coins in Bengaluru proves the fact
that this region had trade link with Romans two thousand years back.
Monuments : Monuments are the major sources to write history.
Palaces, temples, forts and pillars etc,. are the monuments only.
Meharuli’s iron pillar and Vijayapura’s whispering Golgumbuz
are the evidences of the maturity of then Science and Technical
knowledge. Shajahan’s Tajmahal tells the story of love. Chitor’s
Vijayastamba (victory pillar) tells the victory of Ranakumbh. The cave
pictures and engravings of Elephanta, Ellora and Ajanta narrate the
mastery over painting and sculpture during their time. The temples of
Aihole and Patadakallu explain the evolution of Indian temple architecture.
The monuments of Nalanda and the architecture of Madrasas built by
Gawan in Bidar narrate the importance given to education during those
times. The fort of Srirangapatana explains the accomplishments in the
area of defence technology. Thus, the monuments throw light on then
contemporary religious aspects, technology, economic growth, scientific
knowledge and creativity achieved.
other ruins : Based on the various pieces of terracoata, bangles,
beads and seal procured during the examination, one can understand
the socio cultural, economic, political and religious life of then people.
Not only this, one can also understand the food habits and pattern of
business of those times. By applying carbon-14 dating procedure on
4
the biological ruins (dead animals, birds and trees) found in these
sites, one can arrive at the accurate period of the ruins. Budha stupas
came to light during excavations at Sannathi in Yadagiri District and
Rajagatta of Doddaabalapura Taluk. In the excavations conducted at
Arikamedu and Patanam in Tamilnadu a large number of evidences
were found that speak of commercial contact between South India and
Romans. Like this, the remains found at excavations tell many things
that were lost over a period of time.
You should know
C-14 - Radio active carbon. This should be done only to the biological
fossils (tree, birds, plants, and animals). In every being, the C-14 and C-12 will
be present in equal amounts. After the death of the living being, C-12 remains
constant, but C-14 starts losing its volume. It loses half of C-14 by 5700 years.
If one can estimate the levels of C-12 and C-14, one can estimate the accurate
age of the fossil. Fossils which are ten thousand years old can also be identified
using this carbon dating method.
exerCises
i. answer the following after a discussion with your classmates:
1. How do historians write history?
2. What is the meaning of source? How many types are there?
3. Name any two native literary works.
4. Name any two foreign writers.
5. What is the source which has more reliability for writing history?
6. Explain the importance of coins in the writing of history.
7. What are the aspects on which monuments throw more light?
8. By what method, the age of biological fossils can be dicided?
ii. activities :
1. With the help of your teachers collect the legends of your village/
town. Make a hand written book and place it in the school library.
2. By understanding a study tour prepare the list of monuments
and their uniqueness.
5
CHapter–2
Odisha
Telangana
i
vath
ara
Am
Puducherry
is vast and stretches over 6,100 kms. The eastern coastline is called the
Coromandel Coast, whereas the western coastline is referred as Konkan
and Malabar coast. The numerous ports on this coastline had attracted
the Romans from time immemorial. Foreign trade was carried on in those
7
days only through sea-routes. As a result, port towns flourished resulting
in the rise of powerful kingdoms in South like the Pandyas, the Cheras
and the Cholas.
Weapons
The New Stone Age began after 10,000 years. The stone tools of this
period are different from those of the earlier periods. These tools were
bright and had sharp edges. People of this age used grinding stones for
grinding leaves and herbs and grains and cereals. Some pots and pans
11
of this period have been found, a few of which have been decorated. Pots
were used for storing grains. They were also used for cooking rice, wheat
and other grains and cereals. People of this age had learnt to weave cloth.
exerCises
iii. activity :
1. Visit a cave and learn more about it from your teacher.
12
CHapter–3
13
The significance of the cities
We can see two or more parts in the cities of Harappa. The western
part is narrow and at an elevated place. Archaeologists are of the view
that this was a citadel. The eastern part is wide and at a lower level. This
area has been called the lower town. Every part had a wall made of burnt
bricks. Since the bricks around them, were placed in an interlocking
manner, the walls were very strong.
There were note worthy buildings inside
the citadel. Mohenjo-Daro, one of the cities,
had a water tank. Scholars have called this
as the bath tank. It is built of brick so as to
prevent the seepage of water from the tank.
The Bath tank has steps on either sides to go
down, and has rooms all around. The water
was probably supplied to the tank by a well,
and the used water was let out. Probably very
important people used to take bath in this
pool on special occasions. Fire alters have
been discovered in other cities like
Kalibangan and Lothal. Mohenjo-Daro, Bronze dancing girl
Harappa and Lothal had constructed
systematic granaries.
14
town planning
The lower town in the low lying area of the city was the place of
habitation of the people. It was constructed in a very methodical
manner. Systematically laid-out houses, roads and drains can be seen
here. Almost every person lived in either one or two-storied house. The
houses were built of bricks and had strong walls. There were rooms all
around the courtyard inside. The main door faced the street. None of the
windows opened onto the streets. There were bathrooms in the houses.
Some houses had wells which supplied water.
The cities had a neatly laid-out underground sewage system. The
drains were built of brick and covered with stone slabs. The gutter of
each house was linked to the main drain outside, and enabled the flow of
dirty water from the house to the main drain. Holes were created in the
drains to enable timely cleaning of them.
town Life
Apart from houses, precious stones and metals were also found.
Most of the objects found were beads and seals. The layout of the town
reveals the existence of administrative class. The people of this place
may have used expensive metals, gems and jewellery. The beads were
probably used by the common people. There is an unknown script on
the seals. This reveals that there was no dearth of literate people. This
enabled the engraving of scripts on thousands of seals.
The people of Harappan culture had depended on agriculture and
trade. Wheat, Barley, pulses and mustard were their main crops. They
had learnt to grow cotton and weave cloth from it. We can say that
they knew irrigation since many towns were situated on the banks of
rivers. They had domesticated the humped bull, cow, buffalo, sheep,
goat, dog and hen, and were engaged in cattle-rearing, sheep-rearing and
poultry. Oxen were used to carry heavy loads. Trade and commerce had
assumed primary importance along with agriculture. The towns carried
on business with rural areas. Baluchistan, Saurashtra and the Deccan
were some of these areas. The seals obtained at Mesopotamia establish
the fact that the Indus Valley Civilization had trade relations with it.
rig-Veda period
Rig –Veda is the first among all the Vedas. The language used, the
geographical and social situations depicted in it justifies this. Rig–Veda
has 1028 sukthas or prayer songs. They are grouped under 10 Mandalas.
All these sukthas were not complied in a single time. Historians opine
that there was a gap of five hundred years between the initial text and
the last text of Rig-Veda.
The language used in Rig-Veda belongs to Indo-European family
of languages. The geography discussed in Rig-Veda extends from
Afghanistan’s Hindukush mountain to doab of Ganga and Yamuna rivers
(Doab is the area between two rivers – the western part of present Uttar
Pradesh state) and from Kashmir to Sindh in the northern boundaries.
social system: At the time of their entry into India there were three
communites among Aryans viz Aristocracy, Priestly class and common
people. Caste conciousness had not yet emerged. We get the picture of
an emerging social system in the ‘Purushasukta’ that appears in the
10th Mandala of Reg-veda (Probably during 1000 BCE). According to this
the gods created Adipurusha whose mouth became Brahmanas;
Shoulders became Kshatriyas; thighs became Vyshyas and Shudras
were born from his Feet. Thous, an effort was made to provide divine
and mythicalbackground to the birth of caste. There is no mention of the
word Varna’ here. In the later Vedas the word Varna’ appears. The first
three ‘Varnas’ performed the roles in rituals, administration and busi-
ness and had the right for property.
The fourth Varna ‘Shudhra’ comes during the last stage of Rig-Veda.
The local tribal groups; Dasyu, Paani, and Dasa form this shudra varna.
Aryans after defeating the local tribes Dasa and Dasyu, made them work
as their slaves. The wealth that was accumulated after winning in battles
and their unequal sharing resulted in the growth of social discriminations.
The first three varnas had the right over expanding agriculture and lands.
The Shudhras were forced to work for the first three Varnas. It was told
as their duty. The patriarchal family was the main social unit.
17
economic system : Rig-Vedic people were basically into animal
husbandry. According to the Rig-Vedic compilers, wealth meant cows,
horses, camels and sheep. Still, cultivated land was considered as
part of wealth. There are details of the emergence of agriculture as a
profession. Anyone could have obtained land and could have owned
it. Importance of cattle increased as they were used for tilling, to lift
water, and to move carts and expansion of agriculture. They were
also useful for their milk and meat. On the whole, the need to own
cattle herds grew more. With this, village common meadow (grass
lands for grazing) came into existence.
They were not aware of the usage of iron. But, they were using
‘mature and processed plants’ as charcoal to melt metals. The brass,
an alloy was called as ‘Ayas’. Though there are references of pots, there
is no reference to pottery as a profession. Situational references
appear in Rig-veda on crafts like weaving, carpentry and other
professional skills. The word ‘Pani’ is referred to in Rig-Veda many times.
This was used to refer to a local rich tribe. They knew agriculture.
In Rig-Veda the cultivable land is called as ‘Kshetra’ and cultivation
is called as ‘Krushi’. An irrigated land belonging to Aligram of Swat valley
has been found and it belongs to 11th century BCE. There is reference to
stone pulley with wood cups to lift water from a well. Oxen were used to
pull carts and ploughs. They were used to pull water by using rope and
pulley, the lifted water was flown into broader canals. With the help of
this technology, the agriculture that was limited to areas closer to rivers,
expanded to areas which had higher level of underground water table.
There are references to preservation of seeds in the underground and
also of harvested grains. Yava’ is identified as Barely.
political system : A reference to Grama (village) appears in
Rig-Veda. Tribes were living in gramas (Villages). Rajan or Raja was the
head of the tribes. The names of Rajas were related to their specific tribes.
Some tribes may have had more than one Raja. The position of Raja was
hereditary. ‘Trukshi’ of Puru clan and ‘Sudhas’ of Bharatha clan are the
examples for this.
In the political activities the invasion and suppression of on non-
Aryan tribes like Dasyu and Paani by the Aryans one of the major
18
parts Rig-Veda considers Dasyu and Paani as inhuman, aliens and
killable There are references to this conflict between Aryans and
non-Aryans in Rig-Veda.
The words ‘Sabha’ and ‘samithi’ were used to denote the assembly
of common people around the King. The people who ruled over common
people are called as Kashatra’. The one who fights or a soldier was called
as ‘Yodha’. The word Kshaytriya was not in use. Kings and the rich had
power. concentrated in them. They were gifting cows, horses, gold and
cultivation tools to priestly class. Invasions and conflicts used to take
place for cattle. Those who were successful in these invasions increased
their wealth and could also get prisoners.
religious system : Yagna was the epicentre of religious practices.
During the Yagna animal sacrifices were done to appease Gods. Yagnas
were organised primarily for two reasons: to get good rains and harvest
and to seek the help of Gods to defeat their enemies like dasyus.
The priest who conducted the Yagna was called as ‘Hothru’. Dur-
ing Yagna, the reciting of slokas and consumption of Soma (a drink) was
done. There was no idol worship in Aryans religion. They were also not
using any animal, human or other symbols.
More prominence was given to Fire (Agni) in Rig-Veda period.
There are around 200 shlokas on Fire. Around 250 shlokas dedicated
to lord Indra expouse that Indra brings rains, defeats the enemies of
Aryans – the Dasyus and Dasas, eats buffaloes and gets drunk with
Soma rasa. Vishnu had not gained prominence then. At a later stage,
Rudra appears as Shiva in Rig-Veda. There are no references to beliefs
to incarnations. Mahayagas were preformed by the rulers and heads
of various tribes, and were led by priests.
When the hold of priestly class was insignificant during the early
Rig-Veda period references to minor God of cultivation –‘Kshetrasya Pathi’,
God of plough ‘Devi Sita’, and minor house deity ‘Vasutosh-pathi’ are found.
There are many such references to the religion of common people. In the
last part of Rig-Veda, there are Shlokas on marriage and death. The people
of Rig-Vedic time did not know the art of writing. The language was
based on phonetics. only spoken. There are similarities in the characters
and names that are found in Rig-Veda and Indo-Iranian religious text
‘Avesta’.
19
post rig-Veda period
After Rig-Veda, ‘Sama-Veda’, ‘Yajur-Veda’ and ‘Atharva-Veda’
appeared as the continuation and contributory to it. These are named
after three priests who conduct three different types of ‘Yagnas’:
Samaan (Udgaathri = Singer), Adhvaryu (the one who recites Yajus
suthras), and Atharvan (Angira=Priest of Agni).
Sama-Veda has taken much from the Rig-Veda and with few
alterations of the borrowed content, it manily consisted of the slokas
(mantras) that are recited at the time of Yagna. Yajur-Veda has two
different types of text called ‘Black’ (Krishna) and White (Shukla). In
the black Yajur-Veda, there areexplanations about the way of reciting
mantras, and also has commentary and discussions on the same.
The White Yajur-Veda has only ‘mantras’ but no explanations. There is
a reference to Iron in these. Hence, we can conclude that this Veda is
not before 1000BCE.
Atharva-Veda is similar to Rig-Veda in its size and content. It
has taken much from the tenth Mandala of Rig-Veda. It is in prose
form. It has used the language of ‘Brahamanas’ rather than the
ancient language. The geographical details in this Veda are different
the found in Rig-Veda. This shows that Aryans had moved to the East
by that time.
social system : The four divisions of Brahamana, Kshtriya, Vyshya
and Shudra that are found in the last part of Rig-Veda as part of
‘Purushasukta’, incorporating certain changes became more strong.
Brahmins used to accept gifts for conducting Yagnas and rituals. In
owning lands, receiving cows, offering pooja and in matters related to
God Brahmins had gained a more prominent position.
Rajanya indicates the Kshatriya Varna. Those who had the political
power were called Kshatriya irrespective of their origin. Rajanyas who
were soldiers trained in archery and could wage war in chariots, gained
a lot of importance. The word ‘Vyshya’ is found here and there. They
were supposed to offer gifts to others. They could have been subjected
to exploitation to one’s whims and fancies. They neither had the right to
perform Yagnas nor a right to enter the place of Yagna. They were placed
lower than the first two Varnas and still remained as Aryans.
20
Shudras were part of the varna system, but were kept at the
lower end of it. But, Dasyus and Dasas were kept outside the Varna
system. Slowly, they were integrated to Shudra Varna. Though the
Shudras were accepted as part of the varna system, they were not
given any rights They could have been thrown out or killed at any
time. Shudras were not allowed to perform Yagna. It was held that the
sacred Guru not only should disown a shudra, he even should not see
a shudra. Some times the Shudras could have come from tribes like
Dassyu, Dasa and others. Some of the early food collecting tribes like
‘Nishaada’ and ‘Chaandala’ were grouped as untouchables.
Women were placed at the lowest position in the social hierarchy.
Women are considered as the embodiment of ‘Lies’. There is a reference
to Dowry’ in Athrava-Veda. There was no proper benefit for the women’s
work. There was no practice of child marriage. Polygamy was prevalent
among the rich and powerful. The widow could remarry.
economic system : By the time of post Rig-Vedic period, Aryans
moved from Sindhu river area to Ganga river area. For this they had to
destroy the forests. With the help of fire, they brunt the forest and cleared
the land for agriculture and in the process these tribes reached the plains of
Uttarpradesh. The scarcity of water in the doab region of Sutlej and
Yamuna made them move towards the river Ganga plains. Iron axes
were used to chop off trees. There is a reference to six and eight oxen
driven plough in Athrava-Veda. Twelve oxen driven plough is referred to in
Yajur-Veda. This proves that the usage of oxen in agriculture increased.
The following crops find reference in the text of Vedas :
1. Paddy. 2. Barely. 3. Black gram. 4. Green Gram 5. Sesame.
6. Horse gram. 7. Foxtail millet. 8. Common Finger millet. 9. Poor’s
Finger millet. 10. Kaadu Nellu. 11. Wheat. 12. Masoor. Excluding
Kaddu Nellu, nine out of twelve crops discussed above were cultivated before
1500BCE as per the archaeological evidences. In another Suktha, sugar cane
(Ikshu) is mentioned as the thirteenth crop.
At this stage of Aryans life agriculture became more important than
the hunting and animal husbandry. Whoever that was not involved
in agriculture and business were called as ‘Vyathras’ which meant
‘Outsider’. Oxen became more important for agriculture and transport
21
of goods. It was in this background, the idea that one should not eat
cows and oxen took its root and became an important issue. But this
prohibition was not acceptable to all. The wealth of a person was
calculated on the number of cattle that he possessed.
There is a reference to metals like gold, copper, iron, lead, brass
and tin in vedas. Silver is also referred to in the vedic texts As per the
archaeological evidences, there is no indication of iron mining and
preparation before 1000BCE in the river Ganga and river Sindhu
areas. It is believed that the technology of converting iron to steel
was first found in west Asia and then later moved towards eastern
countries after 10BCE. The knowledge of this technology in northern
India before 8BCE is very bleak. The iron artecrafts that were found
in Athranjikhera (West Uttar Pradesh) support this observation.
Know this :
The preparation of chariots as a reason had accorded respectable position
to carpentry. wooden mortar and wooden pestle were in use. With the increase
in metal tools, probably the stone usage would have decreased. Pottery making
was in practice. Women were engaged in spinning. They were also involved in
dying the cloths, washing cloths and embroidery works.
One can note the increase in specialised professions during this period.
There were professionals like: makers of arrows and bow, rope makers, bamboo
makers, ointment making women, firewood makers, fire makers, horse tenders,
cowherds, hunters, fishermen, smiths, businessmen, doctors, astrologers and
others.
The growth of cities was not much during this period. The word ‘Pur’ that
comes in ‘Shathapatha Brahmana’ probably indicates a one door dwelling
surrounded by fencing and wall with good protection. There is no reference to
cities that had roads, stores, fairs or housing rows in post Vedic texts. Probably
the economy was not strong enough to support cities.
political system : The South East geographical edge during the
final stages of Rig-Veda now became the central location of Aryans. This
place was inhabited by Kuru, Panchala, Vasha, Usheena tribes. The
present Kurukshetra was the habitat of Kuru tribe. Kosala and Videha
tribes were present at the east end of Aryan’s settlement. That means
they were living in the north east of present Uttar Pradesh and the north
Bihar areas. Tribes were the major controlling of the political system.
During Atharva Veda period Angas were living in the east Bihar and
22
the Magadh tribe in central Bihar, south of the river Ganga. These tribes
were considered as enemies by the sages. The Pundras who were to the
far east and Andhras of the south were called as untouchables. These
tribes were still not influenced by Aryan ways of life and language. This
means that the political system of tribes continued even during the time
of Atharva Veda.
The arrival of Indo-Aryans to the banks of river Ganga and
tranians at the Indian border and west Punjab due to their invasion.
The Vedic tribes with superior archery and chariots won over the local
tribes living on the banks of river Ganga. The usage of iron after 800BCE
has supported this victory.
The improved military power of Vedic tribes helped them to extend
their geographical limits. As a result, powerfull kingships emerged.
A king is described in Atharva vedas as ‘the one who rules all is like
a God in human form.’ As the accumulation of wealth and power
increased attempts were made in levels the King as equal to the God
or the representative of the God. More references to sacrifices, taxes
and gifts o ccur at this stage. Many complex and wealth indicating
rituals grew around the King. A coronation ceremony to mark the
ascendance to the throne by the King called ‘Rajasooya’ came into
existence. As a symbol of king’s power ‘Ashwamedha Yaga’ gained
importants.
religious system : The religious beliefs and rituals of Rig-Veda
continued along with changes and additions during post Rig-Vedic
period. Rudra’ and Vishnu’ had gained a significant postiton during
post Rig-Vedic period. They became important Gods along the vedic
Gods during the time when Brahmans developed as an appendage to
the vedas. There are no direct references to Vishnu’s incarnations.
It is said that by imbibing the local gods, Rudra also took over the
legends and mythology of them unto himself. It was believed all things
that happen in this world are the result of Yagnas and such notions were
incorporated into puranas (Mythological stories).
In ‘Upnishads’, new concepts like ‘Karma’ and ‘rebirth of the soul’
were created. This aided the place of a person in the caste system which
is based on birth. This became the most important philosophcal base for
the continuation of the caste system in its institutionalised form.
23
Know this :
On the occasion of the Ashwamedha yaga a special horse belonging to a per-
ticular king would be let loose. A contingent of specially-trained soldiers would
follow it. Whichever places the horse wandered into, the king of that land would
accept the sovereignty of the horse’s owner and pay tributes to him. If anyone
stopped and tied the horse, that act would be seen as a challenge and a battle
between the two kings would follow. In this manner the horse would return after
one year having victoriously conquered all the terriotories.It was then that the
Ashwamedha yaga was performed. It was the desire of most of the kings.
exerCises
iii. activities
1. Prepare a plan of Mahenjo-Daro or Harappa civilisation.
2. Read few stories from Upanishads.
24
CHapter – 4
25
their liesure engaged themselves in the creation of artistic works. The
role of priest was created to interpret nature and explain it. The priests
were scholars and shouldered the responsibility of protecting written
documents. They believed in life after death. They believed that man
had to give an account of his deeds on Earth to Osiris, the most
powerful God of Life and Death. The priests considered that life on Earth
was temporary and was needed only to prepare for the next life. Thus
the whole of the Nile valley was reserved for the dead. The dead body
would be smeared with various chemicals and wrapped with a thin
cloth. The entire body was in this way preserved. The body protected
thus was called a ‘mummy’. It would be kept in a specially designed
coffin. The grave was considered the true place’ for an Egyptian. Hence
all around the dead body, items needed for daily use and small dolls of a
cook and barber would be kept to fulfil all future needs.
In the beginning, graves were
created by carving into
the rocks in the hills. As the
Egyptians moved north, they
had to construct graves in the
desert itself. Tall towers were
built on these graves using
huge blocks of stone in order
to protect the eternal sleep of
the dead. Kings and wealthy
people vied with each other to
pyramid
build taller and taller towers.
The Greeks called these structures ‘Pyramids’. The kings of Egypt were
called ‘Pharaohs’. ‘Pharaoh’ means ‘a person who lives in a palatial
house’. The peasants who had accepted the rule of powerful Osiris, now
accepted the rule of Pharaohs too.
After an independent, prosperous life for twenty centuries, Egypt was
ruled over by an Arabian shepherd tribe called Hyksos which attacked
it and after defeating it, ruled for 500 years. They looted the wealth of
the natives, and hence did not become popular. The Jews who came
wandering through the deserts in serch of shelter were also hated by
the people of Egypt. By cooperating with the foreign rule the Jews even
assisted them in collecting taxes and in administration.
26
In 1700 B.C.E. the people of Thebes rose in revolt against the
foreigners. After a prolonged conflict, they succeeded in driving Hyksos
out of their country. Egypt became free once again. After a thousand
years, it came under the rule of Sardanapalus of Assyria.
The Persian Emperor Cambyses occupied Egypt in the 6th Century
B.C.E. Alexander occupied Persia in the 4th Century B.C.E. Egypt became
a province of Macedonia. One of Alexander’s military generals declared
himself the King of Egypt and established the dynasty of the ptolemies.
He founded the city of Alexandria. At last came the Romans in 39 B.C.E.
The last Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, tried her best to save her country.
It was said that the Romans feared her beauty more than her troops.
Twice she was successful in her attack upon the hearts of the her Roman
conquerors. However, in 30 B.C.E., Caesar’s successor, his son-in-law,
Augustus, did not succumb to her beauty like his father-in-law, but
defeated her army, though he spared her life. When he planned to carry
her away along with the other spoils of the battle, Cleopatra consumed
poison and ended her life. From then onwards, Egypt became a province
of Rome.
The Chinese Empire consisted of many small provinces. Seven big states
were created bringing these smaller provinces under them. Every state that
was created thus, constructed a wall along its boundary for protection.
Emperor Qin Shihuangti ordered that the walls of the northern chinese states be
connected. This enabled the northern walls to ward off the attacks of
invaders from the north. The construction of the great wall began in the 7th
century B.C.E. and continued till the 16th century. The worn-out parts were
repaired and strengthened. When the work was completed it stretched to
more than 5000 kilometers. It is one of the seven wonders of the world.
30
The Chinese used to wear thin cotton dresses. They used silk too,
and engaged in silkworm-rearing. Silk- manufacturing was a prominent
industry. The Chinese used to make excellent pots, and had learnt to
make various objects from porcelain. It was a custom of the Chinese to
worship their ancestors. They believed that a dead man became a spirit
and that the spirit had special powers. The dead body was buried along
with various wooden articles, pots, bronze vessels and other objects. The
tombs of kings used to be quite large. The Chinese tradition of writing
began with pictures and got transformed into an ideographic script.
Writers used to write on silk and bamboo slips. Porcelain and the Great
Wall are the exceptional contributions of this culture.
exerCises
i. Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in the
blanks:
1. Hieroglyphics are called _____________.
2. The kings who ruled Egypt are called ___________.
3. The Greeks referred to Mesopotamia as ___________.
4. The most famous king of the Amorites is __________.
ii. Match the following :
a B
1. Hwang Ho River a. Mesopotamia
2. Cuneiform b. King of the Amorites
3. Cleopatra c. Shang
4. Hammurabi d. China
5. Chinese dynasty e. the last Egyptian queen
31
CHapter – 5
Greek Civilization
Greece is a peninsula in Mediterranean Sea. Aegean Sea
separates Greece from Asia Minor. Since the Balkan mountain
range passes through the middle of Greece, small hills and valleys
divide Greece. Since all the parts of Greece are connected by Sea, Greeks
could strengthen their navy. The Greeks belong to Indo-European race.
The ancient Greek was called as Hellen’s. Because their forefather was
Hellen this name had come. Later, the Italians called Hellenes as the
Greek. There were many tribes communities like Ayoulian, Ayonian and
Dorius among the ancient Greeks.
City states :
Three thousand years back every tribe had a king and every king had
an advisory committee of senior citizens. As the industries and business
increased, the villages of the tribes slowly grew into small towns and later
into cities. Later, these became the city states. The city states are called
as ‘Polis’ in Greek language. The Greeks were basically loyal to their city
but not the country. Every city state had its own army, city God and
administration. Though the city states had maintained their separate
identity, culturally they were similar. The Greek language, Homer’s
epic poetry, Olympic games, and Greek Gods were able to knit Greeks
together. Athens and Sparta were the two important city states of Greece.
athens :
Athens is the capital of Attica state. This was an ideal democratic
city state in Greece. It had monarchy in the beginning and later had
developed into oligarchy. The rich were electing an administrator named
32
‘Archon.’ A person by name Draco enforced inhuman laws in Athens.
These were later modified and made human friendly by Solaan. After
Solaan, anarchy set in Athens. The middle class and the working
class that had emerged due to commerce, business and industries
joined hands and played a significant role in removing the dictators
and restoring back democracy. Later the age of Pericles started.
His period is called as the Golden Age of Athens. During the time
of Pericles, art, literature, science, philosophy and other fields of
knowledge flourished. As result of this Athens was called as The School
of Hellas’ by Pericles. Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
belonged to Athens.
sparta : Sparta, the city state of Darien tribe, was the military
state of Greek. Boys who attained the age of seven were separated
from their family and were given rigorous military training. They were
recruited to military after twelve years of training. Due to this, Sparta
city state had a strong military strength.
Athens and Sparta had successfully encountered the invasion
of Persian King Darius united and defeated the Persian forces in the
marathon battle. Later, Athens state organized a federation of city states
called ‘Confederacy of Delos’, that took the shape of an empire. This
stimulated enemity between Athens and Sparta. As a result two
Peloponnesian wars were fought against by these two states. Finally,
Athens lost to Sparta and became a feudatory state of Sparta. Though
Athens lost to Sparta militarily, culturally it overpowered Sparta.
By 5 B.C.E., due the invasion of Persia and the internal wars between
Athens and Sparta Greek civilization lost its importance.
religion : The Greek Gods like human beings had desires and
aspirations. Greeks believed that these Gods resided on the Olympus
mountain. Zeus is the most important God. Hera is his wife. Apart from
them, Greeks worshipped Apollo, Aphrodite, Ares and other gods. Athena
was the patron goddess of the Athens city. Zeus temple is located at
Olympia. All the ancient city states participated in Olympic Games held
at Olympia.
education and Literature: The Greek had a great tradition of teacher
philosophers. Socrates was the teacher of Plato, and Plato was the
teacher of Aristotle. Alexander, the King of Macedonia, was the
illustrious student of Aristotle. Plato had founded a learning
33
institution named ‘Academy’. Aristotle founded a learning centre by
name ‘Lyceum’ Demosthenes was a great orator. Homer, the blind
poet, wrote two great epics ‘Iliad’ and ‘Odyssey’. These two epics
provide the details of life styles of then contemporary Greeks and
their socio-religious system. Iliad narrates the victory of Greeks over
Troy city and the Odyssey narrates the journey and adventures of
Greek hero Odysseus while coming back home from the victorious
battle of Troy. Herodotus and Thucydides are the important
historians. Herodotus is called the father of history. Aeschylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides are the important playwrights. Sophocles is
the most renowned playwright who wrote the plays ‘Oedipus the
King’ and ‘Antigone’.
art and architecture: Slavery was universal in Greeks. This
provided the Greeks ample leisure time and allowed them to engage
in various art forms. They sang using a string instrument called
‘Lyre’. Greeks excelled in music, theatre and dancing. Greeks made
tremendous achievements in the field of architecture, sculpture and
painting. Pericles built the Parthenon temple using white marble and
is a fine example of beautiful architecture. A Sculptor named Myron
has sculpted ‘discuss throwing athlete’s sculpture called ‘Diskobolos’.
Greek sculptors sculpted the realistic human shapes. Polygnatus was
the most famous painter of that period.
science: Pythagoras and Thales were the two stalwarts in
mathematics. Democritus who presented Atom theory vaguely and
Anaximander who advocated the evolutions of humans from fish are
the important scientists. Hippocrates, called as the ‘father of Medicine’
had mastered the method of providing medicines scientifically to human
diseases is from Greece.
sports : Greeks had given equal importance to both physical
growth and psychological growth. Hence, sports always had special
acceptance among Greeks. Sportsman had respectful status in
society. Different levels of sports events were organised. Olympics
Games stands unique among these regular sports events. It started
2759 years back in Olympia. Sportsmen from all the city states
represented their city states with much pride and happiness.
Greeks won the marathon battle against Persians 2500 years back.
A soldier named Pheidippides ran twenty four miles to deliver the news of
victory to Athens from the battle field. He died after delivering the news of
victory. In his honour, marathon running was added to Olympic Games.
34
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games began in Greece in 776 BCE. The Games, which were
held once every four years, were also used for measurement of time. They
used to be arranged in Olympia in Illis area as part of the Olympic festival.
This festival was celebrated in honour of the peace pact between Illis and Pisa
city-states. In the beginning there were only running races. This race over 200
metres was called ‘stadium’. Thus the term of measurement of distance was
‘stadia’. An olive branch used to be placed on the head of the winner in the race.
The Olympic Games were held for more than a thousand year. They came to an
end when the Christian Emperor of Byzantine Theodossus banned them in the
4th century C.E. The Olympic Games were revived in the 19th century under the
initiative of France. Even today olympic games are conducted once in 4 years.
Socrates
There are many anecdotes depicting Socrates intellectuality. The following
is one such ancedote. Athens city was known as the city intelligents. Once a
question arose among the intellectuals group. The question was there are many
intelligents in the city. Who is more intelligent among all? As they failed to find a
solution among themselves, they went and submitted before Athena, the patron
Goddes of the city. Athena says the most intelligent of the Athens is Socrates. So
intellectuals went in search of Socrates and located him. They asked him 'what
is the secret of your intelligence and how you are more intelligent than us'. On
hearing them Socrates answers like this 'I really don't know. Similarly you also
don't know. But I know that I don't know. But you don't know that you do not
know'. Thus he untolds the vastness of knowledge and philosophy.
35
Socrates
Socrates was the philosopher who taught the Western world to think
logically. Socrates was reknown for intellectuality and rationality. He gave a
philosophical basis for early Greek thought. He believed in politics, social system,
justice, morality, religion, patriotism, democracy, humanity and ethics. His
life was a struggle, suffering and adventure. His intellectuality was mainly
ethical. ‘Knowledge is virtue: virtue is knowledge’ – was the foundation of
Socratic thought. He did not develop his philosophical thought within four
walls. He used to carry on his intellectual excercise in the form of questions and
answers with strangers in the crowded areas like market-places, shops and streets.
Such thoughts of Socrates teaching enraged some Athenians and he
earned their hatred. Some prejudiced people heaped various accusations on
him in order to have him punished. As a result, the jury sentenced him to
death and threw him into prison. One month later the jury decided to give
him hemlock. Socrates told his students, “I’m not afraid of death, but I’m afraid
to go against religion and truth”. On the exceution, a jail attendant brought him
a cup of poison. Socrates drank the poison and left his earthly abode.
Plato
He is one of the famous philosophers of Greece. He was a disciple of Socrates
and advocated ideas of social justice and ethics, among others. He was the
architect of the idea of ‘Ideal Republic’.
He was disturbed by the life around him when the city of Athens was in
danger. In order to avoid social and political disintegration, he advocated
ethics, philosophy and education with respect to society and the nation. He was
a staunch supporter of education and started a school named ‘The Academy’ in
Athens. This became famous as the first University of Europe.
Significant among Plato’s scholorly works are ‘The Republic’ and ‘The Text and
History’. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle have been ancient Greece’s most
important philosophers. Proved tobe able to influence even the 20th
century political thoughts, Plato left Athens after the death of Socrates and
travelled to Greece, Egypt and Italy. He was a scholar who distinguished
himself not only in the field of Political Science but also in Mathematics and
Jurisprudence.
36
Aristotle
Aristotle is as important as Plato in the tradition of western Philosophy.
He was a disciple of Plato. The infuluence of Plato and Socrates are
prominent on the thinking of Aristotle. As Aristotle was the teacher and
admirer of Alexander, the great, he was opposed by some prejudiced
people. The number of enemies increased. Finally, by consuming poison he
comitted suicide. He has discussed on the structure of the best State and
its nature, status of women, slavery, extent of ownership of property,
citizenship, education, revolution, socialism and democracy. His thoughts
can be termed as the progression of Plato's thoughts. He established
‘Lyceum’ as a complementary to his teacher Plato’s school. He told his
students “I respect my teacher. But I respect the ‘Truth’ even more.” He studied
medicine and botany. He had studied deeply the ‘investigative techniques’ in
research. He was the student of Plato at the age seventeen. He knew about
Ethics, Aesthetics and early Greek Philosophy and was deeply influenced
by Plato on these aspects. Due to these traits, he became a close associate
of Alexander, the Great.
Roman Civilization
Italy is a peninsula spreading down into the Mediterranean Sea
towards the south of Europe. Alps mountain range is to the north of
Italy and Alpines mountain range passes through the centre of Italy.
Rome is on the banks of river Tiber. It is twenty five kilometres a way from
Mediterranean Sea. In the plains between Alpines and the Sea, a tribe
name Latins lived. Around 2700 years back people settled in the place
called Rome on the banks of river Tiber. The ancient people of Rome
were called as ‘Patricians’. The word Patrician originates from the
latin word ‘Pater’ which means 'father.' Romans beleived Romuls and
Remus as their forefathers.
Rome was under the rule of a monarchy. The Romans’ had
‘Assembly’ and a ‘Senate’, as two political advisory institutions. The
Assembly was made up of all the middle-aged men, whereas the Senate
was an elite institution which was very influential. The Senate had the
power to reject the proposals of the Assembly and the king. In the 6th
century B.C.E., monarchy was abolished and a republic was established.
Around 3rd century B.C.E. the administration of the whole of Italy came
under the republican states. Even under the Roman republic, the Senate
and the Assembly continued as advisory institutions. The members of
37
these institutions headed the armies during wars. They enforced the law
and dispensed justice.
There were two classes in the Roman society: the Patricians and
the Plebians. The Patricians were the elite in the society. They were
land-owners and formed the upper class. It is they who controlled the
Senate. The Plebians were the common people. They were the ordinary
workers, small land-owners, artisans, small traders and soldiers. Their
rights were limited. They were meant to pay taxes, and to undergo
punishment. The decisions taken by the Council and the Senate
regarding the Plebians could be rejected by the Tribunes. In the 5th
century B.C.E. the Plebians rebelled against this system. As a result, the
Patricians granted them some concessions. Thus the Plebians got the
right to choose the members of the Tribunes. It was around this time that
a rule-based on ‘Roman law’ was established. This provided awareness
over their rights and learnt to oppose the violation of their rights.
A desire for expansion exposed the Romans into newer conflicts.
Hence they batteled with Carthage, a coastal town in North Africa.
Sicily was a fertile area. The Romans fought for the control of this area for
118 years. These wars are referred to as the ‘Punic Wars’. The Carthegens
were defeated in this war. By early 1st century B.C.E., the Romans had
conquered Greece, parts of Asia and Egypt.
Conquests and victories had
enabled Rome to acquire vast
wealth and riches. Rome won over
a lot of gold and innumerable
slaves. Rome not only had
Patricians and Plebians but also
had slaves. The slaves did not
have the rights of citizenship. They
were the private property of their
owners. Slaves were also sold.
amphitheatre There were instances when the
slaves secured their freedom
under special conditions. The Romans who had immersed
themselves in their pride of status used the slaves as gladiators.
They amused at the combat of the gladiators from the amphitheatre.
A majority of the slaves and prisoners lost their lives in such games.
38
Gladiator
The wrestlers of ancient Rome were called Gladiators. There were both
expert and amateur wrestlers among them. The fights were organised to
entertain the spectators. These fights which were fought between human
beings, and sometimes between human beings and animals, ended in
gruesome deaths of the participants. The place where gladiators fought
were called as ‘Amphitheatre’ and ‘Colosseum’. Criminals, slaves and
prisoners-of-war who had lost their citizenship rights were taken as gladiators.
Gladiators, very rarely used to obtain their freedom by becoming popular and
wealthy. Recently, a film titled ‘Gladiator’ has become famous world-wide.
39
Caesar is called as the ‘Golden Period’ of Rome. Jesus Christ lived during
his period. Augustus undertook many welfare programmes. He himself
declares that he changed the Rome from mere bricks city into white
marble city. ‘Pax Romana’ was established. Pax Romana means peaceful
period of Rome.
After Augustus, except Markus Aurelius and Constantine, the
last rulers of Rome were incapable rulers. During this period a
barbaric attack by Odoacer led to the fall of the Ancient Roman
empire 1500 years ago.
Literature: Romans achieved a lot in the field of literature. Vergil
is Rome’s greatest poet. Aeneid was his epic poetry. Ovid is another
great poet. He has documented the mystical stories of Greet in his
book ‘Metamorphoses’. Apart from them poplar poets like Cicero,
Plutous, Terrance and others are known names. Julius Caesar himself
was a good historian. He has edited the Galic battles in seven volumes.
Levi and Tasicanus are important historians.
philosophy : Romans continued the philosophy and thoughts of
Greeks rather creating new ones. Cato who is known as the Socrates of
the West is of importance. Cicero, Seneca and Emperor Markus Aurelius
advocated Stoicism. It advocated ‘Living at peace with Nature’.
art and architecture : Colosseum and Amphitheatre are the two
best examples of Roman’s superior architecture. Pantheon is the largest
building of Rome with the biggest dome. ‘Cupid’s statue and ‘Ara Pacis’
statue are the best examples sculpture of Romans.
science : Romans had a deep knowledge in mathematics and
Science. Pliny the Elder prepared an encyclopaedia named ‘Natural
History’. Delivering human babies through Caesarean operation
(C section operation), vision correctional eye operations were done.
Galen was the famous doctor of Roman period. Strabo and Ptolemy
were the famous geographers of that time.
The laws of Romans are the base of all the modern laws. This is
their unique contribution to the field of legal studies.
The American Civilizations
Maya, Aztec and Inca are the ancient Columbian civilizations of
America. They represent the culture of the Indian aborigines of America.
40
The countries of Medieval Europe discovered new continents in their
attempts to find out a new sea-route to India. America and Australia
thus discovered were misunderstood as India and their inhabitants
were called Indians. Thus, the aborigines of America and Australia
came to be called Indians. In later history, the familiar countries came
to be known as the Old World and the newly discovered continents as
the New World. The ancient Columbian civilizations of America are
distinct and special like the civilizations of the old world like the
Egyptian, the Mesopotamian and the Chinese civilizations. We can see
states, kingdoms, amazing monuments, cities, art, metallurgy and the
practice of writing in the civilizations of the new world too.
The nomadic people of this area settled around 1500 B.C.E. They
grew maize, cereals, fruits, pepper and cotton. The early villagers knew
how to weave cloth, make pots and do other things like the people of the
Neolithic age (or the New Stone Age). The beginning of the construction
of pyramids and commemorative stone idols in the period between 1200
B.C.E and 900 B.C.E brought new changes in the hitherto simple lives
of these people. These changes were first noticed in coastal Mexico. The
commemorative idols depict leaders and kings. These are called Olmec.
The evidences and the excavations found here reveal a centralized society
with a hierarchical system. Gradually, vast kingdoms, capital cities and
villages sprung up around this area. Even here the Olmec style of art was
made use of. In this way, cultural boundaries were drawn for the first
time and unity developed among the people therein. After 500 B.C.E the
Olmec unified style led to separate local styles and regional states. These
are the Maya, Aztec, Inca and other civilizations.
Maya Civilization
The American-Indian aborigines of Yucutan area of Mexico are
called the Mayas. Their language is called Yucutec. Physically, the
Mayas were short, brown complexioned, long-haired and generally
round- headed people. The Mayas were the most advanced among
the ancient American Indians. The ruins of cities built of stone have
been obtained in Yucutan of Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. This
civilization rose to its cultural height around 1700 years ago. Their
earliest cities were built around 320 C.E. We see the dissolution of
Mayan culture with the attack of Spain from 1527 to 1546 C.E. under
41
the leadership of Cortes. A few descendants of Mayan Indians who
survived these attacks can be seen even today in the Northern areas
of Yucatan and Guatemala.
45
Veerakocha. This was the reason that there was a Sun Temple in all
Inca centres. They worshipped objects of nature like the Moon, the
Stars and lightning, and prayed to other natural phenomena.
exerCises
46
CHapter – 6
49
Mahaveer taught five vows and three principles of behaviour. The lat-
ter are called Triratnas.
the 5 vows are as follows :
1. Non-violence 2. Truth 3. Astheya
4. Aparigraha 5. Brahmacharya
50
Buddhism
Siddartha who later became known as Gautam
Buddha was born in the 6th century B.C.E. His father
Shuddodana was the king of the Republic of Shakya.
Renouncing kingly luxury and familial happiness,
Siddartha became a hermit. Disillusioned with the
prevailing ways of life, he embarked upon a quest for
truth. Attaining enlightenment, he became Buddha.
After becoming Buddha, the ‘Enlightened One’, he
first went to Sarnath near Banaras. There, in the deer
Buddha
park, he gave his first sermon. This has been called
Dharma Chakra Pravarthana. Here he preached the Four Noble Truths
and the Eightfold Path.
The Four Noble Truths declare that the whole world is full of
sorrow and suffering. They also explain the root cause of sorrow. Buddha
realized that desire was the root cause of sorrow. Only by the liberation
of excessive desires could a peaceful life be led. Buddha preached the
Eight Fold Path for eliminating desires. This is called the Middle Path.
51
80th year, Buddha’s glorious life of
selfless service came to an end at
Kushinagar. This has been called
‘Mahapari nirvana’. Viharas were
constructed in all the areas in
which Buddha wandered. People
preserved his relics and bones in
chaityalayas and stupas, and in
memory of his accomplishments
started worshipping him. This sanchi stupa
was how the first temples, idols and idol-worship began.
Buddhism spread not only in India but also in foreign countries. Chinese
travellers like Fa Hien, It Sing and Hiuen Tsang have described vividly the
glory of Buddhism. Buddhism had spread to Malaya, Burma, Thailand,
Vietnam, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Bamiyan too. Rocks have been cut from
mountains and shaped into statues of Buddha. Even today we can see gigantic
statues of Buddha in Angkor Vat of Cambodia and Bamiyan of Afghanistan.
Unfortunately, the huge statues of Buddha in Bamiyan came under attack and
were destroyed in recent times.
In 1956, inspired by Buddha’s teachings, India’s prominent social
philosopher and architect of the constitution, Baba Saheb Dr. B.R.Ambedkar
embraced Buddhism.
Foreign invasions
During this period, there sprang up city-states in Greece. Ancient
Persia had grown into a powerful empire. These two areas engaged
in continual conflicts. The Akhimenians were one group who ruled
Persia. In 6th century B.C.E. King Darius of this dynasty established a strong
52
empire. His kingdom extended up to the Indian border during his time.
In 4th century B.C.E., the Macedonian king Alexander won over the Greek
city-states and captured Persia. Thus even the part of the Persian
kingdom which had spread up to the Indian border, came under the
control of Alexander. After overpowering Persia, Alexander entered India
through the passes in Kandahar and Hindu Kush. He advanced till Ravi
and Beas rivers, and unable to proceed further, he crossed the Indian
border through river Jhelum, and on his way back home, he died at
Babylonia.
exerCises
i. Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in the
blanks:
1. The first Jain Tirthankara was ____________ .
2. Vardhamana was born at __________ .
3. Mahaveera attained ____________ in his 42nd year.
4. Mahaveera attained Nirvana at __________ in his 72nd year.
5. The original name of Gautama Buddha was __________ .
6. Buddha delivered his first sermon at __________ .
7. The first sermon of Buddha is called _________ .
53
ii. answer in brief the following questions :
1. Write in detail about Mahaveera’s life.
2. What are the triratnas?
3. Name the sects among the Jains.
4. What is the middle path?
5. Who were the people influenced by the new religion
6. Write a note on the Tripitikas.
iii. activities :
1. Collect information about the life of Mahaveera.
2. Collect pictures relating to the life of Gautama Buddha.
3. Learn the meanings of words like dharma, sect, theism and
atheism.
54
CHapter - 7
Mauryas
India’s first Empire was Mauryan Empire. They ruled from Magdh.
Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusara and Ashoka are the important kings
of this dynasty. This dynasty was established by Chandra Gupta Maurya.
The name of Chandra Gupta Maurya was made eternal by recording it by
Megasthenes the Greek Ambassoder in his book ‘Indica’.
reference sources
Though the source materials are less, the available sources provide
valuable information on Mauryas. The following are the sources:
• Megasthenes’ Indica: Megasthenes was in India as the
ambassador of Greeks in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He has
recorded his experiences at Patliputhra, the capital of Maurya empire
in his book ‘Indica’. Though the original book has remained untraced,
later Greek writers like Arrian, Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny refer to it
in their works. ‘Indica’ reveals the city administration, social and
religious life of Maurya period.
• Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’: ‘Arthashastra’ is written by the teacher
and the Prime Minister of Chandra Gupta Maurya, Koutilya. He is also
known as Chankya or Vishnu Gupta. Arthashastra is written in Sanskrit.
It outlines the basic principles on administration, foreign affairs and ju-
dicial duties that a king ought to know. By reading this book, one can
understand the politics, economy, and administration, social and other
aspects of Maurya period.
• Mudrarakshasa : This is a sanskrit play written by Vishaka Dutta.
It narrates the process of Chandra Gupta Maurya being brought into
the power by Kautilya.
55
• Deepavamsha and Mahavamsha : These two are Srinlankan
literary works. They narrate the efforts of Ashoka to spread
Buddhism in Srilanka.
• Inscriptions of Ashoka: Inscriptions are the authentic sources of
information on Ashoka. They tell about the boundaries of Ashoka’s
empire, his efforts to spread the Dhamma and details of Kalinga battle.
Arthashastra : In 1905 C.E. R.Shamashastri discovered the manuscript of
Kautilya’s Arthashastra at the Oriental Library of Mysore. The economics
disscused here is different from the economics known by the west. In the
Arthashastra of Kautilya issues like administration, duties of the King
and the Prime Minister and others elements of the states, state incometax
collection, inter state relations are explained. It also details about the need for
intelligence department and the management of finance. Kautilya’s
Arthashastra is still attracting the attention of experts even after thousand years
of its writing because of its uniqueness.
Chandra Gupta Maurya (321-298 B.C.e.)
Chandra Gupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empre. Chandra
Gupta came to power by dethroning the last king of Nanda dynasty
under the guidance of his teacher Kautilya at the age twenty five. By
this time, the north west of India was ruled by the representative of
Alexander Seleucus Nicator till Punjab. In 305 B.C.E., Chandra Gupta
Maurya declared war against him and the battle ended in an
agreement. According to it, Seleucus handed over four territories that
included today’s Afghanistan and Baluchistan to Chandra Gupta
Maurya. Moreover, he married his daughter to him. With this, the
Magdh empire established a rule over a vast north western area.
As per a Jain tradition, it is said that Chandra Gupta Maurya handed
over his reign to his son Bindhusara after accepting Jainism in his last
days. It is said that he later travelled to Shravanbelagola in Karnataka
along with Jain sages Bhadrabahu and others. Finally, the tradition says
that he undertook ‘Sallekhana Varta’ and passed away there itself.
Maurya's eMpire
Kabul
taxila
Khandahar punjab
indraprastha
Kapilavastu
Mathura saravasthi
M a G d H a
utra
prayaga saranath patalip
Varanasi rajagriha
ujjain
sanchi
Gaya
saurasHtra
tamralipi
g
in
al
K
araBiaN
Maski
sea Bay oF BeNGaL
CHoLoLas
57
created by the war. On being inspired by Buddhism, he dedicated his
remaining life to spread the message of ‘peace’.
Buddhism and ashoka
Ashoka accepted Buddhism after the
Kanlinga battle. He made donations to
Buddhist monasteries and Viharas. He
prohibited the killing of animals and birds in
his kingdom. Ashoka declared that all his
citizens are his children. He declared that all
should be loyal to their parents and respect
their elders and Gurus. He wanted people to
show compassion to poor and slaves too. ‘Live
and let live’ said he. He appointed officers named
‘Dharmamahamathra’ to preach the principles
of Buddhism. He installed inscriptions all
across the kingdom to preach the
messages of Buddhism. Preachers were
sent to other countries as well. A person
named Rakshita was sent to Banavasi and
another person by name ‘Mahadeva’ was sent to the dharmachakra
Mahishamandala (Mysuru). He also sent his son engraved on the pedestal
Rahula and daughter Sangamithre to Srilanka.In
250 B.C.E., he organised the third Buddhist conference at Pataliputhra.
Ashoka’s Inscriptions:
Ashoka is called as the father of inscriptions. Till today his
inscriptions are the first inscriptions to be read. In 1837 C.E., a British
officer James Princep deciphered Ashoka’s inscriptions for the first
time. In all the inscriptions instead of his name his titles ‘Devanmpriya’
or ‘Priyadarshi’ were used.
Charles Beadon a British engineer read an inscription at Maski
of Raichur in 1915 C.E. In this inscription ‘Devanampriya
Priyadarshi Ashoka’ reference appears for the first time. Based on this,
it was decided that ‘Devanampriya’ and ‘Priydarshi’ are the same.
Later in other inscriptions, the name Ashoka appears.
Ashoka’s inscriptions are found in Brahmagiri of Chitradurga district of
Karnataka. The symbol depicted in the pillar of Saranath is used the national
emblem of India. Ashoka’s inscriptions are available at 45 places across Indian
sub continent and Afghanistan with their 181 versions. In most of the parts of
Maurya empire the inscriptions are in Brahmi script or Prakruth script. Some of
the inscriptions the north west are in Aramaic language and Karoshti language,
in Afghanistan they are in Aramaic and Greek scripts. They are in Brahmi script.
58
economic system during Maurya period :
There are evidences which prove that the lake and canal system
of irrigation was good during Maurya period. Pushyagupta, a governor
during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya had built ‘Sudarshan
Sarvor’, a dam in Junagdh of Gujarat. An officer named Tushaspa’
during the reign of Ashoka built the canal system for this dam.
Megasthenes has also recorded the existence of irrigation canals. The
government was managing the agricultural sector. Prisoners of war
and slaves were engaged in agricultural activities. Land tax was the
main source of revenue for the state. A farmer was expected to pay one
fourth of his income as tax to the state. Officers named Samahartha’
and ‘Sanidatta’ were in charge of the tax collection and were also the
custodians of the royal treasury. The technology of producing metal
‘Alloys’ had evolved during the reign of Mauryas. As a result, urban
based artifacts production and their marketing found place in the
economy of Mauryas along with agriculture. There were major roads
connecting the different parts of the empire from Pataliputhra, the
capital city of Mauryas. A major road to Nepal passing through
Vyshali and Chamaparanya from Pataliputhra was also there. A highway
to Takshashila from Kaushambi passing through the present Delhi and
Punjab was there. Merchants were transporting goods on these roads
to sell within and outside the empire. ‘Kachhu’ marked silver coins
were in circulation in Maurya Kingdom. This period is marked as the
second phase of urbanization.
social system : The social system was evolving out of the
varna based caste system of vedic period. During this period, people
born in higher varna could migrate to another varna and gain better
social acceptance and respect. There were few such openings for
this mobility. Brahamana and Kshtriya could interchange their status.
Though the society was divided into four Varnas, namely Brahmana,
kshtriya, vyshya and shudra, several castes were also present.
Megasthenes records the presence of seven castes in Mauryan society in
his Indica. The Buddhist sources also confirm the existence of castes.
Though these castes were less rigid than in later periods, caste system
had started assuming rigidity during Maurya period itself. Indika does
not record the existence of ‘slaves’ and ‘dasas’ in Mauryan society.
Though slavery was in practice during Mauryan rule, it was less harsh
than the slavery of Greek and Roman societies. Shudras, the last in the
varna system, were employed as agricultural labourers and domestic
help.
administrative system: Maurya empire had centralised
administration system. The power was concentrated in the hands
of the king. Hence, a huge number of officials unseen before were
appointed to run the administration. There was a strong espionage
59
network. Minister, priest, prince and generals were the higher
subordinates of the king. The Empire was divided into provinces.
These were ruled by either princes or relatives of the king’s
family. Takshashila, Ujjain, Douli, Suvarnagiri and Girnar were the
regional administrative centres. Officials like Rujuka’ (Justice officer),
Yukta’ (Information recording officer) and others were there. The
administration of Pataliputhra was done by a group of six committees
consisting of thirty officials.
art and architecture : The contribution of Maurya’s to art and
architecture is of great significance. Megasthanese’s Indica’ records the
grandeur of Maurya’s palace in Patliputhra. The wooden ruins of the
Palace and the fort around the palace in Pataliputhra have been found
during excavation. During the period of Ashoka, many ‘Stupas’ were
built and ‘pillars’ were erected. Among all the stupas that are found the
Stupa of Sanchi is the biggest. Around thirty pillars have been found
and all of them are polished and made smooth. The images of Lion or Ox
are sculpted on these pillars. Our national emblem of four headed lion is
taken from the Ashoka pillar of Saranath. Apart from these Ashoka built
three rock cut caves at Baarbar hill. His son Dasharatha, built three
more rock cut caves at Nagaruni hills. These caves are also important
creations of Maurya period.
the Kushans
After the Greeks, it has been the Kushans who have influenced
Indian history and culture. They gave special impetus to the spread of
Buddhism. The Mahayana sect received greater encouragement under
their patronage. Gandhara sculpture flourished during their time.
An important dynasty after the Mauryas is that of the Kushans.
They were basically from a nomadic tribe which had migrated to India
from Central Asia. They were the progeny of Yuchi. The Sakas and the
Parthians were the other foreign communities that had settled in the
north-western part of India. The Kushans defeated the Sakas and the
Parthians, and settled in the Gandhara region.
The founder of this dynasty was Kujalakadphisus. Vimakadphisus
and Kanishka are the noteworthy kings of this dynasty. The Yuchis were
basically tribals. The Yuchi factions became united under the leadership
of Kujalakadphisus. He crossed the Hindukush range and settled in
Kabul and Kashmir. During the time of Vimakadphisus, gold coins were
brought out into circulation. From then onwards, the Kushans minted
mainly gold and copper coins.
Kanishka came after Vimakadphisus. During his reign, the Kushan
dynasty expanded greatly. He established his rule in 78 C.E. and
heralded a new era. This era is called the ‘Saka’ era.
60
Kanishka’s rule had spread up to Sanchi in the
south and Banaras in the east. His kingdom,
which included Central Asia too, was a vast empire.
Purushapura was his capital. Mathura was another
significant town of his time.
Due to the patronage given by Kanishka, Buddhism
could prosper much more than before. We get to see
many Buddhist scholars like Aswagosha, Vasumitra,
Sangaraksha and others during histime. The fourth
Buddhist conference was held at Kashmir under the
Gandhara
leadership of Kanishka. Like Ashoka, even Kanishka style Buddha
sent missions to Central Asia and China to spread
Buddhism. During his reign, art and architecture got encouragement.
exerCises
i. Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in the
blanks:
1. Chanakya came to be known as __________.
2. Megasthanis’s work ___________.
3. The capital of the Mauryas was ___________.
4. The founder of the Kushan dynasty was __________.
5. The new era of Kanishka’s reign is called the ______________.
ii. answer to the following questions in brief :
1. List the sources which reflect upon the history of Mauryas.
2. Name the important cities during Ashoka’s period.
3. Ashok has been named has Great by the historians. Give resons?
4. Describe Ashoka’s administration.
5. Which dynasty did the Kushans belong to?
6. What was the extent of Kanishka’s empire ?
iii. activities :
1. Learn about the Gandhara art.
2. Collect information from your teacher about the Buddhist
Conference which took place during Kanishka’s rule.
61
CHapter – 8
sources of references:
The following sources are useful to know about Gupta’s:
1. Pillar inscription of Alahabadh.
2. Pillar inscription of Meharuli.
3. Vishaka Dutta’s ‘Mudrarakshasa’ and ‘Devi Chandragupta’
4. Rajashekara’s ‘Poetics’.
5. Kalidasa’s literary works.
6. Kaumodi celebration of Vijjike.
7. The writing of Fahiyan and Itsing.
62
You should know : Historian V.A. Smith calls the period of Guptas as the
‘Golden Period’ in Indian history. This opinion is contested by many historians.
63
Most part of India was under the rule of the
Guptas during the time of Samudra gupta.
His Aswamedhayaga brings to mind the
Vedic rituals and traditions Samudragupta
was not just a conquerer, but a great poet
and a lover of music too. His passion for
music can be seen in the gold coins which
depict him playing on the veena.
The Iron Pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi near Qutb
Minar is important. It is 23 feet and eight inches
in height and weighs 6,000 kg. It is one of the
finest examples of the technical skill of the time.
It has not become rusty till now. That shows in
those days Indians had a sound Iron technology. Mehrauli iron pillar
Meghadoota
This is a poetic creation of Kalidasa, and is one among his very famous
works. Yaksha is exiled by King Kuber for having neglected his duties. In
this situation, the yaksha stops a passing cloud and persuades it to carry a
message of love to his wife who lives near the Kailash mountain. He describes
the beautiful scenery on the route to his wife’s place . Even today this poem is
famous all over the world. It has been translated into all the Indian languages
and major languages of the world. People have been enjoying the dramatization
of Meghadoota till today.
64
war. Hence, the vassals had become very powerful. The bureaucracy
consisted of Kumar Amatyas. They head various positions. The
administration was decentralized. The priests received many grants.
They would be granted many villages. Many temples saw development
due to this. These areas not only enjoyed financial and administrative
concessions but also became independent in all matters. However, over a
period of time, the inhabitants, farmers, artisans began to be controlled
by the landlords. In this way, society grew more and more complex.
abhijnana shakuntala
This is considered the best drama of Kalidasa.
The story of Shakuntala is in the Mahabharata. In
the story, King Dushyanta while on his hunt in the
forest, happens to come to Sage Kanva’s ashram.
There he sees Shakuntala, falls in love with her and
both get married in Gandharva style. All this takes
place in the absence of Sage Kanva. After some time,
Dushyanta leaves Shakuntala in the ashram and
returns to his capital. During this period of
separation, Sage Durvasa arrives at Kanva’s
ashram. Seeing Shakuntala lost in the thoughts of
Dushyanta and finding none to attend him is
enraged . Sage Durvasa loses his temper and curses
her saying, “Let the one in whose memory you sit,
forget you”. When he realizes his own harshness,
Sage Durvasa suggests a way to be free from the
curse. He says that an object given to her would ultimately bring back his
memories of her. The object was a ring that Dushyanta had given Shakuntala.
As Sage Durvasa had said, Dushyant forgets Shakuntala. After a period
of time the disciples of sage Kanva take the carrying Shakuntala to the
court of Dushyanta to unite them. On the way, Shakuntala loses the ring
which would have brought back recollection in Dushyanta. Thus Dushyanta
is unable to recognize her. Shakuntala leaves the palace in humiliation. After
a few days, the ring is found in the stomach of a fish, and on seeing it,
Dushyanta recalls everything. He is filled with remorse. Some time later,
while he is returning from a journey, he pays a visit to Sage Maricha’s
ashram. There he sees a small boy playing with lion cubs, and when he
enquires about his background, he comes to know that the boy is his own
son, Sarvadamana. In this manner, Dushyanta is united with his
wife, Shakuntala, and son. Abhijnana Shakuntala is one of the greatest
dramas in the world. It has earned great acclaim all over the world.
65
During this period, the trade that the Guptas had with the
Westerners collapsed. Consequently, their economic system suffered.
The restrictions imposed on their empire obstructed their internal
trade too. Trade was limited to villages. The collapse of trade led to the
decline of the city centres. Pataliputra got reduced to the size of a village.
This period witnessed great heights in the creation of various
devotional and religious texts like the Puranas and the
Dharmashastras. Varahamihira, Bhaskara, Aryabhata, Charaka and
Sushruta were the great scientists of this time. Varahamihira,
Bhaskara and Aryabhata made significant contributions to the study
of astrology, astronomy and mathematics. Charaka wrote Charaka
Samhita. Sushruta wrote Sushruta Samhita which dealt with surgery.
Scientists of the Gupta Period :
1. dhanwantari: He was a famous scholar in the field of medicine. He
was a specialist in Ayurveda. He is the father of Indian Medicine. His chief
contribution to the medical field has been the Ayurvedic dictionary.
2.Charaka: He was a medical scientist. His major contribution to the field of
medicine has been the Charaka Samhita.
3.sushruta: He was a surgeon. He was the first Indian to explain the process
of surgery. He has recorded that in those days, there used to be a separate wing
to treat soldiers. Like modern time surgery sushruta was a welknown surgeon of
ester years and contributed significantly to the field of surgery.
4. aryabhata: He was a famous astronomer and mathematician. He is the
prominent scientist who come after Varahimihira. His contribution to Astronomy
and Mathematics has been highly significant.
This is the reason that the Aryabhata award is being presented by the Indian
Government to great scientists. The first Indian satellite have been named after
Aryabhata. He is believed to have invented the zero. He was the first Indian to
master algebra. He reiterated the fact that solar and lunar eclipses happen not
due to Rahu but due to the rotation of earth on its own axis and revolution of
the earth in its orbit around the sun.
5.Varahamihira: He was a famous astronomer. He wrote a book on
astronomy named Panchasiddhantika, which is considered the Bible of
Astronomy. In addition to this, he wrote Bruhat Samhita, Bruhat Jataka and
Laghu Jataka. He was a scholar in many fields like astronomy, astrology,
geography, metereology, etc.
tHe VardHaNs
The Gupta Empire which had flourished for two centuries,
disintegrated around 6th century C.E. Many small kingdoms sprang
up at this time. The kingdom of the Vardhanas was one of them. They
66
ruled from Thaneswar in 6th century. Some copper inscriptions, Bana’s
Harshacharita and the Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang’s writings throw
light upon this period.
Pushyabhuti is the founder of this dynasty. Prabhakaravardhana and
Harshavardhana are the prominent kings of the dynasty. After the death of
his father, Prabhakaravardhana, and his brother, Rajyavardhana, Harsha
became the king of Thaneswar.
His sister Rajyashree was married to the king of Kanauj. When the
king of Bengal Sashanka killed the king of Kanauj, Harsha captured
Kanauj, and attacked the king of Bengal. Bengal and Magadha came
under his rule. But he could not advance beyond the Narmada river in
the south. The Kannada king of the Chalukyas, Pulakeshi II, halted his
progress, and forced him to go back. This achievement of Pulakesh II has
been immortalized in the panegyric (prashasti) written by the court poet,
Ravikirti. He has expressed that the exultation of the king Harsha’s joy
had dried up on account of this defeat.
Nalanda
Buddha’s followers believe that ‘Nalanda’
was the name of Buddha in his previous
birth. This is famous as an ancient universi-
ty. Buddha had visited Nalanda. Mention
has been made of the 25 metre tall bronze
image of Buddha that Harshavardhana
gifted to Nalanda. Kumaragupta had made
contributions to a fine arts school here.
Nagarjuna the Chief exponent of middle path,
Dinnaga and Dharmapala were the other
famous scholars who taught here. The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang, visited
this place and stayed for some time. He has given a detailed description of this
place. There were stupas, chaityas, viharas, rest houses, steps here and there
to sit and rest awhile, meditation rooms, lecture rooms and many other
structures reveal the glory of this place. The Gupta kings and Harshavardhana
have been the famous patrons of this place. An accidental fire destroyed many
texts at Nalanda.
67
Doota. The kingdom had been divided into provinces. Land tax was the
major source of income for the kingdom. Feudatory chiefs paid tribute
to the king. The king gave them land grants and in return, got the help
of their armies. When the king became weak, the feudatory chiefs
became independent.
Land grants were given to other communities and religious people
as well. Harsha gave prominence to Buddhism. We get details of the
popularity of Buddhism from Hiuen Tsang’s writing. The Buddhist
Nalanda University was full of activity during this period. It enjoyed royal
patronage.
exerCises
iii. activities :
1. Gather details about all the works of Kalidasa.
2. Collect information and pictures of the scientists of the Gupta
period.
68
CHapter – 9
soutH iNdia
(FroM 3rd CeNtury B.C.e. to 13tH CeNtury C.e.)
The Vindhya mountains separate North and South India. The area
between the Vindhya mountains and Kanyakumari in the south is
called South India or the Deccan region. The Shatavahanas, Kadambas,
Gangas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and Pallavas have been the important
dynasties of this region.
69
kingdom had been divided into provinces called Janapada for the
purpose of administration and officers had been appointed to look
after them. The cities and villages were looked after by self-governing
institutions.
There was no discrimination on the basis of varna in the society.
Even women held high offices and had high status in society. There were
people of different occupations like farmers, merchants, goldsmiths,
fishermen, carpenters, weavers, medicine man etc. There were
accupational associations. Later these assosiations emerged as
commercial and trade organisations. There was encouragement for even
foreign trade, and Nasik, Kalyan, Broach and Bhatkal were trade centres.
The Shatavahanas who followed the Vedic tradition, encouraged
other religions like Buddhism and Jainism and believed in harmony.
They promoted art, literature and education. Literature was
created in Prakrit, the language of both scholars and common people.
Gathasaptashati written by Hala is an example of this.
The Ajanta and the
Amaravati paintings were
created during the period of
the Shatavahanas. Temples,
viharas and chaityalayas were
also constructed. A chaityagraha
was built in Karle by the Banavasi
merchant Bhootapala.
During the period of the
Shatavahanas, the Kannada
land was prosperous and had
adventurous and able Chaityalaya at Karle
administrators. They had
enriched Indian culture by their
contributions.
70
Mayura sharma was insulted by the Pallava king, Shivaskanda Varma,
he adopted the kshatriya way of life and became Mayuravarma. He
defeated the Pallavas in a war and established the Kadamba empire. He
is the pride of all Kannadigas.
71
Buddhism was also flourishing
in the Kadamba kingdom. It
inculded Ajanta and Banavasi,
two of the important centers of
Buddism. The temples were the
centers of festivals and celebrations.
Both Prakrit and Sanskrit received
encouragement. First Prakrit
and later Sanskrit bcame the
court language. Kannada was the
Madhukeshwara temple, Banavasi
languageof the people. The ancient
Halmidi inscription shows the
characteristics of the Kannada language which was in use in the 5th
century. This has been the first inscription available in Kannada.
The Malavalli inscription is in Prakrit language. The Talagunda inscription is
the first Sanskrit inscription to be found in Karnataka.
The Kadambas laid the foundation for architecture in Karnataka.
They built many temples and basadis in Banavasi. During this period,
educational centers like agraharas, brahmapuris and ghatikas were
established. The main agraharas of that time were found in Talagunda
and Balligave. The agraharas were like residential schools.
72
the Contributions of the Gangas
The king had a council of ministers to help him. The ministers
supervised different branches of administration. The administration
in the villages was very systematic. The village committee looked after
land revenue, justice, sanitation and defence. Agriculture was the main
occupation. There were other occupations like weaving and black smithy.
They had trade relations with other countries.
Though the society at the time of the Gangas had been divided into
different sects and castes, they were all interdependent. The practice of
a patriarchal undivided family was common. Social values like honesty,
loyalty, bravery and patience were prominent among the people.
Chaityalayas, temples, mathas and agraharas were the centers of
education. There were Brahmapuris and Ghatikas for higher education.
Talakadu, Shravanabelagola, Bankapura and Peruru have been named
as centers of learning.
Bahubali- Gommateshwara
Gommateshwara (Bahubali) of
Sravanabelagola is a symbol of life of
renunciation. The Statue of Gommateshwara
was installed by Chavundaraya, the minister of
Rachamalla IV. Among 100 brothers,
Bharata was the eldest, Bahubali the youngest.
After Bharata was coronated as the king, he finds
a Chakraratna (a special wheel), won all the
kingdoms and became an empe or. Even before
that, all his brothers accepted his sovereignty. But
when Bahubali did not accept it, both of them got
ready to engage in a battle. Bharata lost in drushti
yuddha, jala yuddha and malla yuddha. At the end
of malla yuddha, Bahubali lifted Bharata and
spinning him in the air like a wheel, was about Gommateshwara
to throw him away, suddenly he lost all interest
in everything around him, and put his brother down. He bowed to his
brother and went away to meditate for nirvana, standing all the time.
As he did not achieve salvation, he realises that as long as he stood in his
brother’s kingdom and meditated, he would not achieve nirvana. Later Bharata
came and said that the whole kingdom was Bahubali’s, and that he was ruling
it on Bahubali’s behalf. Then Bahubali achieved nirvana.
Since the Gangas were Jains, Jainism flourished here.
Poojyapada, Vajranandi, Ajitsena and others popularized this religion.
Further, they installed a 58 foot monolithic idol of Gommateshwara
at Shravanabelagola and made it a famous centre. You must have
73
heard about the Maha Mastakabhisheka of Gommateshwara which
takes place once in every 12 years even to this day.
74
exerCises
iii. activities.
1. Discuss with your teacher the way to read inscriptions.
2. Visit a historical temple nearby and collect its details. Share the
information with your classmates.
iV. projects.
1. Cultivate the habit of reading inscriptions.
2. Study one inscription and do a project on it.
3. Visit the capitals of the Gangas and collect information on them.
75
CHapter – 10
The best temples in the Chalukya style are in Aihole and Pattadkallu.
Aihole was one of the cradles of temple architecture. Evolution of the
series of temples architecture was first experimented here. This style
found its full experssion at Pattadakallu. Thus we see the famous
temples of Lokeshwara (Virupaksha) and Trilokeshwara
(Mallikarjuna) here. We get conclusive proof of the Chalukyas’ artistic
achievement in the towering sculptures of Vishnu, Varaha, Harihara
78
and Ardhanarishwara in the caves of Badami. Even painting received
encouragement. The Ajanta paintings of this period are world-famous.
79
The early Pallava kings were
Buddhists. The great scholar
of Nalanda University,
Dharmapala, was born in
Kanchi. Since Mahendravarma
was a follower of Jainism, there
were many Jains in the kingdom.
This age witnessed the rise
of the Bhakti movement. It also
Mahabalipuram pancharatha
supported the renaissance of
the Vedic religion. Slokas were written in Tamil. These have become the
treasure of Tamil literature.
Shaiva and Vaishnava religious sects became popular during the 7th century.
63 Great saints called Nayanmars propogated the Shaiva faith. 12 Alva saints
propogated the Vaishnava faith.
The Pallavas were lovers of art and architecture. They built many
temples in their kingdom, which are noteworthy for their artistic skill.
The Pallava architecture can be classified into temples that have been
carved out of stone, and temples with structural pattern.
Many temples carved in rocks can be seen in Mahabalipuram.
Wonderful monolithic sculptures have been carved in these temples. They
tell the stories from Mahabharata and Bhagavata. The Pancharathas are
the famous monolithic temples. The carving of ‘Arjuna’s Meditation’ has
emerged as an excellent work of art.
The temples of Kailasanath, Ekambarnath and Vaikunta Perumal at
Kanchi, and the coastal temple at Mahabalipuram are excellent examples
of ancient Indian architecture.
The temples became centres of religious and artistic activities. The
rural folk gathered in the courtyard of the temples in the evenings and
discussed many issues. The people came here during their leisurely
hours and either listened to the Puranas or sang devotional songs. In this
manner, the temples became social and educational centres.
The Pallavas had a good naval force. Merchants had trade relations
with South Asian countries like Malaya, Indonesia and others. We can
80
see the influence of Indian language, faiths, traditions and culture in
those countries.
exerCises
iii. activities :
1. Discuss in groups the contributions of the Chalukyas to Kannada
language.
2. Learn about tripadis from your Kannada teachers and by reading
Kannda books.
3. Pay a visit to Kanchipura and Mahabalipuram.
iV. projects :
1. Pay a visit to a place of historical importance and collect information
about it.
2. Draw pictures of temples, collect pictures and form an album.
81
CHapter - 11
tHe rasHtraKutas oF
MANYAKHETA AND THE CHAluKYA’s of KAlYANA
in this chapter you learn about :
• Dantidurga, the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty and Amoghavarsha its
most famous ruler.
• The contributions of Rashtrakuta’s to administration, literature and
architecture.
• The administration and literary contributions of Kalyana Chalukyas.
• The extent of Rashtrakuta territory from the map of India.
Nadoja pampa
Another noteworthy prose work of the Rashtrakuta period is Vaddaradhane.
The author of this is Shivakottacharya. It is a collection of Jain religious stories.
Special importance has been given to use of native Kannada words here. There
is liveliness in plot, structure, characterization and dialogue. This is a great
prose work belonging to the pre-Pampa age, and enjoys eternal significance in
the history of Kannada literature.
84
Kailasa temple, ellora
86
the Contribution of the Kalyana Chalukyas
Like the Chalukyas of Badami, the Chalukyas of Kalyana too
have made special contributions in various fields. The kingship was
hereditary. The kingdom was divided into provinces (mandala) and
small provinces (nadu). There were kampanas (today’s hobli) to enable
smooth functioning of administration of villages.
Land revenue was the main source of income for the kingdom.
The other sources of income included sales tax, toll and tax on
professions. There was an officer called Kaditavergade’ appointed to look
after collection of land revenue. There were different guilds in trade and
business.
Literature received encouragement during the period of the
Chalukyas. Kannada literature prospered with the support of Jain
scholars. The notable works of this period are ‘Gadayuddha’
(Sahasa Bheema Vijaya) written by Ranna, ‘Panchatantra’ written
by Durgasimha, ‘Vikramankadeva Charita’ composed by Bilhana,
‘Dharmamruta’ composed by Nayasena and the legal work,
‘Mitakshara’, authored by Vignaneshwara. ‘Manasollasa’ written by
King Someshwara III is considered a sanskrit encyclopaedia.
The unique contribution of the Chalukyan period has been the
Vachana literature. Akkamahadevi, Allamaprabhu, Machayya and others
were leading vachanakaras.
The Chalukyas were
not only lovers of
literature but also
patrons of art. Their
contribution in the field
of art is vast. Famous
temples like the Kashi
Vishweshwara temple
at Lakkundi, Mahadev
temple at Itagi, Mallikarjuna
temple at Kuruvatti, Trikutes
wara temple at Gadag are
noteworthy examples of their
art. The kings of this dynasty Kashi Vishveshwara temple, Lakkundi
built innumerable temples
and contributed to making the Kannada land home to fine arts.
87
Music and dance forms too prospered. During their period
Musicians and dancers used to be appointed to serve in the court.
Queen Chandralekha patronised many music scholars and dancers.
‘Manasollasa’ and the work of Jagadekamalla II ‘Sangeeta Chudamani’
discuss many topics related to music, dance, art and jewellery.
exerCises
88
CHapter – 12
89
The foremost quality of the Chola administration was the
development of the self-governance of the village. The grama sabhas
were the first sabhas. Tara-kurram was a village. Every kurram had a
village committee named mahasabha. This was also called perumguri
and its members perumakkal. The members were chosen through
election. Only Sanskrit scholars and rich people were allowed to stand
for election.
One-sixth part of the land revenue used to be collected as tax.
Special attention had been given to the irrigation system. The Cholas
constructed many lakes, and the Bellandur lake near Bangalore is one of
these. They built a huge pond in Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
The Cholas were Shaivites, and they built many Shiva temples.
The Brihadeeshwara temple in Thanjavur is 500 feet tall and it is in a
courtyard 250 feet wide. Its shikara is 200 feet tall. The Choleshwara
temple was built by Rajendran.
90
The Aprameya temple near Channapatna, the Choleshwara temple in
Begur near Bangalore and the Mukteshwara temple near Binnamangala
are the temples built by the Cholas in Karnataka. The temples used to
function as economic and cultural centres. The idols of Shiva, Ganapati,
Vishnu, Durga and Kartikeya of this time are famous.
The Cholas established many agraharas to encourage education.
The Uttaramerur agrahara is famous among these. The temples were
centres of education. They were also centres of religious activities. This
was a period in which Tamil literature found an all-round development.
Noteworthy works are Ramayana written by Kamba, Periya Purana
composed by Sekkilar and Thirukkadeva’s Jeevika Chintamani.
a shilabalike
The military general, Ketamalla, built the Hoysaleshwara temple at
Halebidu. The Keshava temple constructed by Somadandanayaka at
Somanathapura is famous. There are many temples and basadis in
93
Arasikere, Govindanahalli, Doddagaddavalli and Bhadravati. All these
are noted for their extremely delicate carving. The Hoysala architecture
has influenced all other architectural styles of the later years. Dasoja,
Chavana, Jakana and Dankana were some of the famous sculptors of
this time.
exerCises
iii. activities.
1. Discuss in class the visit you paid to a nearby temple.
2. Learn more about the Belur shilabalikas from your teacher.
iV. projects.
1. Visit Belur and Halebidu and write a project-report on it.
2. Learn in detail about Hoysala art.
94
Political Science
chaPter – 1
Political science is one of the social sciences dealing with the political
activities of man. It deals with the state and government. It studies the
origin and nature of state and forms of political institutions. The study of
state is the main subject matter of political science.
As a subject of study political science began with the Greeks. Though
Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Indians and Chinese have mentioned
their ideas or thoughts about politics much earlier to Greeks they failed
to develop it as a systematic study. Politics was given the status of an
independent science by Greeks. Greek philosophers like Socrates and
his disciple Plato were great political thinkers. Plato in his famous book
Republic for the first time discussed the nature and functions of state
and government. Aristotle, the ancient Greek thinker and the student
of Plato is recognized as the ‘Father of Political science’ for his valuable
contributions to its growth and development. He wrote the first treatise
in political science called “The Politics”. In this famous book Aristotle
discussed the origin, development and functions of state. Kaoutilya’s
work on economics also has more information about political principles.
Greeks used the term ‘politics’ for the study of state. The term
‘Politics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘polis’ which means ‘city-state’
and therefore a subject which deals with the affairs of city-state and its
working was called politics by ancient Greeks. However in modern times
scholars have preferred to use the term ‘political science’ for this study.
Political science studies the origin, development, nature,
administration, type, scope of a state and rights and duties of the
citizens. Political science is study of all facets of state.
Political Science is also the study of past, present and future of
political institutions, political functions and political theories. The
95
study of state, Government and human political activities is called
as political science.
importance of Political Science
The knowledge of Political Science is essential in the present age.
The progress and development of a state depends upon the thinking,
knowledge and Political involvement of the people.
• Political Science helps to understand the birth and growth of a
state. It provides information about the type of Governments and
Political activities involved in the functions of the State.
• Political Science provides information about the origin and
development of ideas such as Monarchy, freedom, justice, laws,
equality, good government, wars and peace etc.
• It provides information about the structure and functions of the
state and government.
• In the light of the past and the present activities of the
government, Political Science helps to plan the future activities of
the state. It also helps to establish a modern welfare state.
• Political Science provides knowledge of the Constitution and laws
of the state.
• Political Science helps to understand the organs of the government
i.e., Legislature, Executive and Judiciary and their functions.
• Political Science develops political consciousness among the
people. It keeps the government and the people politically alert
and active.
• The knowledge of Political Science helps leaders and civil servants
to understand and solve the problems of the people effectively.
• The knowledge of political science helps to raise good leadership
and good citizen.
• Political Science helps to understand the important Political
institutions like political parties, federations and local bodies.
• Political science deals with ideologies which inspire and influence
political involvement of people.
• Political Science provides the knowledge of international
relations especially the occurrence of wars among nations and the
importance of peace and co-operation.
Thus the study of Political Science helps us to understand the need for
a state, good governance of the state, the role of the leaders and people’s
96
participation. It helps the people to become good, responsible, cultured,
and active citizens. The knowledge of Political science contributes to the
establishment of a just, peaceful, progressive and a happy state, which is
the dream of millions and millions of people for a long time every where.
exerciSeS
97
chaPter - 2
Public adMiniStration
in this chapter you learn :
• Importance of Public Administration and meaning
• Scope of Public Administration
• Meaning of the recruitment and its methods
• Meaning of training and its methods
• Union Public Service Commission
• Karnataka Public Service Commission
• Central Government Secretariat
• State Government Secretariat
• Law and Order
Public administration
Public Administration has become more important as the modern
society is undergoing complex and swift changes. The contribution of
Public Administration to society is increasing day by day. Hence, Public
Administration plays an important role in forming the human society
as a civic society. This type of administrative experments are as old as
human society. Public Administration as a subject evolved in United States
of America. The past President of USA, Woodrow Wilson is called as the
‘Father of Public Administration’. At present, Public Administration is
evolving as one of the main areas of Social Science studies in all the
countries.
Public Administration is a specific field of study. The word
‘Public’ denotes Government. Alexander Hamilton used the word
Public Administration’ for the first time in 1812. The following are the
definitions of Public Administration’
1. According to Woodrow Wilson, “The holistic and orderly
implementation of law is Public Administration.”
2. According to Pifnar , “The consolidation of community initiatives
in implementing public policies is Public Administration.”
3. According to Luther Gulick, “Public Administration is related to
the executive of the government”.
98
In nutshell, Public Administration is related to the total functioning
of the government. Public Administration is that part of the government
that runs day to day functioning of the state.
importance
As the state is evolving from protective state to welfare state and
from welfare state to functioning state, the importance of Public
Administration is becoming more important. As a result the scope of
Public Administration is enlarging. The holistic development of
human society and the survival of civic society depend on effective Public
Administration.
The life cycle of human beings depends on Public Administration. It
is the heart of a state. There is no state without Public Administration.
Hence, modern state is called as ‘Administrative State’. The following
explain the importance of Public Administration
1. Public administration is the Pillar of the government : A state
can be in existence without legislature and judiciary. But without an
executive, government cannot exist. An administrative structure is
needed for the implementation of public policy. Hence Paul Applebee
opines, “Without Administration, a government is only a meaningless
chatter”.
2. it serves various functions in the interest of the public :
Public Administration caters to a human being beginning from his womb
to tomb. It maintains civil order and peace by protecting the life and
property of citizens. It takes care of providing basic facilities, education,
employment opportunities, protects the state and ensures economic
equality. It provides numerous services like this.
3. implementation of law and policies : Public Administration
regulates the activities of people by implementing law and policies. If the
Public Administration does not function well, the policies remain only on
the paper.
4. necessary to protect Social Security : Public Administration
functions as a tool of social security Even though the governments
change, public administration remains constant and ensures stability to
administration. This ensures smooth functioning of administration. In
99
the absence of good Public Administration, a strong state also fails. The
destruction of the ancient Roman Empire is the good example for this.
Public Administration ensures unity and harmony in society by solving
the problems of society.
5. Support legislature and executive : Public Administration
aides the implementation of policies formed by the legislature. It also
provides inputs in the form of statistics and suggestions for the
formulation of policies by the governments. Thus, Public Administration
performs major role not only in the implementation of the public policy
but also in its planning.
Scope : There is disagreement among the thinkers with regard
to the scope of Public Administration. Experts like Woodrow Wilson
and L.D.White argue that Public Administration has a wide scope.
According to them Public Administration includes all the three pillars of
administration Legislature, Judiciary and Executive.
According to Luther Gulick and Simon, Public Administration has
a narrow scope. According to them, ‘Public Administration’s scope is
limited to the executive activities of the government”.
recruitment :
The process of searching eligible candidates for the civil services and
motivating them to compete for the civil services is called Recruitment.
An efficient administration is based on efficient recruitment process. If
an efficient, honest and eligible person is selected to civil service, the
person delivers good public service through his creativity, intelligence
and positive behaviour. If the recruitment process is more scientific and
efficient, Public Administration becomes more efficient by having efficient
civil servants.
Recruitment has a prominent role in the staff administration.
According to O.G. Stall, Recruitment is the base of staff structure .
Methods of recruitment :
According to Staff Administration experts, there are two types of
recruitment
A. Direct Recruitment (External Recruitment)
B. Internal Recruitment (Recruitment by promotion)
a) direct recruitment : Direct Recruitment is the most popular and
scientific method of recruitment. Recruiting eligible candidates through
competitive examinations in a fixed pattern is called Direct Recruitment’.
101
The candidates need to have some general qualification and specific
qualification to enter into the service through direct recruitment.
b) internal recruitment : Selecting the eligible in-service
personnel to higher positions is called as Internal Recruitment. Most of the
countries have adopted this method. India too has adopted this method
of recruitment.
training
The efficiency of civil service personnel depends on the quality of the
training received. As the modern administrative functions are complex
in nature, the personnel need to undergo proper training to know and
manage the administrative functions. Only through proper training, the
personnel can gain the necessary knowledge to perform
Training has a special place in Public Administration. Since the
challenge of managing and running complex technical works is part
of the modern governance, the importance of training is increasing.
Training is a continuous process.
types of training :
Training is divided into five types based on the method, duration,
level of training, aim of training and institution providing the training.
They are
i) formal and informal training : Formal training is a training
that is received by the employee which is carefully planned in
advance. This is training is provided under the supervision of the
experts.
Informal training means the training that an employee gains while
doing his duty. An employee receives this training during his day
to day execution of his duties.
ii) Pre-Service and Post-beginning of Service training :
Pre-service training prepares the future employees for the civil
services.
Post-beginning of service training is provided to those who have
been selected to specific posts. This training aims at imparting
better skills and efficiency.
102
iii) Short term and long term training : Short term training is
of four to six week duration. For example, the doctors selected
through public service Commissions, undergo six week training.
The long term training is continuous in nature and its duration
would be of one to two years. The training given to candidates
selected for all India services is the example for this type of training.
iv) departmental and central institutes’ training : The training
provided by specific department for the candidates selected for
it is called as Departmental Training. Example Police personnel
training.
Training provided by a central government institution is called
Central Institutes’ training. Example the training provided by Lal
Bahudur Shastri National Administrative Institute in Missouri.
v) Skill training and background training : A training aiming
at increasing the skills of the personnel is called Skill training.
Example the compulsory B.Ed training for high school teachers.
A training that aims at providing general awareness is called as
background training. Example Training provided by Mysuru’s
Administrative Training Institute.
Structure:
According to the Article 315 of the constitution, there should be a
separate public service commission for the centre and the state. Two or
three states can have a Joint Public Service Commission also.
The President appoints the Chairman and the members of the
central and joint public service commissions. Half of the members of the
103
commission should have served in government services. The tenure
of the members is six years or attaining the age of sixty five years, or
whichever is earlier. The President will have the powers to dismiss any
member or chairman on the grounds of misconduct. Commission works
independently of legislature and executive. A secretary works for the com-
mission and presently it is based at New Delhi.
functions :
The commission functions under article 320 of the constitution and
the following are the functions
1. Conducting exams for the recruitment of Group A and B officers
of central government.
2. Conducting interviews for direct recruitment.
3. Advising the central government on issues related to promotion
and transfer.
4. Advising government on initiation of disciplinary actions against
erring government employees.
5. On the direction of the President, advising the government any
needed issue.
The commission conducts exams for civil service, technical service,
Forest service and defense services at national level. In these, exams
conducted for civil service are more prominent. I.A.S (Indian
Administrative Services, I.P.S (Indian Police Service), I.F.S (Indian
Foreign Service), I.R.S (Indian Revenue Service), I.A.A.S (Indian
Accounting and Auditing Service exams are some the important exams.
They are conducted at three levels
1. Preliminary examination. 2. Main examination.
3. Personality Test.
104
nine members. They are appointed by the Governor. Their tenure is for
six years or completion of 62 years of age or whichever is earlier. The
main office is in Bengaluru and regional offices are at Mysuru, Belagavi,
Kalburgi and Shimogga.
functions :
1. Appointing the gazetted and non-gazetted officers of the
state government through written exams and interview as per
the directions of the state government and the concerned
department’s recruitment rules. Example assistant
commissioners, Tahasildhars, Deputy Superintend of Police etc.,
2. Conducting interviews for direct recruitment candidates.
3. Conducting departmental exams for state government employees
4. Advising government on initiating disciplinary measures against
erring officials.
5. Coordinating various exams conducted by the Union Public
Service Commission in the state.
central Secretariat:
To facilitate the efficient and capable administration, various
departments and ministries are created. The Central Secretariat is a
mix of various ministries and departments. The main responsibility
of the Secretariat is to aid the ministers, who are the political heads,
in running the administration. It has the Chief Secretary as the
administrative head and the Prime Minister as the political head.
the formation of the central Secretariat : According to the
Article 77(3) of the Constitution, the President of India has the powers
to frame rules to facilitate smooth and efficient functioning of the central
government, in assigning portfolios for the ministers.
Each Cabinet Minister will have an independent ministry. If their
portfolio is bigger, state minister and deputy minister would be there
to assist them. One portfolio may have more than one department. For
105
example, though Home, Agriculture, Defence, Finance and others are
independent departments, they can group under one secretary.
The portfolio is divided as following and each is entrusted to an
official. The hierarchy of the Secretariat is as follows
1. Department Principal Secretary/ Secretary/ Additional Secretary
/Special Secretary.
2. Wing – Joint / Additional Secretary.
3. Division – Director / Deputy Secretary.
4. Branch – Under Secretary.
5. Section – Section Officer.
State Secretariat
Every state secretariat functions as the nerve-centre of the
state government. The secretariat includes the departments of the
state. Ministers are the political heads of these departments, and the
principal secretaries are the administrative heads of the departments.
The Chief Secretary is administrative head of the state Secretariat. The
Secretary would be the head of one or two departments. The secretaries
are usually from the IAS cadre.
106
the Structure of Secretariat :
The Chief Minister distributes the Portfolios of the ministers. The
portfolios are different from state to state. Usually the total number of
departments varies from 16 to 35 in numbers.
The Chief Secretary is the administrative head and also the
Secretariat head. Every department of the government will have a
secretary. In some departments they are also called as commissioners.
They advise the minister on administrative issues.
The office of the Principal Secretary is divided into many divisions.
Every division functions under the direction of a Section officer. The
Section officers duty is to verify the papers and files of his
division and submit to the concerned personnel. Every division will have
stenographers, first division assistants, second division assistants and
others officials.
The state secretariat is made of many officials who are appointed
for specific duration. The administrative structure of the State
Secretariat is as follows
Principal Secretary
Joint Secretary
Deputy Secretary
Under Secretary
Associate Secretary
Section Officer
functions of State Secretariat
The State Secretariat is an advisory body, and functions as follows
1. It is the apex body of state government and administration. It
aids the policy making on all the issues related to the state.
107
2. It functions as the advisory expert committee to the state
government.
3. It facilitates the internal harmony among the various
departments and consolidates the various policies and
programmes of the government.
4. It advises the minister in formulating draft of the bills and
supports in formulation of rules and regulations related to
financial discipline.
5. It prepares the budget and controls the public spending.
6. The State Secretariat is ‘the Centre of political and administrative
functions of the state.
Head Constable
Police Constable.
The police force performs a major role in maintaining law and order
of the state.
exerciSeS
110
4. What are the different types of trainings?
5. How is the Central Secretariat formed?
6. What is the role of the state in law and order? Explain.
iV. activities :
1. Make a visit to the nearby police station to understand the role
of Police department in maintenance of law and order. Have
discussion with the Police Officer present in the station.
111
chaPter - 3
huMan rightS
in this chapter you learn :
• The meaning of Human Rights and its development.
• The declaration of Human Rights.
• Human Rights and the Indian Constitution.
• Ways of implementing Human Rights.
right to
equality
(from article
Do you know this :
14 to 18) By the 86th amendment
right to right to
constitu- of the constitution, according
freedom
tional rem- (from article to article 21A, education has
edy (article 19 to 22)
32) been made a right in 2002.
Part iii
According to this, govern-
fundamental
rights ment has to provide free and
cultural & right
educational against compulsory education to the
right exploitation children from six to fourteen
(from article (from article
29-30) 23 to 24) ages.
right to
religious
freedom
(from article
25 to 28)
114
Rights Commission and State Human Rights Commissions are framed at
national and state levels.
national human rights commission : National Human Rights
Commission is a constitutional body. It was established through
legislation in the parliament in 1993. It is a watch dog of human rights in the
country. It is a multi member body. It has a chairman, and four
members. The chairman should be the retired judge of the Supreme
Court. The members should be either the current judges of the High
Court or retired judges. And two members should have practical
knowledge of Human Rights. The commission also has four ex-officio
members.
The Chairman and the members are appointed by the President of
India. Their tenure is for five years or till the attainment of 70 years
of age, or whichever is earlier. They receive remuneration as fixed by
the central government. The commission has been mandated to function
independently without prejudice and interference.
State human rights commission : As per the Human Rights Law
1993, the state human rights commissions are established at state levels.
They take the human rights violation cases. The state commission has
one chairman and two members. The chairman should be a retired judge
from the high court. The members should be either serving high court
judges or retired judges, or should have served at district courts for at
least seven years. They are appointed by the governor.
national commission for Schedule caste : The National
Commission for Schedule Caste and Tribes was bifurcated in the year
2003 by 89th amendment to article 338. National Commission for
Schedule Caste and National Commission for Schedule Tribes were
formed.
The National Commission for Schedule Caste has one Chairman
and one Vice-Chairman and three members. They are appointed by the
President of India. The commission addresses the issue of atrocities on
schedule caste people and also identifies the violations of human rights
against such people and provides relief to them. The commission also
provides needed information and statistics to the central government and
state governments to plan various programmes for the benefit of these
people.
115
national commission for Schedule tribes : The National
Commission for Schedule Tribes came into existence as per the 89th
amendment to the constitution in the year 2003. The commission
has one chairman, one vice chairman and three members. They are
appointed by the President of India. Its functions are similar to that of
National Commission for Schedule Caste.
national commission for backward classes : This commission
was founded in 1993. It has one chairman and four members. The
commission protects the rights of backward classes.
national commission for Women : In order to protect the rights
of the women, the National Commission for Women was formed under
the law in 1990. The commission has one chairman and five members.
It sensitizes the women on their constitutional rights. It also studies the
status of women with respect to education, sociological, economical, and
health .
national commission for Minorities : The National Commission
for Minorities was formed in the year 1992 for the protection minority
people. The commission has one chairman, one vice chairman, and five
members. Six religious communities have been identified as minorities.
They are Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsees and Jain. The
commission undertakes the study of minorities and takes necessary steps
to protect the interest of these minority communities.
You know this :
The Central Government has implemented many laws to protect from
exploitation :
Minimum Wages Act 1948
Prevention of Unethical activities Act 1956
Prohibition of Dowry Act 1961
Prohibition of bonded labour Act 1976
Sati prevention Act 1987
Human Rights Protection Act 1993
Right to Information Act 2005
Domestic Violence Prevention Act 2005
116
exerciSeS
iii. activities
1. Organise a speech competition on Human Rights Protection.
2. Make a list of differences between Human Rights and
Fundamental Rights.
117
chaPter – 4
local goVernMent
in this chapter you learn :
• The importance of forming of local government.
• The objectives and functions of local government.
• The formation, administration, responsibilities and duties of local
government.
118
committees were appointed by our state government to establish and
strengthen local bodies in our state. In 1983 the Panchayat Raj Act
was introduced and it came into effect in 1985. According this Act Zilla
Panchayat at district level, Taluk Panchayat at taluk level and Grama
Panchayat at village level were created through direct elections. The Kar-
nataka Panchayat Raj Act was framed as per the 73rd amendment to the
Indian Constitution in 1993. This was renamed as ‘Karnataka Grama
Swaraj and Panchayat Raj Act - 1993 in 2015.’ The Current Panchayat
Raj System is according to the act.
the objectives of the local government are :
• To involve the local people in solving the problems of their own
locality.
• To provide the knowledge of administration to common people.
• To help in decentralizing powers and make the administration
more efficient.
• To train or develop leadership qualities among people at the
grassroot level.
functions of local Self governments : The following are the impor-
tant functions of the local governments.
• To maintain and protect the panchayat property.
• To prepare the annual budget of the local body.
• To undertake health and family welfare programmes.
• To plan and undertake the developmental works like laying of
roads, electrification, housing and supply of drinking water, etc.
• To encourage and implement the primary, secondary, adult and
informal education programmes.
• To maintain cleanliness and sanitation of the area.
• To prevent all sorts of pollution and to provide better health
facilities.
• To provide facilities for the distribution of essential commodities
like food grains, kerosene etc.
• To ensure prompt registration of birth and deaths.
• To encourage agriculture, animal husbandry, khadi and
handicraft industries.
119
• To undertake the programmes for conservation of soil, water and
forest.
• To execute the agricultural extension programmes to help the
farmers.
• To plan and implement the welfare schemes for the benefit of SC,
ST, weaker sections, women and children.
• To provide marketing facilities, street lighting facilities and
reading room facilities.
• To collect taxes, fees and penalties.
• To identify the beneficiaries for the various and welfare pro-
grammes of the government.
Sources of income : The local self governing bodies require funds to
implement various plans and projects. The main sources of income for
local bodies are
• Amount collected through water cess, health cess, education
cess, library and reading room cess.
• Amount collected through building tax, vacant land tax, taxes
on business establishments, markets, entertainment houses and
advertising bodies.
• Taxes collected from the tourist spots.
• Rental and lease amount collected on their properties.
• Financial grants from the state government.
120
fails to call for the Grama Sabha, the Executive Officer (E.O.) of the Taluk
Panchayat should call the meeting of Grama Sabha. The Grama Sabha is
presided by either the president or the vice-president of the Grama Pan-
chayat or any voter number of the Sabha. villagers discuss the various
problems of the village, measures taken to address them and also the fu-
ture plan of action needed. The Sabha has to Choose eligible beneficiaries
for the welfare schemes.
President
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to the rank of the District Commissioner is appointed by the State
government to look after the executive work of the Zilla Panchayat. He
takes part in Zilla Panchayat meetings and discussions, but has no right
to vote.
Zilla Panchayat is like the district government. It has the vast
powers in the implementation of developmental programmes and welfare
schemes in the district. All the developmental programmes and schemes
of the government are routed through Zilla Panchayats. In addition to
these it has the following functions
• To create an atmosphere of mutual trust, confidence and
co-operation between Grama Panchayats, Taluk Panchayats and
Zilla Panchayat for successful implementation of government
projects and programmes.
• To bring about co-ordination among all the departments for
successful implementation of programmes and also to supervise
such developmental work.
• To encourage and provide support for the establishment of
co-operative societies, co-operative banks and such other
co-operative institutions.
• To execute the work as directed by the state government.
124
• Town Muncipalities or city Muncipalities – Town and Cities
• Cantonment Areas under the control of Defence.
The state government has powers to declare a particular area as a
city or a town on the basis of certain factors like population, income etc.,
These urban local bodies have many functions. They are
• To prepare the budget and get the approval of the council.
• To look after the overall administration of the town or city.
• To prepare a good town planning system and implement it.
• To provide good roads, transportation, water supply, electricity,
education, market and health facilities.
• To maintain cleanliness by providing good sewage system and
disposal of urban waste.
• Granting permission to build structures, maintainence of local
body buildings and properties.
• Registration of births and deaths.
• To provide parks, sports and entertainment facilities.
• To improve the living conditions in the slum areas by providing
facilities.
• To establish orphanages, old age homes, beggar colonies, juve
nile homes and child welfare centers.
• To undertake the construction of swimming pools, stadiums,
museums, bus stations, reading room facilities, public libraries,
veterinary hospitals, theatre for cultural programmes, whole sale
market yards and crematoriums.
• To plan for rain harvesting.
• To encourage cultural activities.
• To undertake measures for the improvement or progress of
backward classes and weaker sections.
• To encourage and undertake such measures which can help to
maintain greenery, cleanliness, and beauty of the town or the
city.
125
Sources of income
In order to bring about the development and progress of the area
and also to implement various plans and projects, the urban local bodies
require funds. The main sources of income are from the taxes levied
and collected on buildings, vacant sites, shops and vending carts etc. In
addition, they collect rent from the buildings of the local bodies
rented out to offices, market yards, shops and town halls etc. Water cess,
market cess and cess on entertainment houses yield revenue. The grants
provided by the state government help the local bodies to undertake
welfare measures.
126
administration of the local bodies. The Chief Officer is the Administrative
Officer of the municipal body. He is appointed by the Government. He
looks after the entire executive work of municipality besides providing the
necessary information to the council.
exerciSeS
iii. activities :
1. Make a list of remedies to solve problems of a local body if you
become a member of it.
2. Collect information on the reservation in local bodies.
128
Sociology
chapter - i
introduction to Sociology
in this chapter you learn :
• Origin, meaning, nature, scope and importance of Sociology
• The relationship between Sociology and other Social Sciences
• Early Western Sociologists
1. August Comet 2. Karl Marx 3. Emile Durkheim. 4. Max Weber
• Prominent Indian Sociologists
1. B.R. Ambedkar 2. G.S.Ghurye 3. M.N.Srinvias
4. C. Parvathamma 5. Iravati Karve 6. A.R.Desai
Definitions of sociology
• August Comte: “Sociology is the science of social phenomena
subject to the natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which
is the object of investigation”.
• Max Weber: “Sociology is study of Social Behaviour”
• Emile Durkheim: “Sociology is the science of social institutions”.
In general one can define Sociology as the study of human society .
origin of Sociology
The beginning of Sociology as an independent and separate field
of Science was during the middle of nineteenth century. It became a
specific science in the later fifty years. Though other social sciences
like History, Political Science, Economics, Psychology and others
have longer history, they were recognised as ‘Social Sciences’ during
18th and 19th centuries. This was due to the ‘Industrial’ and ‘French’
revolutions. The intellectual stimulation provided by social and religious
reform movements, renaissance and other movements of 16th and 18th
resulted in the ‘Origin of Sociology’.
Scope of Sociology
Sociology studies the human society. It studies human social life,
social relationships, social institutions, and social process.
nature of Sociology
Sociology has a unique place among all the social sciences. It is
different from other social sciences due to its unique nature. Sociology is
considered as an independent and separate field of study. The features
of Sociology are:
1. Sociology is a social science and not a physical science:
Sociology belongs to the group of social sciences and not to the group of
physical sciences. It studies social life and activities of human society.
It also has a close relationship with other social sciences like History,
Political Science, Economics, Psychology and Anthropology.
130
. sociology is a definitive study but not a directive study :
Sociology studies human society as it is. It never engages in ‘How it should
be’ study. It does not engage in value judgements. It aims at objective
study only. Sociology remains ‘neutral’ in value based aspects.
3. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science:
Sociology is interested in objective study that results in the formation
of empirical body knowledge only. It is not an applied science which is
interested in experiments.
. sociology is an intangible science and not a tangible science :
Sociology is not interested in some of the tangible aspects of human life.
It has interest in the form and pattern of human events. It has no interest
in any specific battle or revolution like History. It considers these events
as patterns and forms of Social conflict and subjects them to a scientific
study.
5. Sociology is a general science and not a special science : Among
all the social sciences, only Sociology studies the general interactions
involving human beings like religion, politics and economy, moral and
intellectual aspects. It has a wider scope than other social sciences.
importance of Sociology
Though Sociology is the youngest science among all the social
sciences, its uses are universal.
. sociology studies human society scientifically : Sociology
constructs a systematic body of knowledge of human society with its
scientific study. This aids progress in other fields of human life.
. supplements the personality development : Human being
is mainly a social being who is often expected to get adjusted to the
changing nature of society. By creating holistic understanding of social
structure, growth and changes and individual responsibilities, sociology
facilitates holistic personality development.
3. understanding Social processes : Sociology aids the proper
understanding of social processes by studying the religion, traditions,
culture, social rules and regulations, values and ideals of other various
societies. Sociology is helpful in understanding the inter-relationship of
various social institutions.
131
. Aids in understanding social problems and their
solutions: Every society suffers from its own social problems. Our
society is facing problems like crime, juvenile crime, communal
clashes, alcoholism, hunger, malnutrition, caste based discrimination,
unemployment, gambling, prostitution, child labour, inequality, and
various other problems. A scientific study of these problems provide
better insights which aids in scientific solutions.
. sociology supports the effective implementation of
development programmes : By studying human society scientifically,
Sociology aids the effective implementation of development programmes.
132
Relationship between sociology and Economics : Economics
studies the economical activities of human beings. Sociology seeks to
understand the interaction between economical and social activities of
human beings. It also probes how human behaviour forms the economic
activities.
In nutshell, while analysing the social behaviour, Sociology interacts
with other social sciences in its own way.
early Sociologists
1. august comte (1798-1857) : August Comte
is an important French philosopher. He is the first
Social Philosopher. He is called as ‘the father of
Sociology’. He studied society scientifically and
provided the status of science for Sociology. This
effort of August Comte was strongly supported by
Hebert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and
others. Comte used the word Sociology’ for the first
time while delivering a public lecture on ‘Positive
Philosophy’. august comte
133
Marx was born on May 05, 1818 in Trier of Germany. He was born
to Heinrich Marx and Henrietta Pressburg. His wife was Jenny von
Westphalen. Hegel, a German Philosopher, was his favourite teacher. He
received P.hd in the year 1841 and started his career in law.
His ma or contributions : Das Capital -1865, The Holy Family, the
German Ideology-1845, The Manifesto of the Communist Party -1848 and
others. Karl Marx died on March 14, 1883. Even after a century of his
death, theories advocated by Marx have remained relevant.
3. emile durkheim (1858-1917) : Emile
Durkheim is the important Sociologist of 19th
century France. He proved that Sociology is at
par with any other science with his scientific
writings. While August Comte is called as the ‘father of
Sociology’, Durkheim is called as the ‘father of the
development of Sociology’.
Durkheim was born at Epinal of Lorraine
emile durkheim
region of France on April 15, 1858. He belongs to
Jewish family and completed his studies at Ecole Normale
Supérieure and started his career as professor.
Ma or contributions of Durkheim : The Division of Labour in
Society – 1893, Sucide – 1897, The Rules of Sociological Method – 1895,
The Elementary Reforms of Religious Life – 1912 and others. He died at
the age of fifty nine.
. Ma eber : Max Weber is
an unforgettable personality in the field of Social
Sciences. He was one of the most prominent
writers and politicians of Germany. Weber had interest
in law, economics, religion, art, history and sociology.
He was born at Erfurt in West Germany on April 21,
1864 in a protestant family. Weber joined Heidelberg
University of Germany by the age 18years, and earned
his P.hd in Law. He started his teaching career at
Ma eber
Berlin University. He died at the age of 56.
Ma or Contributions : The Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of
Capitalism – 1904, The City, The Economy and the Society and others.
134
prominent indian Sociologists
Dr B.R. Ambedkar : Ambedkar’s
contribution to the building of modern India
is very important. His full name was Bhemrao
Ramji Ambedkar. He is one of the prominent social
reformer and an expert in law. He fought against the
exploitations of Dalits in India like untouchability.
He organised agitations in favour Dalit rights and
women rights.
More importantly, Ambedkar was the first to
prove that all sorts of exploitation of Dalits can Dr B.R. Ambedkar
be overcome by education. Ambedkar’s stand on
education differs from other social thinkers radically. He proposes that
education is the main tool of social transformation. According to him,
education is the only means through which one can earn resources to
understand and analyse critically. Particularly, Ambedkar argued
that to overcome India’s prejudices and prejudice induced social
discriminations, one needs logical argument and this logical argument
capacity is earned through education.
Ambedkar argued in favour of compulsory and free education to all.
He argued that education should remain as a public property as it has
the capacity to bring in social changes. With these radical thoughts,
Dr Ambedkar played a pivotal role the preparation of the Draft Indian
Constitution. Because of this proactive role played by Ambedkar, the
Indian Constitution has a unique way of assuring social justice and
equality in the entire world.
life and education : B.R. Ambedkar was born in Ambawade village
of Maharashtra on April 14, 1891. He lost his mother at the age of six
and grew up under the care of his aunt Meerabai and started his primary
education at Satara.
Ambedkhar joined the popular Elphinstone High School of Mumbai
and passed matriculation with first class in 1907. He married Ramabai.
With the help of a scholarship awarded by Maharaja of rupees twenty
five, Ambedkar earned his B.A and M.A degrees. He received his P.hd
from Columbia University in 1916. He started a fortnightly magazine
135
named ‘MOOKANAYAKA’ . His major works are Annihilation of caste
-1936, Who Are Shudras-1946, Budha and his Dhamma-1957 and
others. All his writings are published in 26 volumes from the Government
of Karnataka in Kannada. Dr B.R.Ambedkar died on December 06, 1956.
g.S ghruye (1893-1948) : Ghurye played an
important role in the establishment of departments
of Sociology in the Indian universities. His full
name is Govinda Sadashiva Ghurye. He was born
on December 12, 1893 at Malvan of Maharastra. He
completed his college education at Bombay
Unviversity. After receiving his P.hd from
Cambridge University, London, Ghurye returned to
India and started his teaching career at the
g.S ghruye
department of Sociology at Bombay University
which he founded. Caste and Race in India -1932, Scheduled Tribes
-1943, Indian Saints-1953 and many other books are written by him.
M.N.srinivas : M.N.Srinivas
is the internationally renowned Indian
sociologist. He popularised the field based
sociological studies’ in India. While he was
studying at Stanford University, his field study notes
were lost in arson due to agitation of the students.
Based on his memory of the field work done, he wrote
‘A Remembered Village’ in 1976. This has received
universal acclaim and has been republished many
times. Under the guidance of his teacher Radcliffe
Brown, he wrote a book titled “The Religion and M.N.srinivas
Society of Kodavas of South India” in 1952.
His full name was Mysore Narasimachar Srinivas and was born
to Narasimachar and Rukmini on November 16, 1916 at Mysore. He
received MA , LLB and P.hD from Bombay university. He also earned
D.lit from Oxford University. He worked as professor at Delhi. His major
contributions are: The Religion and Society of Kodavas of South
India-1952, Indian Villages, Social Change in Modern India -1966,
Remembered Village -1976.
136
C. arvathamma : C.Parvathamma is the prominent contemporary
sociologist from Karnataka. She grew up in a difficult situation and
with a lot of determination became one of the leading Sociologists of
India. she was born at Syagalli village of present Davanagere district
(then taluka of Chitradurga district) in June 1928. In absence of genuine
birth certificate, her birth date is as per the records in the school. She
lost her father when she was only a nine month old baby. With the
support from the maternal family, she grew up with her young mother.
Parvathamma completed her education in a single teacher school
at her village. She continued her middle school education at the
neighbouring Lokikere village, and high school education at
Davanagere. A teacher named Kantharaja Shetty arranged for her
intermediate education at Mysore by getting accommodation facility in
a hostel. She finished her intermediate education at Maharani College,
Mysore.
Parvathamma completed her intermediate education in Arts stream
with second class. She later joind BA honours in Social Philosophy at
Maharaja College, Mysore. She earned first rank in BA honours. She
sustained her entire education on scholarships. A professor guided her to
continue education in a foreign university.
C.Parvathamma returned to Karnataka after completing higher
education in foreign university. She made genuine attempts to spread the
learning of Sociology across Karnataka proves her commitment and sense
social concerns. Her major contributions are 'Politics and Religion',
'Sociological Essays on Veerashaivism, and her studies on
socio-economic status of Scheduled Caste and Tribes.
Iravati Karve : Iravati Karve is recognised
as the prominent sociologist of Inida. She was the
student of G.S.Gurye. She was the daughter –in-law of
famous social reformist Maharshi Karve and had
concern in social and national issues. She had her
MA from Bombay University and worked at Pune
College as professor. Her contributions are:
Kinship and Organisation in India, Indian Society,
Institutions and Relationship. Iravati Karve
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a.r.desai (1915-1994) : A.R.Desai is important among the
prominent sociologists of India. He worked as the UGC national fellow
and as Head of Department of Sociology of Bombay University. His full
name is Akshay Ramlal Desai and was born in 1915. He was the student
of G.S.Gurye and later taught and became head of the same department.
As he was following the Marxist Ideology in his sociological studies, he
was identified as Marxist Sociologist’. His The Sociological Background
of Indian Nationalism’ work is the best work. Indian Rural Sociology,
Slums and Urbanisation are his major works. He worked actively in Indian
Sociological Society.
exerciSeS
138
5. Write a note on Ambedkar's early life.
6. Write a note on prominent sociologist from Karnataka
C.Parvathamma.
7. Write a note on noted Indian Sociologist M.N.Srinivas.
I . Activities :
1. Collect the pictures of prominent Indian sociologists.
2. Collect the important sociologists from Karnataka.
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chapter - 2
culture
in this chapter you learn :
• Meaning and nature of Culture.
• Features of Culture.
• Relationship between society and culture.
• Importance of cultural rituals and diversity.
Meaning of culture
Human being is not only a social being but also a cultural being.
Culture keeps human beings different from animals. Every human being
can be considered as a cultural representative. Culture and society are
two faces of the same coin. Human beings Social, religious, political,
economical and spiritual aspects are decided by culture. Culture is
considered as the main aspect of social change. It is considered as the
biological system of social tradition.
Culture indicates progress in life style, music, literature, art,
science and technology of any given human society. Culture makes human
society unique and meaningful. The word Culture’ is used in specific
sense in Sociology and Anthropology.
Culture means the transfer of knowledge, experience, belief, value,
behaviour, hierarchy, relationship from generation to generation. Hence,
culture is called as a system of life and knowledge shared among a social
group.
Culture means a life pattern of a group of people. It contains the life
symbols along with beliefs and values. Usually, they are transferred from
one generation to another.
Meaning of culture
The word culture is derived from the Latin word ‘Colere’. ‘Colere’
means cultivate or tend in Latin. During medieval period culture was
in the form of Agriculture to indicate the improved yield of sown seeds.
By 18th and 19th century, it came to indicate the human behavioural
patterns.
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Definitions of Culture
According E.B.Tylor, “Culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, rules and regulations, traditions and any other
capabilities earned by the human being as a member of society”.
According to Malinowski, “the tool created by human being to design
his aims of life is called as Culture”.
types of culture
Culture is divided into material culture and non-material culture.
Material culture includes all those physical objects that are visible to
eyes and the tools used by human beings. Non-material culture includes
thoughts, ideas, beliefs and values.
In order to explain the unique features of culture, Ogburn divides
culture into material and non-material culture. Both are human made.
According to him, material culture is created by human beings by
converting natural resources into man made structures like House,
building, bridge, road, dam, machines, production centres, industries,
computer, technology and others. Material culture is called civilisation.
Material culture undergoes change swiftly. Non material culture means
human achievements. Tradition, belief, ritual and custom, moral values,
ideals, Art, literature, religion, language and many others are examples of
non-material culture. When compared to material culture, non material
culture undergoes slow change.
Features of culture
. Culture is abstract : Culture means the life style of a social
group. The accepted way of life is carried from one generation
to another generation. This process of shifting remains abstract.
Hence culture is abstract.
2. culture is social : Culture is not personal. It means sharing a
community’s way of life, food, dress, rituals and living with them.
Hence Culture is social.
3. culture is learnt : Culture does not come by birth. It is not
nature made either. This gets formed in the interactions with
various members of the society. This means a child receives
culture through the process of socialisation. Behaviours learned
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through interactions with various people, discussion is called
culture. Children learn from teachers, from elders in the house,
and they also learn from friends.
4. culture means co-existence : Culture provides opportunities
to every individual to share his ideas with others. Thus, culture
assures sharing opportunities. This ensures sharing of traditions,
values, knowledge, beliefs, and other aspects necessary human
existence.
5. culture is continuous : Every culture grows imbibing new
aspects into it. Though art, imagination, rules and regulations
get formulated into a complex environment; it sustains itself with
minor changes.
. Culture is diverse : Every social group has its own culture.
Hence, culture is not uniform. Aspects of culture like customs,
moral values, art, belief, language differ from society to society
considerably. The difference is also visible in rural, urban and
tribal societies. In food habit, the difference is visible when
compared south Karnataka with North Karnataka. Not only
this, even people living in the same place tend to have different
culture. Achieving unity in this diversity is important.
importance of culture
. Culture is treasure of knowledge : Culture provides the
knowledge needed for the social and physical existence of the
human beings. Animals survive and get adjusted with their
natural environment with the help of instincts. Human
beings have to utilise their learned knowledge in order to survive.
Language is part of culture. The future generation is guided by
the present generation using language as a tool. The present and
the past knowledge is stored in the form of proverbs, paintings,
folksongs, writings and passed on to the next generation either
orally or by written texts. Based on these instructions, the future
generation forms its own culture and marches into the future.
Hence, culture is not only a bundle of traditions it is also a treasure
of knowledge needed for social development.
2. culture explains situations : Culture explains the situations
of a particular period of time. The studies of culture reveal the
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evolution of human society in relation to the contemporary
situations. The caves and the architecture of temples in and
around Aihole and Badami of Bagalkote district reveal the
progress of the human society of that particular period.
. Culture defines alues : Value is the tool that analyses the
attitudes, behaviour and thoughts of a particular society. The
Value advocated by our constitution seeks equality. People are
expected to live without discrimination based on caste, creed and
language. This value orientation creates a thought process. This
thought process builds a set of attitudes. Hence, culture has the
capacity to strengthen the human relationships.
. Culture e plains behavioural models : Culture provides aims
and means to achieve them to human society. It supports those
behaviours that are complementary to societal aims. Similarly, it
punishes those behaviours that are against the societal aims. The
correction done the teachers and elders whenever undesirable
behaviour happens in children is an example of this process.
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Importance and significance of cultural rituals and diversity
We witness one or the other cultural ritual every day. Discussion on
every such ritual is difficult. Hence, we shall concentrate on few examples
that explain the role culture in ensuring the good of human society.
Fairs are the most important cultural rituals of rural societies of
India. A fair is not only a religious expression; it also functions as a
temporary market for the neighbouring villages. It is a place where
agricultural produce is sold or bought. This market is utilised to sell or
buy the domestic animals also. They are also the widow for entertainment
soon after harvest season.
People participate in the fairs irrespective of their caste, creed and
language. Fairs reinforce social relationships. Often fairs have people
with different language and culture displaying their skills in the form
of circus. Similarly, various artisans display their skills here. These
displays are also culture expressions. Many performers narrate the local
versions of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The groups of people who participate in these fairs belong to
different language, custom and culture groups. They all differ in
their physical appearances too. But they assemble in these fairs to
celebrate. They also appear to be showcasing our constitutions’ desire of
achieving unity in diversity. Like this, individual diversity is marked in these
community rituals. Often, these are considered as the motivating
aspects of social life. Hence, cultural practices have a pivotal role in human
societies.
Similarly, during Republic day celebrations, the entire nation’s
cultural diversity is showcased. Tableaus depicting various cultural
aspects of India get displayed at our capital city. A tableau displaying the
rural life of northern Karnataka is displayed along with another tableau
displaying the rural Rajasthan. Every year, the Republic Day celebrations
showcase our unity in diversity.
Language is another example of this cultural expression. Children
growing up in a social environment that has multi languages, learn more
than two three languages. This learning not only involves that language,
but it also includes the culture of that language. Thus, they go beyond
the narrow jacket of religion or caste. Another simple example is that of
various labourers working together in factory set up. Children growing
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up in this multi cultural social set up learn to mark festivals and other
rituals of the social groups present there. This aids respecting the
cultural diversity. The respect for cultural diversity fosters peace and
development in human societies.
exerciSeS
145
chapter - 3
Social inStitutionS
in this chapter you learn :
• Meaning, nature and importance of social institutions
• The relationship between human beings and social institutions
• Role and functions of social institutions
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. social Institutions have Rules : The rules of the social
institutions regulate the behaviour of the members. The members
who violate the rules are prohibited from the participation. Social
institutions direct their members to perform roles as per the rules
strictly. In families, the role of elders and younger ones are fixed
as per the rules framed by the individual families.
. social Institutions fulfil the basic needs : The social
institutions fulfil the basic needs of human beings like shelter,
food, sexual desire, procreation and personality development.
Various social institutions work in coordination to fulfil these
needs.
. ritten and unwritten rules and regulations : The social
institutions have both written and unwritten rules and
regulations. The customs, traditions, value systems and others
remain unwritten. The modern social institutions like courts,
schools and governments have written rules and regulations.
5. interconnected relationship : The social institutions in a given
society remain interconnected. In a traditional society, the family
took care of bringing up a child, whereas in modern society, the
school shares the role of bringing up a child. Children who come
from different families undergo socialisation in the school. The
social institutions remain interconnected and complement each
other.
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punishment, reprimands and rustication. If the desired
correction is not achieved, then the school resorts to legal
course of action. Like this, social institutions thrive to regulate
the human behaviours.
. social Institutions provide roles to individuals : The social
institutions assign role to their members based on their age and
other yardsticks. Family assigns relationships based on the age.
Similarly, social institutions assign role to members by defining
their relationships.
Functions and role of Social institutions
Every society has its own social institutions. Let us first understand
Family’, an important social institution found in all societies. It fulfils the
needs of human beings. The important functions of family are:
Functions of Family :
. Nourishment of the members : The family assigns relationship to
all its members. The members function as per their roles. The main role
of the family is to nourish its members. The elders like grandparents take
care of the babies with caution till they become grownups. Family also
provides nursing for the sick member or the week elder member.
2. Security and Socialisation : The family educates the children
about interacting with society through socialisation. It also provides
social security to the members. It mainly provides skills and nourishment
needed for the younger members to become part of the society as adults.
Functions of Marriage:
1. Social Sanction: Marriage is an important social institution. It
provides social sanction for a man and woman to live together. Marriage
provides entry to the family life. It allows the couple to stay together and
lead a life of religious, economic and cultural life. Marriage is as old as
human civilization. It has also undergone various changes too.
2. Base for the Family: Marriage is the base of the family. The
procreation of children, their upbringing, and nourishment take place
within the family. Marriage directs the other relationships in the
family. Marriage often creates unity. Marriage brings together people from
different social background and foster unity.
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3. legal Sanctity in relationship: Marriage is not only a
relationship between a man and a woman it is also a relationship between
their respective families. The child born out of this marriage is the legal
heir for the property of both the families. The continuity of the society is
ensured through marriage and family. The relationship is guided by the
law of the land also.
religion
Religion is another social institution found in all societies. Religion
grew along with human civilisation. The following are its functions:
1. Socialisation: Religion is one of the main medium of
socialisation. It aids the spread of values like truthfulness, patience,
peace, sacrifice and others by various customs and rituals.
2. Social unity: Religion fosters unity. Truthfulness, honesty and
non-violence are some of the religious values that aid the social unity.
By employing symbols and customs, religion creates unity among the
members.
. rotection of values: Religion aides in the preservation of values
like truthfulness, honesty, and non-violence. These values are supported
by all the religions. All of them instruct values in human life.
4. Social control: Religion is one of the major means of
achieving social control. It controls the human life through God and spiritual
concepts. Religion guides its members to be disciplined and civilised.
There is a need to understand this function of religion and stop hating
other religions.
exerciSeS
149
II. Answer the following :
1. What is a social institution?
2. Explain the functions of family.
3. What are the features of Social institutions?
4. What are the types of Social institutions?
I . Activities :
1. Make a list of social institutions with pictures.
2. Organise group discussion on the functions of social institutions
3. Do the functions of family by children and give the information
about importance of social institutions.
V. project :
1. Organise a programme to create awareness on ill effects of child
marriage.
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chapter - 4
typeS oF Society
in this chapter you learn :
• Meaning and types of Society • Hunting and Gathering society
• Pastoral society • Nomadic Society
• Agricultural society • Rural and Urban society
• Industrial society • Information society
Meaning of Society
Society is the most prominent subject for Sociology. Sociology is a
science devoted to the study human society scientifically. Human
being and society are the two faces of the same coin. Human being
cannot live alone, and prefer to live in social groups. Society aids
holistic development of human beings.
In Society, many aspects like jobs, life style, culture, thoughts, and
rituals differ from one geographical area to another. If one enters a
rural area, numerous cattle, sheep and other domestic animals are
visible. Similarly, farmers working in fields are also visible. A visit to
cities like Mumbai and Bengaluru reveals high rise buildings, crowded
human beings, more number vehicles, slums and industries. Government
offices, hospitals and many other modern institutions can be seen.
The word Society originates from the Greek word ‘Socius’ which
means companionship or friendship. The structure that grow out of these
interacting people can be called a society.
Definitions of society
“The web of social relationships is society. The complex relationship
of social institutions and social groups is Society.” – MacIver and Page
nature :
1. Society is community of communities: Grouping of people
is called as community. Society is formed with the grouping many
communities. Every society has family, neighbourhood, rural and urban
settings, political parties and other communities. Hence, H.M.Johnson
says “Communities community is society.”
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. society is web of social relationships: Society does not mean
group of people only. It is a group with dynamic interaction between its
members. The scope of its relationships is vast and varied. It includes
teacher-student, Parents-children, Patients-doctors, husband-wife, and
many other relationships. Hence, MacIver and Page defined society as a
web of social relationships’.
. similarity and Resemblance: Resemblances play an
important role in society’s structure. Resemblances in various physical and
psychological traits of human beings in society, form the base of society.
Since similarities are visible in aspirations, values, interaction, love and
affection among people, a sense of unity prevails among them.
. Cooperation and Division of labour: Cooperation means getting
together of people to work towards a common goal. Since the spirit of
cooperation prevails among people, they respond to each other’s needs.
Division of labour means ‘Sharing task among a group of people’.
Division of labour is done based on age, interest, skill and sex of the
individual. Hence, cooperation and division of labour are mutually exclusive.
5. Social control: Society has its own way of regulating human
behaviour. The modern society regulates its members though formal
controls like laws, rules and constitution. It also regulates through
informal medium like customs, morals and traditions.
. society is dynamic: Society is always dynamic. Without change
no society survives long. But the rate of change may vary. The rate of
change is slow in a rural society and the rate of change in a urban society
is fast.
importance of Society
. universal: The human life and society go hand in hand. Human
life is made possible by society. Society was there before the birth of an
individual and remains even after his death. Hence society is universal.
2. necessary for protection and nourishment: Society is needed
for the nourishment and protection of individuals and social groups. With
its complex structure of cooperation, division of labour, social control,
institutions, and similarities society takes care of the needs of human
beings.
3. Society plays major role in personality formation: Society
decides the aims and patterns of human beings. The features of human
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nature develop in the society itself. Society provides proper channels to
showcase one’s talents. It regulates the natural human weakness and
desires facilitating healthy growth.
4. reinforces life: The vast aspect of society has enveloped our life.
It not only envelopes from outside, it envelopes form inside as well. The
relationship between human beings and society is not a simple one. It is a
complex one forming an individual’s uniqueness, thoughts and emotions.
types of Societies
Society is not uniform. There are different types of societies. Societies
are divided based on their nature of jobs and work. The following are the
types of societies:
1. Hunting and Gathering society. 2. Pastoral Society.
3. Agricultural Society/ Rural Society. 4. Urban Society.
5. Industrial Society. 6. Information Society.
1. hunting and gathering Society: Hunting and Gathering society
is the first stage of human evolution. It is a simple and ancient society.
It is very small in size. The human beings were engaged in fishing,
hunting animals and gathering foods from plants and trees. The role
and status in the society were fixed based on age and sex. There was no
desire of accumulation of wealth. Sharing the sources is the important
trait. Hunting was done using stone tools.
2. pastoral Society: Pastoral Society is the second stage in the
evolution of human societies. The process of engaging in animal
husbandry of cattle like sheep, goat, cow, and buffalo for general
sustenance is called pastoral society. These consisted of several thousand
people. Cattle herding was the main occupation. The society was under
the leadership of single leader. Apart from tending cattle for sustenance,
the members were engaged in fishing, hunting and food gathering works.
3. nomadic and semi-nomadic Society: Anthropologists had
opined that only pastoral societies as the nomadic society in the
beginning. According to encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Nomadic life is
a type of life’. Movement of people from one place to another place in
search of food and grassland, business is called as nomadic life. This is
different from migration. Though the communities stayed for good in
a particular place to practice agriculture and other professions, they
continued to move out for cattle herding. Such communities are called as
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‘Semi Nomadic communities. Based on the social security, available
facilities for education and economic activities the social status of the
nomadic tribes is understood.
4. agricultural Society/rural Society: At this stage of
societal evolution, human beings left nomadic life and settled in a place
engaging in agriculture. This society is a village based society. Majority
of the people engage in agriculture related works. Producing food
primarily through agriculture is another important feature. ‘Plough’
driven by animals are used for agriculture.
India is called ‘as a land of villages and agriculture’. In the ancient
literature of India, there are references of villages and their
administration. In Rig-Veda, the head of the village is called
‘Gramastha’. A group of villages was called as ‘visha’, ’Jana’, or ‘Desha’ for
administrative purposes. In Mahabartha, the head of the village is called
as ‘gramini’. The chief of group of villages is called as ‘Dashamuki’,
‘Shatamuki’, ‘Adhipathi’.
Bogarodus opines that, “The human civilisation evolved in the cradle
of Villages’. Though village is an ancient system, it is not easy to define
it. Bogardus says, “Village is a group of families engaged in simple life of
thrift with less population density, and have primary relationships.” As
per S.C.Dube, “A group of families residing in a place is called village”. In
this society, socialisation and social control function efficiently.
With the invention of ‘plough’ during 3000 BC, the agricultural
revolution started. Villages are the life line of this country. There are
about six lakh villages in India and they have retained the Indian culture
and tradition intact. Majority of the people live in rural India. in rural
areas, 59% of men and 75% of women are engaged in agriculture directly
for their sustenance.
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3. Simple economic life: Indian farming is based on nature. Rural
life is simple and thrifty. As there is limited source of income which is
low, rural people, lead a life of simple and non luxury. In spite of growth
in civilisation, rural people have retained their traditional customs and
practices. Their dependence of agriculture and tradition is the main
reason for their low demands.
. Neighbourhood : Neighbourhood is another main feature of rural
societies. It takes part in all the public celebrations, rituals marking
death and birth, and in festivals. In Karnataka the neighbourhood is
identified as Keri’ or Oni’. In Maharashtra, it is called as wad’.
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farmers from this exploitation, the court of directors introduced
Ryotwari system in 1817.
Mahalwari system : When the Zamindari system and Ryotwari
system failed to yield desired results, the British thought of another
system name Mahalwari system. Under this system, based on the yield
of estate or Mahal, tax was fixed on the owners of the such Mahal. A few
among the Mahal owners were selected and given the roles of supervising
and collecting taxes.
tenancy System : The farmer who has secured the rights to till
land is called tenant. Under this system there two types of tenants:
permanent tenants and temporary tenants. Permanent tenants
command little ownership over the land they are tilling, whereas the
temporary tenants have no claim over the land they are tilling. The
land lords always had the right to take away land from the temporary
tenants and hand it over to others as per their wish. In order prevent this
exploitation, governments brought in ‘Tenancy Prevention’ acts. This
move is called as ‘Land Reforms’. Maximum land ceiling limit is put
under this act.
. urban society : Urban societies are called ideal societies. They
are very complex in their structures. Urban societies have dense
population involving in varieties of jobs and works. Often they are
pushed to the brink of severe problems due to overcrowding of
population. Still, the urban societies are always welcomed. In recent
days, the growth of urban centres is on the positive side. The urban
society has become modern society.
Urban way of life is not new to India. It is one of those oldest
civilisations that had urban based living. Sindhu Civilisation fostered
the most improved urban way of life after Mesopotamia and Egypt
civilisations. We had urban centres at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal
and Kalibangan. Urban life and civilised life complement each other. In
other words, urban life emerges out of civilization.
. Industrial society: Industrialisation gave rise to another type of
society, the industrial society. Utilising scientific production ways and
searching for energy sources is the feature of this society. Honk Kong,
Singapore, South Korea, Brazil and Mexico join this list. Majority of the
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population depends on industrial work for their sustenance. And a very
small group depend on agriculture for sustenance.
In an Industrialised society, the production depends on the
automatic technology. The production is in large quantity. This depends
on division of labour. Due to the influence of industrial revolution, there
was a paradigm shift in the process of production in the European
societies. As a result, the production process became mechanised.
In the beginning they were powered by steam energy and later by
electricity. Mechanisation in textile industry, which resulted in mechanised
weaving, has reached a stage where anything is melted in huge boilers
now. This includes iron also. The following are features of urban societies:
1. industry Based economy: In this, society is divided into many
classes. It will have capitalists, labour class and business class. Most of
the economic activities are related to industries.
. rofessional works: Most of the works in the society are
professional by nature. They need specific training and skills.
3. transport and communication: In industrial society,
transportation and communication are expanded. This network is used
for transporting raw materials and finished goods also.
4. increase in migration: Industrial revolution left a deep
impact on rural agricultural economy. This in turn affected the traditional
occupations and institutions. Due its influence, the joint families of rural
societies became nuclear families. Moreover, industrial societies foster
individuality due to professionalization of labour.
. Information society: As the information society is needed for
all, it has assumed more importance. In this society, people take
help from information technologies to solve their problems and
challenges. The information society helps to attain education, and do
commerce and business needed for the future. The studies and theories on
information societies focus on two issues related to the hold of knowledge
on the economy the first issue is that of the influence of information
technology on socio-economical life. And the second issue is that the
very information itself has become a commodity. Hence, knowledge has
become the key to future productivity. It is no more the property of any
individual or an institution. Knowledge is getting exchanged over new
tools. Computers have become the information storage hubs.
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exerciSeS
I . Activities
1. Compare and contrast the urban life and rural life with the help
of the teacher.
2. Conduct group discussion on Ideal society concept.
V. project
1. Make list of societies in your village. Interview a former to
understand the problems agriculture and make list them.
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GeoGraphy
Chapter - I
We are living on the Earth. It is the third planet from the Sun.
The Earth is the home for all forms of life like plants, animals and
human beings because of its suitable distance from the Sun, range of
temperature, life supporting gases, atmosphere, water cycle etc. Our
Earth is called by many names. Some of them ‘Living Planet’, ‘Unique
Planet’, ‘Watery Planet’, ‘Blue Planet’.
Size of the earth : Distribution of Land and water bodies
The Earth is the fifth largest planet in the
Sun’s family. The diameter of the Earth is
approximately 4 times greater than the
Moon and it is around 107 times less than
that of the Sun.
The total geographical area of the
Earth is 510 million sq kms of which 361
million sq kms (70.78%) is covered by water
and 149 million sq kms (29.22%) is
covered by land. Thus the Earth has unequal
distribution of land and water. The ratio
earth
between the land and the water bodies is
1: 2.43.
The Earth’s shape is often described as Geoid, which literally means
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Earth shaped’, or Oblate spheroid’. The Earth is flattened at the poles
and bulges at the equator. The Equatorial diameter of the Earth is
12756 kms and the Polar diameter is 12714
kms Equatorial circumference - 40,076 kms
and Polar circumference - 40,008 kms. The
difference of 42 kms in diameter is the proof
for regarding the Geoid shape of the Earth.
The land bodies of the Earth are known
as Continents. There are seven continents,
namely Asia, Africa, North America, South
America, Antarctica, Europe and Australia.
The continents are land masses of large size.
Shape of the earth Asia is the largest continent in the world while
Australia is the smallest continent. The large
water bodies on the Earth are called oceans. There are four major oceans.
They are the Pacific ocean, the Atlantic ocean, the Indian ocean and the
Arctic ocean. The Pacific is the largest and deepest ocean while the Arctic
is the smallest and shallowest ocean.
The land and water bodies are unevenly distributed between
the Northern and the Southern hemispheres. The Northern Hemisphere
has 60% of land and 40% of water. Therefore it is called the ‘Land
Hemisphere’. On the other hand there is 81% of water and 19% of land
in the Southern Hemisphere and so it is called the ‘Water Hemisphere’.
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161
World physical
LatItUDeS : Latitude is an imaginary line which joins all the
places which have the same angular distance north or south of the
equator. It is measured in degrees. The Equator (00) is the longest line of
latitude known as the Great circle. It is equal to the circumference of the
Earth. Other lines of latitudes are of shorter length. The length of lines of
latitude decreases with the distance from the equator. All lines of
latitudes are circles and parallel to the Equator. Therefore, lines of latitude
are called parallels of latitude. There are 900 of latitudes on each side of the
equator - 900 of North and South are points. Including equator totally
there are 181 latitudes on the globe. The ground distance between two
degrees of latitudes is 110.4 kms.
Important latitudes
1. 00 latitude-Equator or Great
Circle.
2. 23½0 North latitude - Tropic of
Cancer.
3. 23½0 South latitude - Tropic of
Capricorn
4. 66½0 North latitude – Arctic
Circle.
5. 66½0 South latitude – Antarctic
Circle. paraLLeLS oF LatItUDe aND
MerIDIaNS oF LoNGItUDe
6. 90 0
North – North pole.
7. 900 South - South pole.
164
exerCISeS
V. activity :
List out the countries of the Eastern hemisphere and Western
hemisphere on the basis of longitudes.
165
Chapter - 2
LIthoSphere
In this chapter you learn :
• The meaning of lithosphere and its importance.
• The structure of the earth and its composition.
• The structure of rocks.
• The internal forces-volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunami etc.,
and their effects on life on the earth.
• The external forces like temperature, wind, rain and rivers.
• The meaning of underground water and its impertance.
Our planet Earth is more than 4.6 billion years old and still in the
process of changing. Man is in quest of understanding this change and
eager to know more about inside the earth. What is inside the earth is
still a mystery for man. With years of study and research human beings
have been able to get information about the materials inside the earth
up to 10 to 12 kms. Going beyond this depth is very difficult due to the
increase of temperature (10 C for every 32 meters).
To understand more about the earth’s interior humans are
dependent on indirect evidences such as seismic waves, volcanic
materials etc. The earth’s interior comprises of various materials in
different forms. On the basis of density of material, chemical composition
and physical state of matter the earth’s interior is classified into 3 main
layers. They are the Crust, the Mantle and the Core.
166
the Crust : The crust is the uppermost layer of the earth, rich in
Silica, Aluminium and Magnesium. The depth of this layer is around 60
kms from the surface. In the upper part of the crust only lighter materials
are found. It is called SIAL (Silica and Aluminium) or continental crust.
The lower part of the crust is rich in Silica and Magnesium and it is called
SIMA or oceanic crust.
the Mantle: The Mantle is the second
and the middle layer of the earth. The depth
of this layer is up to 2900 kms from the
surface. The materials are in semi liquid or
partially molten state which is called magma.
The mantle is composed of dense and rigid
rocks which have predominance of minerals
like magnesium and iron. The mantle has two
parts a) Upper mantle or the Asthenosphere
is partially in a molten condition and b) Lower
mantle or the Mesosphere in solid condition.
The contact zone of the crust and the mantle
is called ‘Mohorovicic Discontinuity’ or Moho.
While the boundary that separates the Mantle
from the Core is called ‘Gutenberg Discontinu-
ity’. Here the rocks are different in chemical
composition from those below and above.
the Core: This is the innermost
layer of the earth. The depth of this layer is Interior of the earth
up to 6371 kms from the surface. The most
important materials of the core are Nickel and Ferrous (Iron). So it is
known as NIFE. The core is divided into two sub layers a) The outer core
is known as molten core, where the materials are in liquid and in molten
form. b) The inner core known as solid core.
Facts File
Some deepest land mines in the world
• The Akola peninsula of Russia is around 12 kms.
• The Kimberly diamond mine in South Africa is around 3.9 kms
• The Gold mine at KGF in India is around 1.5 kms.
167
roCKS
Rocks are the solid inorganic substances that are found in the crust
of the earth. They are aggregates of minerals. Rocks are formed due to
various natural processes. On the basis of mode of formation, rocks are
classified into three types. They are (1) Igneous rocks, (2) Sedimentary
rocks and (3) Metamorphic rocks.
1. Igneous rocks : The word Igneous’ means fire’ derived from the
Latin word ‘Ignis’ or Sanskrit word ‘Agni’. Igneous rocks are those which
have been formed by the cooling of molten matter of the earth. Igneous
rocks were the first to be formed, therefore they are also called Primary
rocks.
the two important types of igneous rocks are :
168
The rock materials in the liquid or molten state is called ‘magma’ and when
it comes out from the earth is called ‘lava’.
2. Sedimentary rocks : The word Sedimentary is derived from a
Latin word ‘Sedimentum’, which means ‘settling down’. Sedimentary
rocks are formed by the agency of water, wind and ice. These agents
break and erode the igneous rocks, transport those broken fragments
and deposit them at certain places. The deposit of these materials
often occurs in the form of layers or strata. Therefore sedimentary
rocks are called stratified rocks. The sedimentary rocks are formed
after the disintegration of igneous rocks. Therefore they are called
secondary rocks. These rocks are also called aqueous rocks because
they are formed in the water bodies (Lake, Sea and Ocean beds).
Example:
a) Granite -> Gneiss d) Sandstone -> Quartzite
b) Basalt -> Schist e) Coal -> Graphite
c) Limestone -> Marble f) Graphite -> Diamond
Metamorphic rocks are the hardest rocks on the earth. These rocks
supply precious stones. ex :-Sapphire, Ruby and Emerald and Diamonds etc.
ForCeS oF the earth’S CrUSt
The Earth has two important forces that change the face of the earth.
They are internal forces and external forces.
1. INterNaL ForCeS
These are the forces which originate inside the crust and influence
the surface features of the earth eg., Volcanoes, Earthquakes etc. The
internal forces are also called Endogenic forces.
VoLCaNoeS
A volcano is a vent or narrow
opening in the Earth’s crust
connected by a pipe to an underlying
magma chamber, through which
magma, rock fragments, lava, ash,
steam, flames and other gases are
emitted from the interior of the
Earth. A passage in the earth’s
crust through which magma and
other volcanic materials are ejected
is called ‘Vent’. The funnel-shaped Structure of a volcano
hollow at the top of the cone of a
volcano is called ‘Crater’. A large basin-shaped crater bounded by steep
sides is known as ‘Caldera’.
types of Volcanoes : On the basis of the periodicity or frequency of
eruption volcanoes are classified into three types.
170
active Volcanoes: Volcanoes which constantly eject lava, gases,
ashes etc., are known as active volcanoes. There are about 600 active
volcanoes in the world eg., Mt. Stromboli and Mt. Etna in Italy, St. Helens
in USA, Mauna Loa in Hawaiian islands, Pinatubo in Philippines etc.
Dormant Volcanoes: Dormant volcanoes are those which
have erupted in the past and are likely to erupt again but have remained
inactive for fairly long periods eg., Mt. Vesuvius in Italy, Mt. Fujiyama in
Japan, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Mt. Krakatoa in Indonesia.
extinct Volcanoes: Extinct volcanoes are those which were active in
the remote geological periods. These are not likely to be active once again
eg., Gorongoro in Tanzania, Arthur’s Seat in Scotland.
acts file
Super volcanic eruptions of the world
1. Mt. Vesuvius (Italy)
2. Mt. Krakatoa (Indonesia)
3. Mt. Pelee (West Indies)
4. Mt. Fujiyama or Fuji, a volcano worshipped by people of Japan.
earthQUaKeS
Earthquake is a shock or series of shocks or tremors, due to a
sudden movement of crustal rocks generated within the crust or mantle.
The point of origin of the earthquake in the earth’s crust is called the
Seismic focus or Hypocentre.
171
The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the seismic focus is
called the Epicentre.
The scientific study of earthquakes is called Seismology. The
origin, time, velocity and direction of seismic waves are recorded by an
instrument known as Seismograph.
earthquake Waves
The earthquake or seismic waves originate in the seismic focus and
travel towards the epicentre in ripples or concentric circles. The three
important earthquake waves are:
1. primary Waves (pW): Primary waves are also known as
longitudinal or compressional waves. These are the fastest earthquake
waves and the first waves to reach the surface. They can pass through
solid, liquid and gaseous matters.
2. Secondary Waves (SW): Secondary waves are also known as
172
transverse or distortional waves. These waves cannot pass through
liquids. They reach the epicentre after the primary waves.
3. Surface Waves (LW): Surface waves are also called long
waves. They are the slowest earthquake waves but are responsible for the
highest destruction on the surface of the earth.
The magnitude and intensity of earthquakes is recorded by using richter
scale.
The Earthquakes are very dangerous and destructive. They cause
large-scale deaths, loss to property, landslides, flash floods, damage to
bridges, roads, railway lines etc.
tsunami : Tsunami is a large sea wave occasionally experienced
along the coasts of Japan and in other regions caused by an underwater
earthquake. In Japanese language ‘Tsunami’ means ‘harbour waves’.
acts file
1. On 26th Dec, 2004 a Tsunami in the Indian ocean swept the coastal
low lands of Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand etc.
2. On 11th Mar, 2011 a Tsunami in the Pacific ocean caused huge
damage in the eastern coastal regions of Japan (Fukushima, Sendai,
Miyagi etc).
3. Some seismic recording centers of India: Gowribidanur, Kodaikanal,
Pune, Hyderabad, Dehradun.
173
earthquakes and Volcanic regions
2. external forces:
External forces are the natural forces that modify the surface of
the earth. The important forces are temperature, wind, rainfall,
snowfall, river, glacier etc., These forces act on the surface of the earth
and constantly change its features.
Weathering: Weathering is the wearing away or breaking down or
gradual disintegration of rocks by agents (Temperature, rainfall, wind
etc.) present in the atmosphere. The three types of weathering are:
1. Mechanical weathering: When the rock is broken and
disintegrated without any chemical alteration, the process
is called Physical weathering or Mechanical weathering. The
important processes of mechanical weathering are Granular
disintegration, Block disintegration and Exfoliation. The agents
of mechanical weathering are temperature, wind, frost etc.
2. Chemical weathering : Chemical weathering is mainly brought
about by the action of substances dissolved in rainwater. This
type of weathering results in changing the composition of
minerals present in the rocks. There are four types of chemical
weathering. They are :
174
a. oxidation: In this type of chemical weathering oxygen dissolved
in water reacts with certain minerals, especially iron, to form
oxides.
b. Carbonation: When the rainwater falls on limestone rocks, the
calcium carbonate present in the rocks absorbs carbon dioxide
from rainwater and becomes calcium bicarbonate.
c. hydration: Hydration is the process by which some minerals
in crystalline form absorb water and become a powdery mass.
Feldspar is a common rock forming crystalline mineral.
d. Solution: When the rain falls on the surface of the land,
rainwater dissolves soluable minerals present in the rocks.
3. Biological weathering: Living organisms like plants, animals
and human beings play a role in one way or another in the
weathering of rocks. This type of weathering includes both
physical and chemical weathering. (a) plants: Growth and
expansion of roots. (b) animals: Burrowing animals, earthworms,
rabbits, rats. (c) human beings: Mining, quarrying, construction
works.
DeNUDatIoN
agents of Denudation: Denudation is the action of changing
landscape or changing the surface of the earth by various natural
agents such as Rivers, Glaciers, Underground water, Wind, Sea waves
etc., The work of these natural agents are Erosion, Transportation and
Deposition. These processes produce distinct relief features.
river: A mass of fresh water flowing from its source to mouth along
a definite course is called River’. The river is a most prominent agent of
denudation. The place where a river takes its birth is called ‘Source’ and
‘Mouth’ is the point where it meets sea or ocean. ‘Tributaries’ are the
feeders or small streams which supply water to river along its course. The
point where a tributary joins the main river is called Confluence’.
Course of the river: The course of a river from its source to mouth is
divided into three stages. These stages are Upper course, Middle course
and Lower course.
175
Stages of the river course and associated land forms
river
176
“The work of river is called “Fluvial Cycle”.
Facts File:
Estuary – Tidal mouth of a river broadening into the sea / ocean.
Delta – A fan shaped, low lying area of deposits at a river mouth.
177
UNDerGroUND Water
Underground water is the subsoil water found on account of
percolation or seepage of water into the ground. The underground
water which seeps into the ground passes through various
layers of rocks. The rocks which allow the water to percolate is called
‘pervious’ or 'porous’ rocks and the rocks which do not allow the water
inside are called ‘impervious’ or ‘non-porous’ rocks. The porous rock beds
which hold large amount of underground water are called aquifers. The
pervious rocks allows and hold water and form springs. A Spring is a
place where the underground water comes out naturally.
types of spring:
1. perennial spring: It is a spring through which water comes out
continuously.
2. Intermittent springs: These are springs through which
water comes out intermittently (not continuous) and they are also called
‘Periodic spring’.
3. hot springs: Whenever warm or hot water comes out naturally it
is called hot spring or thermal spring. They are usually found near the
volcanic regions.
4. Geyser: Geysers throw a jet of hot water (like a fountain)
and steam into the air at regular or irregular intervals eg., Old Faithful in
Yellowstone National Park of USA.
5. artesian wells : When underground water is stored in a basin
shaped layer between two non-porous rocks, the water cannot come
out naturally. If an artificial hole is made to the porous rock, the water
comes out like a fountain. These are called Artesian wells. These wells are
common in Australia.
artesian wells
178
Underground water
performs the work of erosion,
transportation and deposition.
The work of underground water is
predominant in limestone region.
The important landforms
associated with the underground
water are Lapies, Sinkholes,
Limestone caves, Stalactites,
Stalagmites, Calcite pillar etc.
activity of Under ground water
WIND
The denudation work of
wind is common in the arid or
desert regions. When the winds
of high velocity blow over desert
areas they erode, transport and
deposit materials to produce
different landforms. The
important landforms associated
with the erosional work of the wind
are Rock pedestals, Mushroom
rock, Inselberg. The depositional Barchans
landforms are Sand dunes –
Longitudinal sand dunes, Barchans and Loess deposits.
Barchans are semi-circular or crescent shaped sand deposits
most common in the deserts. Loess is the sand particles found beyond
the borders of deserts (Yellow soil in China).
Work of wind is called “Aeolian cycle”.
179
Sea WaVeS : Like all other
agents, sea waves are also an
important exogenic agent of
denudation. Sea waves are the
regular undulation of water on
the sea or ocean. The work of
sea waves is significant along
the sea shore or coasts.
The important landforms
associated with sea waves are
Cliff, Sea cave, Sea stack, Sea
arch, Headland, Sand bars,
Beaches, Lagoons etc. Sea Waves
exerCISeS
180
III. Match the following:
a B
1. SIMA a) Earthquake
2. Sandstone b) Yellow soil
3. Epicentre c) Oceanic crust
4. Geyser d) Sedimentary rock
5. Loess e) Underground water
V. terms to remember:
1. NIFE 4. Mountain glacier
2. Arenaceous and Argillaceous rocks 5. Aeolian cycle
3. Tectonic forces 6. Beaches
VI. activities:
1. Collect the different rocks from your environment.
2. Visit nearest falls and know how they are formed ?
181
Chapter – 3
atMoSphere
In this chapter you learn :
• The meaning, importance, composition and formation of
atmosphere.
• The components of atmosphere, temperature, pressure, winds humidity,
clouds and their founctions and effects.
• The differences between atmosphere and climate.
Do you know, how we are protected and helped by the envelope of air ?
182
which help us in the formation of water droplets. The water vapour in the
atmosphere is the source of clouds and precipitation. The atmosphere
traps heat and energy and has influence on the weather conditions of a
place.
Layers of atmosphere: The atmosphere may be divided into five
important layers on the basis of its characteristic features. These are:
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere (Ionosphere) and
Exosphere.
troposphere : Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
It extends upto 18 kms at the equator and 8 kms near the poles. This
layer has all the atmospheric elements such as temperature, pressure,
winds, clouds, rainfall etc. All weather changes occur in the troposphere.
Temperature and pressure decrease with the increase of altitude.
Stratosphere: Stratosphere is the second layer of the
atmosphere. This layer extends upto 50 kms from the surface. It lies
between troposphere and mesosphere. In this layer Ozone is the most
important gas which absorbs ‘ultraviolet rays’ of the sun and protect
all forms of life on the Earth. This layer is free from clouds and other
important weather phenomenon and provides ideal flying conditions for
jet aircrafts.
Mesosphere : Mesosphere is the third layer in the Earth’s
atmosphere. It extends up to 80 kms from the surface and lies above
stratosphere. In this layer temperature decreases with the increase in
altitude. This layer has the coldest temperature in the atmosphere.
thermosphere: Thermosphere layer lies next to Mesosphere. In this
layer temperature rises drastically. It is also called ‘Ionosphere’ as the
gaseous atoms are ionized due to very high temperature. The ions found
in this layer help in reflecting radio waves.
exosphere: Exosphere is the top most layer of the atmosphere. In
this layer elements of atmosphere are rare and pressure is extremely low.
elements of Weather
Weather condition of a place is influenced by various elements such
as temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, clouds, rainfall etc.
Atmospheric condition of a place at a given time is called ‘Weather’. In
contrast the average weather condition of an area over a long period of time is
called ‘Climate’.
183
teMperatUre
The Sun is the main source of energy to the Earth which supplies
heat through insolation. Insolation means incoming solar radiation from
the sun to the Earth. Temperature is recorded by an instrument called
‘thermometer’. Centigrade and Fahrenheit are the important thermometers
used to measure atmospheric temperature. The important factors that
influence atmospheric temperature are latitude, altitude or height, distance
from the sea, wind, ocean currents, relief, clouds, rainfall etc.
Normal lapse rate: It is the
decreasing rate of temperature with
the increase of altitude. The rate of
decrease is 10 C for every 165 meters or
6.40 C for every 1000 meters of height
(1 km).
Inversion of temperature : In
some situations temperature also
increase with increasing height. This
takes place in mountain valleys during
temperature Zones long winter nights with clear sky, dry
air, no wind and snow covered surface.
temperature Zones : The distribution of temperature is not uniform
on the Earth’s surface. On the basis of insolation, the globe is divided into
three temperature zones. They are:
torrid zone : This is the zone of high temperature. This region is
found between 00 or Equator and Tropic of Cancer in the north (23½0 N)
and the Equator and Tropic of Capricorn (23½0 S) in the south. This
region receives direct rays of the Sun.
temperate zone : This is the region where the temperature is
neither very hot nor cold. This region lies between 23½0 N to 66½0N
(Tropic of Cancer to Arctic circle) and 23½0 S to 66½0 S (Tropic of
Capricorn to Antarctic circle).
Frigid zone : It is the coldest region. This zone is found between
66½0 N to 900 N (Arctic circle to North pole) and 66½0 S to 900 S
(Antarctic circle to South pole). The temperature in this zone is very low
due to slanting rays of the sun. In summer temperature is slightly high
and in winter the temperature is low.
184
Isotherms : Isotherms are lines drawn on the map or globe
connecting places having the same temperature.
acts file :
Places of highest and lowest temperature
1. Al Aziziya of Libya in Africa has recorded the highest temperature
(average +580 C) Whereas Verkhoyansk of Siberia has recorded the lowest
temperature (average -240 C).
2. In India Ganganagar of Rajasthan recorded the highest temperature in
summer (average +540 C) and Leh of Jammu and Kashmir has recroded the
lowest temperature (average -100 C) in winter.
3. Vostok of Antarctica is considered as the coldest place (average
temperature -890 C) on the Earth.
atMoSpherIC preSSUre
Air has weight and it exerts pressure. This is called atmospheric
pressure. Air pressure is measured by an instrument called Barometer.
The unit used to show the pressure is millibar (mb). The average air
pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level is 1013.25 mb. The
atmospheric pressure is affected by many factors such as temperature,
rotation of the Earth, altitude, water vapour etc. Temperature is the
most important factor that influences atmospheric pressure. The regions
which have high temperature record low pressure due to expansion of air,
while the regions of low temperature have high pressure due to
contraction of air. Thus temperature and pressure are inversely related.
The atmospheric Pressure decreases with the increase in altitude. The
amount of decrease is about 34 mb per every 300 meters altitude.
185
equatorial low pressure belt: The equatorial low pressure belt is a
zone of high temperature and low pressure. It lies between 00 to 50 North
and South of the equator. This region gets direct rays of the Sun almost
throughout the year. Hence air is always very warm and hot. This is
a calm region with very little wind. So it is known as ‘Doldrum’ means
‘belt of calm’ (equatorial calm). This region is also called Inter- Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where the trade winds converge.
Sub-tropical high pressure belts: Sub-tropical high
pressure belts are found between 30 and 35 north and south of the
0 0
equator. There are two sub-tropical high pressure belts. (a) North
sub-tropical high pressure belt: This belt is found between 300 to 350
north latitudes. This region is also popularly called ‘Horse latitudes’.
(b) South sub-tropical high pressure belt: This belt is found between
300 to 350 of south latitudes.
Sub-polar low pressure belts:
Sub-polar low pressure region is
found between 600 to 650 north and
south of the equator. There are two
sub-polar low pressure belt (a) North
sub-polar low pressure belt (600
north to 650 north). (b) South sub-
polar low pressure belt (600 south to
650 south). These are stormy
especially in winter.
polar high pressure belts: Polar
high pressure belts region is found
between 800 to 900 north and south pressure belts of the world
latitudes in both hemisphere. These
are extremely cold regions with very high pressure throughout the year.
Isobars: These are imaginary lines drawn on the map or globe
connecting places having the same pressure.
WIND
Wind is the horizontal movement of the air on the surface of the Earth.
Wind blows on the Earth due to rotation of the Earth and difference in
pressure.
186
The direction of the wind is shown by an instrument called ‘wind vane’
or ‘weather cock’. ‘Anemometer’ is used to measure the speed of the wind.
188
Cyclones are called by different names in different regions. Japan and
China – Typhoon, USA and Mexico – Hurricane, Australia – Willy willes,
India – Cyclone, Russia – Whirlpool. In the last few years Indian coasts has
experienced few disastrous cyclones. Some of them are Bola, Nargis, Nisha,
Aila, Laila, Bijli, Jal etc.
L.P
L.P
Cyclone anticyclone
hUMIDIty
Humidity is the amount of water vapour or moisture present in the
air. Humidity is measured by using an instrument called Hygrometer or
Psychrometer.
types : Humidity is expressed in different ways. Important among them
are Absolute humidity, Relative humidity and Specific humidity.
• absolute humidity: This refers to total amount of water vapour
present in a given volume of air. It does not take temperature into
consideration.
• relative humidity: Relative humidity is the ratio between
the actual amount of water vapour present in the air and the
amount of water vapour the air can hold at that temperature. It
is expressed in percentage.
The actual amount of water vapour in the air
relative humidity = ------------------------------------------------- x 100
The maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold
189
• specific humidity: It is the actual amount of water vapour
present in a given mass of air.
CLoUDS
Cloud is a mass of small water drops or ice
crystals, formed by the condensation of the
water in the atmosphere, usually at a
considerable height above the Earth’s surface.
types of clouds: Clouds are classified on
the basis of their shapes and heights at which
they occur. The important types of clouds are
the Stratus, the Cumulus, the Cirrus and the
Nimbus clouds.
• Stratus: Stratus clouds are usually low
clouds occurring at less than 2 km of height.
They appear as thin sheets or layers of large
extent. Stratus clouds are associated with fair
weather.
• Cumulus : Cumulus clouds are
cauliflower-shaped clouds of great vertical
extent. The base of cumulus clouds is nearly
horizontal, while the top has a dome-shaped
appearance. These are popularly called ‘wool
packs’. Cumulus clouds are rain-bearing clouds.
• Cirrus: Cirrus clouds are the
highest clouds in the atmosphere. These clouds
resemble ‘curls of hair’, have a feathery or
fibrousappearance. They indicate fair weather
and often given a brilliant sunset. They look like
patches of cotton fibres floating in the air. Their popular name is mare’s
tail’ or ‘witch’s broom’
• Nimbus: Nimbus clouds are rain clouds which occur at low
levels. These clouds have the shape of stratus or cumulus. They are
dark-grey or black in appearance. They cause heavy rainfall or snowfall.
The Nimbo-stratus are thick, heavy, rain bearing clouds.
190
raIN FaLL
Precipitation in the form of water droplets is called rainfall. The total
amount of rain received on a given area during a given time as measured
by a rain gauge in MM or inches.
types of rainfall: Rainfall is of three types. They are Convectional
rainfall, Orographic rainfall and Cyclonic rainfall.
Convectional rainfall : The
rain caused by the process of
convection is called convectional
rainfall. In areas of high
temperature, air rises up due to
heating. This rising air cools,
gets saturated, condensation
takes place and later rainfall
occurs. Convectional rainfall is
very common in the equatorial Convectional rainfall
region and also in the tropical
regions in summer. In the equatorial region, convectional rainfall is called
‘afternoon rain’, as it occurs mostly in the afternoon. It is accompanied by
thunder and lightning.
orographic rainfall:
Orographic rainfall is also
called ‘Mountain rainfall’
or ‘Relief rainfall’. When
moisture laden air is
obstructed by a mountain
barrier, the air is forced to
rise up. As the air rises
upwards, it cools and gets
orographic rainfall
saturated. Further cooling
of this air causes
condensation resulting in
orographic or mountain rainfall. The windward side of the mountain
receives more rainfall, while the leeward side receives less. The leeward
side is generally called the ‘rain shadow region’ eg., Mangalore is the
windward side and Hassan the leeward side or rain shadow region.
191
Cyclonic rainfall: In a cyclone the air blows spirally inwards. In
the tropical cyclones the air rises upwards in circular movement. So
condensation takes place to cause heavy rainfall. The temperate cyclonic
rain is also called frontal rain. When the warm air mass and the cold air
mass meet, the warm air being lighter is forced to rise over the heavier
cold air. The warm air after rising, cools and condenses, resulting in
rainfall.
Distribution: The distribution of rainfall on the Earth depends on
location and the climatic condition of that region. The most important
heavy rainfall areas in the world are the equatorial region, the eastern
margins of sub-tropical belts, the western margins between 400 and 600
N and S latitudes. Scanty rainfall regions are the polar areas, the western
margins of sub-tropical regions and the tropical and temperate deserts.
Do you know?
1. Mawsynram of Meghalaya in India has recorded 1140 cm of rainfall per
year. It is considered as the wettest or rainiest region on the Earth.
2. Agumbe of Karnataka is called ‘Mawsynram of South India’.
3. Royli of Rajasthan in India receives lowest rainfall : 8 cm per year
4. Nayakanahatti of Chitradurga is considered the driest place in
Karnataka.
5. Atacama desert of Chile is the driest region on the Earth. It has not
received rainfall for the last 200 years.
192
exerCISeS
V. activity:
Draw the picture of planatary winds.
193
Chapter – 4
hyDroSphere
In this chapter you learn :
• The different kinds of water bodies.
• The structure of the ocean bed.
• Ocean currents, their types and conservation of oceans.
• Know how to mark oceans, gulf, bay and strait on Indian map.
ocean floor
1. Continental shelf : This is the shallow area along the sea coast.
This part is bordered by the sea coast on one side and continental slope
on the other side. The average depth of the continental shelf is 100
fathoms (1 fathom is equal to 6 ft). The depth of the sea in this region
gradually increase towards the continental slope. The continental shelf
is very important for fishing, aquaculture, navigation and extraction of
minerals.
2. Continental slope: This is the second part of the ocean floor and
it is very steep. It is a link between the continental shelf and the deep sea
plain. Sub-marine canyons are a special feature in this region.
3. the Deep sea plain: This is the vast plain found at the bottom of
the sea floor. The deep sea plain is also known as abyssal plain’ and it
covers the largest area of the ocean floor. In this region Sea mounts and
Guyots are found.
4. the ocean deep: The ocean deeps are also called ‘Ocean
trenches’. These are the deepest part of the ocean floor, e.g. The
195
Challenger deep of Mariana trench in the Pacific ocean near Philippine
islands is around 11,033 meters deep and is the deepest point of the
oceans. The other trenches are Tonga trench, Kurile trench in the Pacific
ocean.
acts file
Saline water bodies of the world
1. Lake Van (Turkey) – 330/000 ppt
2. Dead Sea (Asia) – 300/000 ppt
3. Lake Sambar (India) – 265/000 ppt
4. Red Sea (Asia and Africa) – 240/000 ppt
oCeaN CUrreNtS
The ocean water has three types of movements. They are Waves,
Currents and Tides. Ocean currents are the regular movement of ocean
water from one region to another. Ocean currents are of two types.
196
Warm currents: These currents originate and flow from the
equatorial regions to sub-polar regions.
Cold currents: These currents originate in the polar regions and
flow towards the equatorial region.
Factors that influence ocean currents are Rotation of the Earth,
Temperature, Wind, Salinity, Shape of the landmasses, etc.
197
Current of the Indian ocean :
The north Indian ocean currents change their direction seasonally
following the monsoons. During the south west monsoon the currents
flow in a south west to north east direction and during the north east
monsoon they flow in a north east to south west direction.
The south Indian ocean currents are Mozambique, Madagascar,
Agulhas as warm currents and West Australian as cold current.
199
4. They help fishing.
5. They also help to generate energy in the form of tidal energy.
Conservation of oceans: Conservation of oceans is very important.
Oceans help us in many ways and they are the habitat of millions of
marine organisms. Considering the rate at which the oceans are being
contaminated, they may not remain what they should be in the future.
The following are the important methods of conservation of oceans.
1. Oil transportation should be done through pipelines.
2. Nuclear waste should not be dumped into the sea or ocean.
3. Petro-chemical industries in the coastal regions must avoid
dumping effluents into the sea or ocean.
4. Dumping of any waste near the ports and harbours must be
controlled.
5. Ore deposition and mineral exploitation along the coast must be
controlled.
6. Exploitation and destruction of beaches must be controlled.
exerCISeS
V. terms to remember:
1. gulf stream 4. kuroshio current
2. salinity 5. flood tides
3. warm currents 6. tidal energy
VI. activity :
1. List out the cold and warm currents in Atlantic ocean.
201
Chapter – 5
BIoSphere
In this chapter you learn :
• The meaning of biosphere and its Importance.
• The meaning of environment, environmental pollution, types of pollution
and preventive measures.
Do you know, what the Earth has given to us? But what are we giving back
to the earth ?
Meaning : Earth is the only planet which has various forms of life on
it. Biosphere is the part of the earth where life exists. The biosphere is
the fourth component of the earth and it is the totality of all living things
on earth.
ecology: Ecology is the study of the interaction of living organisms
with their physical, chemical and biological environment. In a natural
environment, there is a perfect balance between the various organisms
living together in the biosphere. This is known as ecological balance.
Ecosystem is a community of plants and animals, together with their
immediate environment, including the inanimate part of that environment.
It is also defined as the total assemblage of components entering into the
interactions of a group of organisms’.
Without ecosystem or ecological balance in the biosphere one
cannot imagine the existence of plants, animals and micro organisms
either single or in community. Every organism adjusts itself with its
physical habitat.
environment: Environment is the surrounding where an organism,
a community or an object exists. It creates favourable conditions for the
existence and development of all living organisms. The environment is of
two types- Natural or geographical and Cultural or man-made.
environmental pollution: Environmental pollution is the unfavourable
alteration of our surrounding, wholly or partly by human action through
direct and indirect effects.
202
Environmental pollution is one of the most terrifying ecological
crisis of today. The factors like over population, industrialization,
urbanization, over exploitation of resources, over utilization of automobiles,
etc. have influenced a change in the living conditions of plants, animals and
human beings.
Pollutants are the substances that cause pollution. Pollutants
are natural and man-made. The man-made pollutants are considered
to be more dangerous and hazardous than natural pollutants. The
pollutants may be visible like smoke, gases, dust, garbage, sewage, etc., and
invisible like bacteria, toxic chemicals mixed with water, food, soil, etc.
types of pollution: Environmental pollution are of different types.
On the basis of pollutants and medium of pollution they can be classified
into the following types: Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution and
Noise pollution.
1. air pollution
According to World Health Organisation (W.H.O)., air pollution is
defined as, Substances put into the air by the activity of mankind
in concentration, sufficient to cause harmful effects to his health,
vegetation and property’. The important sources of air pollutants are,
Natural: Volcanoes, forest fire, cosmic dust, etc. Man-made: Gases from
industries, domestic use, automobiles, mining, nuclear power plants,
nuclear explosions, etc.
the important pollutants are : Carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC),
hydrocarbons etc. The important effects are change in weather and
climatic conditions, ozone depletion, greenhouse effect, global warming,
effect on human health, problem with respiratory system, effect on life of
animals and plants.
Measures to control air pollution are : Control of gaseous
pollutants, control of emission from automobiles, planting of more trees,
use of non-conventional energy sources, awareness programme, legal
control, literacy and education etc.
2. Water pollution
Water pollution is ‘alteration in physical, chemical and biologi-
203
cal characteristics of water which may have harmful effects on human
and aquatic life’. The important sources of water pollution are Natural:
Soil erosion, landslides, volcanic eruption, decay and decomposition of
plants and animals etc. Man-made: Industrial effluents, urban waste,
domestic waste, agricultural waste, thermal waste, oil spill, offshore drilling,
nuclear waste etc. Water pollution is of different types: Sea or Ocean
water pollution, Ground water pollution, River water pollution, Lake
pollution etc.
the important effects of water pollution are: It spreads
water-borne diseases and epidemics like cholera, typhoid, diarhea,
jaundice, etc, Causes death of aquatic life, affects irrigation water and on
agricultural crops, nature and features of water etc.
Measures to control water pollution : Industrial effluents must be
treated; drinking water sources must be kept clean; sewage treatment
plants, disposal of waste on the water bodies must be controlled, etc.
3. Soil pollution
Soil pollution is ‘decrease in the quality of soils either due to human
sources or natural sources or by both’. It results in the increase of soil
erosion, lack of humus, decrease in soil micro-organisms, plant nutrients
etc. Sources of soil pollution are, industrial and mining waste, Domestic
and urban waste, agricultural waste, nuclear waste etc.
effects of soil pollution are: it decreases the fertility of the soil,
converts the region into wasteland, destroys the micro organisms in the
soil etc.
Measures to control soil pollution: Controlled and judicious use
of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides, proper disposal of
industrial and urban waste, proper use of land and crop management,
awareness programme on proper soil utilization and its maintenance etc.
4. Noise pollution
Noise pollution is ‘any undesirable sound dumped into the
atmosphere leading to health hazards’. The important sources of noise
pollution are Natural: Thunder, cyclones, heavy rainfall, hailstorms,
waterfalls, ocean waves etc. Man-made: Industrial noise, automobiles,
air crafts, domestic noise, mining etc.
204
effects of noise pollution are: noise pollution causes
temporary or permanent hearing problem, headaches, restlessness,
cardiovascular diseases, Psychological disorder, behavioural changes,
lack of concentration, etc.
Measures to control noise pollution: Industries must be
located away from the residential areas; construction of sound proof walls
in the factories, restricting unnecessary use of sirens, horns and loud
speakers; airports must be located away from the residential zones;
protective instruments the workers in the industries, noise producing
vehicles must be checked etc.
Global warming : The temperature of the earth is increasing
slowly over the years. For the last few years global temperature has
increased. This phenomenon is termed as Global warming. The warming
of atmosphere is caused by greenhouse effect and trapping of heat by
the atmosphere. The world getting warmer, climatic zones are shifting,
glaciers are melting and sea level is rising due to global warming eg., high
rate of melting of ice in Himalayas, Arctic and Antarctic regions.
Greenhouse effect : The energy that the earth receives from the sun
has to be balanced by the radiation emitted from the earth’s surface.
The use of fossil fuels is increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases trap the heat radiated from
the earth. Thus increasing of greenhouse gases is causing an increase of
temperature. This is called ‘Greenhouse effect’.
ozone depletion : Ozone is a thin layer of gas found in stratosphere.
Ozone absorbs ultraviolet rays and protects all forms of life on the earth’s
surface. In recent years the use of air conditioners, refrigerators, sprays
and deodorats are destroying the ozone due to the synthetic chemicals
released into the atmosphere, primarily chlorofluorocarbons’ (CFC). The
highest ozone depletion in the world is recorded in the atmosphere over
Antarctica. The ozone depletion has caused the ozone hole. This has to be
controlled for the sake of the people of the present and future generation.
acid rain : Acid rain contains high amounts of acids particularly
sulphuric acid and carbon monoxide. It is caused when the rain drops
pass through the polluted atmosphere. The rainfall with poisonous acids
kill marine organisms. Acid rain is damaging forests, agricultural crops,
old buildings, monuments etc.
205
Acid rain is also referred to as ‘lake killer’. The ‘Black Triangle’
stretching over Poland, Czeck Republic and South-east Germany is one
of the worst acid rain affected regions in the world.
Bio-Diversity : The variety of flora (plants) and fauna (animals) in a
region is known as biodiversity. Distribution of different kinds of plant
and animal species in a region shows the richness of biodiversity. The
maintenance of biodiversity is very important both for the quality of
environment and also for human survival.
The conservation of ‘Biodiversity’ is very important to save and
protect rare plants and animal species. Providing good environmental
condition for their living is the best means of protection.
The earth is the only living planet in our solar system. The way in
which changes, disturbances, hazards are taking place on the earth, can
lead to the destruction of the quality of life on our earth in the near
future.
To ‘Save Earth’ and ‘Mother Planet’ we must educate people,
formulate awareness programmes, utilize resources judiciously, control
pollution awareness through education, symposiums, seminars, skits,
films, summits. These necessary to save our MOTHER EARTH .
206
exerCISeS
IV. activity :
1. Collect information on the impact of global warming. Also enlist
the ways of controlling global warming.
207
economics
chapter - 1
introduction to economics
in this chapter you learn :
• The meaning of Economics and basic concepts of Economics.
• The importance of studying Economics.
• Identify economic activities through narrating the basic economic
problems.
• The difference between Micro economics and Macro economics.
208
An important aspect is that we cannot have all the goods and
services we wish, because the money to buy them is limited or ‘scarce’. It is
a common tendency on our part to choose the most pressing or
important want first and postpone the less urgent ones. Hence,
food is more important than going to a movie; purchasing seeds and
fertilizers is more important than purchasing a tractor, etc. This
classification of wants as more important or less is called as prioritizing’.
Once prioritized, we allocate most of our resources (money) to purchase
that commodity which satisfies the chosen wants. Therefore, in situations
of scarcity we choose the most desirable wants or prioritize them in order
of importance.
Suppose you have only Rs. 20 to spend. Your teacher has asked to buy
a book, you want to see the latest movie, you want to buy medicine for your
headache, you have to go home, and you are hungry. With Rs. 20 in hand,
you cannot meet all the requirements. Definitely, you will choose among which
wants to be satisfied now and which later. Thus, you may eat something, buy
few tablets, and think of going home and put off buying books and viewing
movie later. This is prioritization and allocation of resources (Rs.20) which you
had.
Therefore, scarcity and choice are basic problems which everyone
faces and which are the central problems of Economics.
In this background Economics is defined as the social science
that examines how people choose to use limited or scarce resources in
attempting to satisfy their unlimited wants. Economists have defined
Economics variedly, but the above definition describes the central
idea of Economics.
209
The word “economics” comes from the Greek words “oikos,” meaning
“household,” and “nomos,” meaning “management”. Thus, economics
refers to the art of “household management” that involves using the
available means to satisfy the basic needs of the family as well as to
prosper. The same rule when applied to the whole society implies that
economics is the study of how the society uses its resources to satisfy the
basic needs of the people as well as for their economic prosperity. The
organization of economic activities is called ‘economy’.
economic activities
Wants are the basis for all economic activities
Most of the goods and services that we use everyday are limited
in supply, and hence are not available free of cost. These goods and
services are called economic goods and services. We use our skills and
labour to earn money and satisfy our wants by using that money. The
varied activities which we perform in order to earn money and wealth,
210
for satisfaction of our wants, are called economic activities. These
economic activities can be classified into four kinds
i. production: Production activities are those that produce goods and
services. For ex agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, mining, forest
development, different kinds of industries, transport, communication etc.
ii. consumption: Goods and services are produced for consumption.
Man satisfies his wants by buying goods and services. All these activities
are known as consumption activities.
iii. exchange: The producers produce goods for the
consumers. There is a marketing system to supply the produced goods
to the consumers. In this system, activities of collection of goods,
transportation, selling and buying take place.
iv. distribution: The income that is earned through the production
of goods has to be distributed to the various factors of production (land,
labour, capital and entrepreneurship or organization) that have enabled
the production. This process involves activities undertaken to determine
the price of the factors of production. Steps have to be taken to ensure
that the income earned is distributed among all factors in a just manner.
Sometimes many activities which are not economic in nature become
economic activities. For ex when a teacher gives free tuitions at home to
students is not an economic activity. When the same teacher charges fees
for giving tuitions, it becomes an economic activity.
micro economics
The word micro means very small and micro economics implies
study of economics at a very small level. Micro economics is the study
of decision making to use resources by the smallest components of the
society, namely individuals, households and business firms. Some such
decisions are
(a) You have to buy various goods and services to satisfy your wants.
Which wants will satisfy you? How much price are you willing
to pay for a specific goods or service How many hours of work
are you ready to work and where to work? etc., are some of the
decisions to be made. The individual consumer makes
211
these decisions for achieving the maximum satisfaction from
consumption.
(b) A production or a business unit, called a firm, that produces goods
and services will have to decide about the quantity to be produced
and the price at which the goods or service to be sold. It has to
decide about the combination of inputs (or factors of production)
so that it produces the desired quantity at the minimum cost.
(c) The price is determined by the interaction of the buyers and the
sellers in a market. How they interact and on what basis they
decide a mutually acceptable price is also the subject matter of
micro economics.
macro economics
The word macro means ‘total’ or ‘large’. The society or the country
or the economy is a very large entity compared to an individual. Some
decisions have to be taken at such aggregative level. The economic
decisions taken at the level of the economy as a whole are the subject
matter of macro economics. The economic decisions like collection of
taxes, expenditure on public amenities and welfare activities, regulation
of inflation, promotion of economic growth, etc. which affect the whole
economy fall in the purview of Macro Economics. Such decisions are
usually taken by the government.
Micro economics studies individual buying and selling. As a
buyer, the expenditure by an individual consumes is his consumption
expenditure, then we add consumption expenditure of all individuals
we get the aggregate consumption expenditure of the whole society.
Similarly, when we add up incomes of all individuals in the society, it
becomes the total income of the country or national income. Study of these
aggregates such as national income, total consumption expenditure of
the country etc, comes under macro economics. Inflation or price rise
is another issue studied by macroeconomics. Inflation or price rise
affects the whole economy. So understanding its causes and effects
as well as controlling it, comes under the study of Macro Economics.
Similarly, problem of unemployment, economic growth and
development etc. affect the whole nation and hence are covered under the
study of Macro Economics.
It is said “Micro Economics is like studying a single tree in the forest while,
Macro Economics studies the whole forest; Micro Economics provides a worm’s
eye-view of the economy but Macro Economics provides a bird’s eye-view of the
economy”.
212
Basic economic problems
The problems in Economics arise due to scarcity of resources which
forces us to make a suitable choice. This is both at micro and macro
levels. In this context, Economics tries to provide answers to the following
questions
i. What to produce? An individual or a society has to decide about
what goods and services to produce. Whether to produce more of food
or weapons; agricultural or industrial goods; education or health;
consumer goods or machineries? The type and quantity of various
goods produced depends upon the resource availability on the one
hand and requirements of the people, on the other.
ii. how to produce? There are different ways to produce
given goods. Different combinations of inputs and resources can be
used to produce a given amount of goods or service. This is called the
technology of production. Whether to use a technology that uses
more labour (labour intensive technology) or capital (capital intensive
technology) is to be decided by the society. This is essential to minimize
the cost of production and efficient use of existing resources.
iii. For whom to produce? Who will get the goods so produced
and in what quantities? This is the problem of issue of distribution such
that each person should get at least a minimum quantity of goods and
services for consumption. For instance, it may be availability of food,
basic education or primary health. Thus, every society has to decide
the distribution of scarce resources and goods and services among all
individuals.
Thus, the study of Economics helps us to understand the current
use of resources and plan for their more efficient use in the future. The
economists usually advise government on these matters. As a result, the
well-being of the individuals and the country can be improved.
exercises
214
chapter - 2
introduction
Economy refers to the nature of organization of economic activities in
a society. As you have learnt, given the scarcity of resources, economic
activities are undertaken to earn money for buying goods and services
to satisfy ones wants. Depending upon the nature and level of economic
activities pursued in an economy, the income of the people engaged in
those activities differ. Some activities like software development yield
high and fast growing income while others like agriculture yield low and
slow growing income. Thus, countries grow faster or slower depending on
their mix of activities. Economies with fast growing activities will achieve
development faster while others lag behind and may remain as
underdeveloped or developing economies. They are also known as rich
or poor economies. Economies are also classified based on ownership of
resources. The resources may be in private ownership or collective
ownership. Economies are also classified on the basis of the administrative
divisions. Thus, you come across village economy, district economy, state
(Karnataka) economy, and national (Indian) economies which may be at
different levels of development. Therefore, there are different ways to look
at the economy and its level of development. In this chapter you will learn
about types of economies and the nature of Indian economy.
meaning
An economy may be described as a man-made organization for
the satisfaction of human wants. A.J. Brown defines economy as a
system by which people get a living”. You might have observed that
man is engaged in varied ways to earn a living. It also differs from place
215
to place and from time to time. In the primitive days ‘earning a living’
was simple but with growth of civilization it has become much more
complex. More than that, you must note that the person must earn the
living by fair and legal manner. Unfair and illegal means such as robbery,
smuggling may earn income for oneself but is socially harmful, hence
not considered as gainful economic activity. We can, therefore, describe
an economy as a framework of economic institutions where all economic
activities are carried out to improve individual and social welfare. It is
also referred to as an economic system. Described thus, an economy has
the following features
i. Economy consists of individuals, economic institutions and
government and their interactions.
ii. Economy is a dynamic entity which is continuously changing.
Economic institutions are continuously created, destroyed, replaced
or changed. For example, Planning Commission was set up to plan for
socio-economic development of India in 1950, but it was replaced by
NITI Ayog in 2015. Similarly, communism was adopted by Russians in
1917, but was replaced by capitalism in 1989. Earlier, barter system was
followed but today money plays a vital role in economic transactions.
iii. Production, consumption and investment are the crucial
activities of an economy.
iv. Depending on the type of economy, economic activities keep on
changing. Thus, in developing economy low income yielding primary
(resource based) activities are predominant while in developed countries
high income yielding secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary(service
based) activities are predominant. Similarly, the technology of
production is also different.
v. Individuals are both producers and consumers. As producers they
produce goods and services and as consumers they consume the same.
However, we are all consumers but only few of us are producers.
vi. Modern economic system is complex and there are many
institutions to regulate the activities of the individuals. Thus, we have
institutions like the RBI, SEBI, World Bank, IMF, WTO, SAARC, ADB,
etc., that govern the activities of individuals as well as countries.
216
RBI : Reserve Bank of India;
SEBI : Securities and Exchange Board of India,
IMF : International Monetary Fund
WTO : World Trade Organization,
SAARC : South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation
ADB : Asian Development Bank
socialist economy
When productive resources are owned and controlled by the
government to promote the overall interest of the society, it is called a
socialist system. In this system, a central planning agency plans and
regulates various economic activities in the interest of all. The socialist
economy has the following features
i. collective ownership of means of production and wealth: In
a Socialist economy the government owns the means of production on
behalf of the people. All wealth is collectively owned.
ii. social welfare objective: The government acts on behalf of all
people to maximize their welfare. Government decides about the type
and levels of output and the distribution of the same keeping in view the
broader social welfare of the people.
iii. central planning: Identification of national priorities and
allocation of resources to meet them is done through economic planning.
For this purpose a Central Planning Authority is created which keeps
the national priorities and availability of resources in mind and allocates
resources. All economic decisions regarding production, consump-
218
tion and investment are made by the government keeping in mind the
present and future needs. Market and prices have little role to play in
socialist economies.
iv. reduction in inequalities: Nonexistence of private property and
accumulation reduces economic inequality in a socialistic economy.
v. No class conflict: All are co-workers in socialistic society and
there is only the working class. Hence, there is no class conflict.
Socialism which was a prominent idealism after the second world
war and embraced by countries like Russia, China and many eastern
European countries. But the wave of liberalization since the 1990s has
made almost all these countries to allow private sector to participate
extensively in economic activities.
mixed economy
A mixed economy combines the good features of both capitalism and
socialism. It has a combination of elements of both free enterprise or
capitalist economy as well as a government controlled socialist economy.
It is defined as an economic system where the public and private sectors
co-exist. The features of a mixed economy are as follows
i. co-existence of public and private sectors : The private
enterprise that owns production units and works with profit motivation
exists along with production units owned by the government which work
with welfare objective. The economic activities are generally demarcated.
Government adopts the planning mechanism to direct the utilization of
resources of the economy for overall development. It also regulates the
activities of the private sector through various policies such as licensing
policy, taxation policy, price policy, monetary policy and fiscal policy.
ii. individual Freedom : Individuals are free to choose occupation
and consumption as per their choice. But producers are not given the
freedom to exploit consumers and labourers. Government exercises
regulations and controls keeping in mind the welfare of the people. But
within these rules, regulations and restrictions of the government, the
private sector enjoys complete freedom.
iii. economic planning : Planning mechanism is used by the
government to prepare development plans and decide the roles to
219
be played by the private and public sectors in the development of the
economy. While the public sector is under the direct control of the
government and works as per production targets and plans formulated
the private sector is supported through incentives, support and subsidies
to work as per national priorities.
iv. price mechanism : The government policies influence the prices
significantly in a mixed economy. There are administered prices for public
sector units (e.g. railways in India) and the government provides price
subsidies to help the weaker sections.
Indian economy is a classic example of a mixed economy. The
areas for functioning of public and private sectors are well defined and
economic planning is a key activity for achieving development.
220
and ensuring better living standard to all classes of people compelled
India to adopt a mixed economic system soon after independence. The
important features of Indian mixed economic system are
i) coexistence of public and private sectors : Industrial
policies of 1948 and 1956 formulated by the Indian government made the
provision for coexistence of the public and private sectors, with a larger
role for public sector. Basic and heavy industries were under the public
sector. However, with the liberalisation of Indian economy since 1990s,
the scope of private sector has further widened.
ii) planned development : Five year plans were prepared within
the framework of the Directive Principles of State Policy to rebuild
economy and lay foundations of industrial and scientific progress. The
Planning Commission was set up in 1950 to prepare plans for all
round development of the country and people. The Planning
Commission has so far prepared and implcemented twelve five-year
plans and many annual plans In 2015, the Planning Commission has
been replaced by the NITI (National Institution for Transforming India
Ayog.
The broad objectives of Indian plans are :
(a) Economic growth;
(b) Modernisation;
(c) Self-reliance;
(d) Social justice;
(e) Elimination of Poverty;
(f) Creation of conditions of near full employment; and
(g) Satisfaction of basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, education health etc.
221
iv) private sector: It not only includes industry, but
agriculture, small industry, trade and great deal of activity in
housing and construction activities as well. It provides employment
to three-fourths of our manpower. Many policies and laws have been
enacted to control the private sector.
v) coordination between public and private sectors: Both the
public and private sectors have worked together for achieving the goals
set by the Planning Commission.
However, today the role of public sector is declining and more space
is provided to the private sector.
222
excercises
iV. activity.
1. Make a list of public sector enterprises of India and understand
their problems.
223
chapter - 3
PCI helps us to know the average income and the standard of living
of the people. But it is not very reliable, because in every country
distribution of national income is unequal and a major portion of it goes
to the richer sections of the society. The income received by the common
man is lower than the per capita income.
225
table : national income and per capita income in india
1950 - 51 to 2014 -15
national income (rs. per capita income
crores) (rupees)
year
current constant current constant
prices prices prices prices
1950-51 9829 269724 274 7513
1960-61 17062 411519 393 9482
1970-71 44550 596470 823 11025
1980-81 138565 795193 2041 11711
1990-91 526017 1342031 6270 15996
2000-01 1947788 2291795 19115 22491
2010-11 6942089 4657438 58534 39270
2014-15 11217079 9400266 88533 74193
primary sector
The primary sector consists of all nature based activities like
agriculture and allied activities like Sericulture, Horticulture, Animal
husbandry, Poultry, Fishery, Floriculture, etc.
importance: In the primary sector, agriculture is the predominant
activity and has the largest share in national income. So let us concentrate
on the role and importance of agriculture in the Indian economy. Even
today, it is considered to be the backbone of our economy.
secondary sector
Secondary sector, also called as manufacturing sector, converts raw
materials into finished products. Usually, the secondary sector consists
of all industrial activity along with construction and power generation.
However, industrial activity is a dominant and important activity.
227
importance of industrial sector: The importance of Industrial
sector has been increasing after independence as discussed below.
Industry contributes nearly one-third of national income, has helped
in building the basic infrastructure like transportation, power and
communications and produces a wide array consumer goods which you
use in your daily life.
tertiary sector
Tertiary sector is also called Service Sector. It has been growing at
a fast rate throughout the world including India. You will be
astonished to see the number of different types of shops; telephone
services; educational institutions; hospitals; health centres; hotels;
restaurants financial and banking establishments coaching, training
and consultancy activities; and social service agencies around. All these
services aim at making your life more comfortable and valuable. Hence
it is important to know the role and importance of service sector in our
economy.
Service sector is the largest contributor to the national income at
59% and employs about 28% of workers. It has helped in attracting huge
amount of foreign capital and in earning large sums of foreign exchange.
India earned Rs.5 lakh crores through exports of services in 2014-15.
sector wise shares and growth rates of national income
The sector-wise shares have changed overtime. The following chart
shows the contribution of different sectors to our national income during
1951 to 2013.
Figure : changes in sectoral shares of gdp in india, 1951 to 2013 (%)
228
The chart clearly shows the declining importance of the primary
sector and the growing importance of the tertiary sector. The industrial
activity has also expanded. Growth rate of income by sectors is given in
Table.
table : average growth rate of gdp by sectors (% per annum)
Period Agriculture Industry Services National Income
1951-1965 3.13 6.61 4.58 4.09
1966-1980 2.55 3.90 4.33 3.41
1981-1995 4.21 5.44 6.37 5.26
1996-2013 3.23 7.10 8.61 7.01
1951-2013 3.00 5.14 6.13 4.97
source: Calculated from Planning Commission data
The data shows that while the growth of the service sector is
the highest, agriculture has grown at very low rates. The service sector
has emerged as the engine of economic growth. Industrial growth has
fluctuated due to many reasons. The declined share of agriculture and its
lower growth rate have deepened rural poverty India.
229
importance of small scale industries
Increase in small industrial activity is considered as essential for
the economic growth and development of the country.
i. employment generation: Small scale industries are labour
intensive in character. They generate huge employment opportunities.
ii. mobilisation of resources and entrepreneurial skill: Small-scale
industries have succeeded in mobilizing savings and entrepreneurial
skill from rural and semi-urban areas. who otherwise would have gone
unnoticed.
iii. equitable distribution of income: Small entrepreneurs
stimulate redistribution of wealth, income and political power in a
society.
iv. regional dispersal of industries: The concentration of industries
in a few cities leads to over-crowding, pollution, creation of slums, etc.
This problem is solved by small scale industries which can be located in
small town and bring about dispersion of industries across the country.
v. development of technology: Small scale industries have a
high capacity to generate and absorb innovations. They provide ample
opportunities for the development of technology and its adoption They
play a strategic role in commercialising new inventions and products and
Transfer of technology.
vi. promotes exports: Small scale industries also contribute to
exports and foreign exchange earnings. Their contribution to exports is
about 40% of India’s total exports.
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India suffer from lack of raw materials, vital components and
equipment.
. roblem of finance : The small enterprises do not possess
adequate capital for themselves and their borrowing capacity is
also restricted.
3. Low technical skill : Technical skill and managerial ability are
lower in the sector. They are unable to purchase and adopt the
latest technology.
4. marketing problems : Small producers cannot engage into
organized marketing or aggressive advertisement as the large
producers do. They are also not in a position to conduct
market research to promote their sales. This constrains their
sales growth.
5. competition from large scale industries : In many situations,
the large scale industries work to the detriment of the small scale
industries either through aggressive marketing or procurement of
inputs making the small industries helpless.
However, the Government of India has taken many measures like
Startup India, Standup India, MUDRA Bank, etc. to help the small scale
industries
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Further, the average size of holdings was just 1.16 hectares in 2011-12.
It is not possible take up any kind of development works on such a small
piece of land. The modern methods of production cannot be conveniently
adopted. As a result, the productivity is be lower and farmers are poorer.
ii. high population pressure: With many workers working on small
plots of land, the production and income per head are very low. Many
small and marginal farmers also work as agricultural labourers for factry
wages.
iii. rain-fed farming and recurrence of droughts: Indian
agriculture depends on rainfall which is uncertain, erratic and
inadequate. Irrigation is provided to only 30 per cent of agricultural land
(43 million ha out of 143 million ha of cultivated land) and the rest of
the area (about 70%) depends on only rainfall. It is said that ‘Indian
agriculture is a gamble with the monsoons’. Thus, lack of irrigation and
frequent droughts have impoverished the farmers.
iv. partial impact of the green revolution: The much talked
about green revolution had a greater focus on rice and wheat under
irrigated condition. It did not help the farmers in dry regions. The
small and marginal farmers were unable to adopt the green revolution
technology because of its costly nature. Therefore, a large proportion of
farmers continve to remain poor and backward.
vi. decline in public investments in irrigation and other
related infrastructure: The slowing down of agricultural growth is
mainly attributed to the slowing down of public investment.
Especially, the decline in investment in irrigation has crippled the
agricultural growth.
vii. inadequate credit from institutional sources: Supply of
credit from formal sources like banks and co-operatives to the
agricultural sector has been inadequate leading to greater borrowing
from informal sources at higher interest rate.
viii. inability to get remunerative prices: Marketing of
agricultural produce is plagued with numerous problems. The farmers do
not get better prices, payment is not made on time, and many deductions
are made from the total bill leaving very little returns to the farmers. The
price support policy of the government has also not functioned well.
Thus, there are multiple risks in agriculture – income, yield, price,
input, technology and credit – that have made agriculture a less sought
after job.
232
remedies to Farm crisis
The causes of the crisis also point to the remedies, some of which
could be
i. increasing public investment: There is an urgent need to
step up the government investment in drought proofing, water
harvesting, research in new varieties of seeds, new cultivation methods
that use less water, and retain soil fertility, extension and training of
farmers in adoption of efficient crop production practices.
ii. expanding credit availability: The small and marginal farmers,
who hesitate to approach a bank or any financial institution, should be
ensured greater amount of credit.
iii. marketing reforms: Farmers should be guaranteed
remunerative prices for their produce. For this purpose, markets and
marketing infrastructure need to be strengthened.
iv. crop insurance: An insurance scheme that covers and
compensates the losses of farmers for all types of risks needs to be put
in place.
v. counseling and moral support: There is a need to set up
counseling centres at village level to provide moral support to distressed
farmers so that they do not resort to extreme step of committing suicide.
vi. regulating private money lenders: Apart from the above,
there is a need to regulate the activities of money lenders so that they do
not oppress the poor farmers who have borrowed from them for
various purposes.
exercises
233
5. Indian agriculture is said to be with monsoons.
6. Extent of irrigated area in India is about per cent of
cultivated area.
iV. activity
1. Orgnise mock parliament in school, discuss in there about
agricultural problems and remedies.
234
chapter - 4
introduction
Government plays an important role in promoting economic
development and improving the welfare of the people. It undertakes a
number of activities that promote growth, stability, equity and rule of law
in the economy. It also takes measures to overcome the problems like
unemployment, poverty, inflation, lack of basic facilities and inequality.
When India attained independence in 1947, the economic
conditions were deplorable. The per capita income was low; food
production was less than the requirement; there were few
industries; much of our machineries had to be imported; transport,
energy, communication infrastructure were insufficient educational,
health and financial services were available to only a few people and
there was a situation of backwardness everywhere. Therefore, the
government’s participation in bringing about development and
removing the bottlenecks to development was crucial. The leaders
responded positively and initiated several measures to bring about
overall socio-economic development of the country. For this purpose,
planning was adopted as the strategy to bring about all round progress
in the economy.
planning in india
Planning refers to the deliberate actions of the government to
systematically allocate and utilize available resources to achieve
predetermined goals in the interest of all. Thus, planning involves
identification of requirements, setting goals, mobilizing resources,
designing action plans to utilize the resources and monitor them, and
evaluate whether the goals are achieved or not.
235
To perform all these activities, the Planning Commission was
established in 1950. However, the Planning Commission was replaced
by the National Institute for Transforming India (NITI Ayog) in 2015. The
Planning Commission adopted the strategy of preparing five year plans
for giving specific direction to the economy within the framework of mixed
economy. The NITI Ayog aims at preparing long run vision strategies as
guide posts for stering economy to achive desired goals.
237
achievements and Failures of indian planning
Indian planning is a classic example of very notable achievements
and serious failures. That India has become a very huge economy
and one of the fastest growing economies is itself a testimony to the
achievements of Indian planning.
achievements
i. increase in national income and per capita income: The
size and growth rate of national and per capita incomes have both
increased. During planning period national income has increased
manifold. The per capita income was Rs. 7513 (at constant prices) in
1950-51 which increased to Rs. 74193 in 2014-15.
ii. development in agriculture: The production of food-grains
which was 51 lakh tonnes in 1950-51 increased to 176.4 million tonnes
in 1990-91 and further to 252 million tonnes in 2015-16. Production
of all crops like cotton, sugarcane, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk
and other agricultural produce has also increased manifolds. The much
needed food security to the nation, has been ensured,
iii. development of industry: There has been a substantial
improvement of the capital goods industry including iron and steel,
machinery, chemical fertilisers, etc.
iv. development of economic infrastructure: Five-year plans laid
the foundation for development of economic infrastructure which include
transportation, power generation, communication, irrigation, etc.
v. development of social infrastructure: Development of social
infrastructure is another important achievement of our five year plans.
It consists of such vital services as education, health and family welfare,
housing, labour welfare and welfare of backward classes etc.
vi. self reliance: India was able to achieve self reliance in
the production of basic consumer goods and food grains required by
our people. The emphasis was laid on the development of basic industries
like steel, power and chemical fertilizer.
vii. employment generation: Large employment opportunities have
been created through establishment of small and cottage industries,
spread of technical education, development of self-employment schemes,
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creation of larger industries, improvement of agriculture and service
sectors etc.
viii. capital Formation: Development of agriculture, industry
and defence, increased and income have increased the rate of capital
formation has also.
ix. development of science and technology: India has also
progressed in the field of science and technology. India stands third
in the world in the sphere of science and technology. Indian engineers
and scientists are in a position that they can independently establish
any industrial venture.
x. social Justice: The fundamental objective of Indian planning is
to achieve growth with social justice. Measures like land reforms,
abolition of bonded labour, liquidation of rural indebtedness, fixation
of minimum wages, provision of basic minimum needs, and reduction
of concentration of power and economic disparities have contributed
towards achieving social justice.
Failures
There are also many failures of Indian planning. Prominent of them
are as follows
i. slow growth in production and income: In the five year
plans, growth rate of production was slow in many sectors and lower
than targeted levels.
ii. rise in prices: Due to slow growth of production but a higher
increase in population, prices continued to rise in every plan.
iii. increase in unemployment: During the five year plans,
unemployment went on rising. Although employment opportunities were
created, they were not in tune with the rising youth population resulting
in huge unemployment. Actually, the growth during the last 25 years is
described as job-less growth
iv. persisting poverty and inequality: Plans have also not
succeeded in reducing poverty and inequalities. Although, the
population living below poverty line has come down from about 45% in
1970s to about 22% now, the total number of poor in the country is one
of the largest in the world. Inequalities have also not come down.
239
v. inadequate development of infrastructure: The infrastructure
facilities in terms of transport, communications, power, irrigation,
educational and health facilities and financial institutions have not
expanded. in tune with the requirement for a faster growth and ........ not
on par with that are available in other countries.
vi. Inefficient Administration: One of the main short comings
of Indian plans has been poor implementation. Plans are formulated
after a good deal of discussion and deliberation but their targets are not
achieved due to inefficient administration, dishonesty, vested interests
and red tapism etc.
vii. increase in exports not as expected : Due to slow increase
in production, use of traditional technology and inefficient production,
our goods are not competitive in the export markets. Our policy was more
inward-looking. Because of these reasons, rise in exports and export
earnings are not as expected.
Thus, many deficiencies and inadequacies are identified with
reference to planning in India. We can conclude that plans are sound but
the problem is of proper implementation.
meaning
Economic reforms refers to the adoption of policies to eliminate
the market barriers, encourage economic participation from private
240
sector, reduce the fiscal deficit, increase exports and reduce imports, etc.
for increasing the growth rate of the economy. This package of reforms
consisted of
i. A liberal industrial policy to invite foreign investment by
privatization of industries and abolishing the licensing system.
ii. Automatic approval for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) for many
activities.
iii. A liberal import-export policy for ensuring easy exports of Indian
goods and obtain the necessary raw materials.
iv. Reforming the banking and financial sector in accordance with
the internationally accepted standards.
v. Reforms in the tax structure for ensuring higher coverage of tax
payers and increasing the tax revenue.
vi. Withdrawing and restricting government interference on
investment and also privatization of public sector enterprises.
The economic liberalization has helped India to grow at faster pace.
India is now considered one of the major economies of Asia. The Foreign
investment in India has increased over the years. Many multinational
companies have set up their offices in India. The per capita GDP of India
has increased, which is a positive sign. India has emerged as a leading
exporter of services, software and information-technology products. Many
companies such as Wipro, TCS, HCL Technologies, Tech Mahindra have
worldwide fame. Thus the new economic policy is taking India towards
liberal economy or market economy. It has relieved India much of her
hardships that she faced in 1990-91. More than everything else India
could withstand the economic recession that swept the world in 2008-09.
3. industrial development
i. make in india : To encourage multi-national, as well as
domestic companies to manufacture their products in India and
create jobs and skill enhancement in 25 sectors
ii. startup india and standup india : To provide support to all
start-up businesses in all aspects of doing business in India
iii. pradhan mantri mudra yojana : The small businesses/
startups or entrepreneurs can avail loans from Rs. 50 thousand
to 10 Lakh to start/grow their business under the three, Shishu,
Kishore and Tarun categories of the scheme.
4. social sector
i. swach Bharat abbhiyan : To fulfil Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of
a clean and hygienic India
ii. skill india : To provide encouragement to youth for
development of employable skills by providing monetary rewards
by recognition of prior learning or by undergoing training at
affiliated centres.
242
iii. pradhan mantri Jan dhan yojana : National Mission for
Financial Inclusion to ensure access to financial services,
namely Banking Savings & Deposit Accounts, Remittance,
Credit, Insurance, Pension in an affordable manner
iv. pradhan mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima yojana : Life insurance
scheme aimed at increasing the penetration of life insurance
cover in India. The scheme is open and available to all Indian
citizens between the age of 18 to 50 years.
v. pradhan mantri suraksha Bima yojana : Accident
insurance scheme aimed at increasing the penetration of
accidental insurance cover in India. The scheme is open and
available to all Indian citizens between the age of 18 to 70 years.
vi. atal pension yojana : The scheme provides a monthly pension
of Rs 1000 to Rs. 5000 per month based on the contribution
amount to targeted to the private unorganized sector and is open
to all Indian citizens between the age of 18 to 40 years
5. urban development
i. atal mission on rejuvention and urban transformation
(amrut): To enable better living and drive economic growth
stressing on the need for people centric urban planning and de-
velopment
ii. pradhan mantri awas yojana: To enable better living and drive
economic growth stressing on the need for people centric urban
planning and development.
iii. smart cities mission : To develop 100 cities all over the country
making them citizen friendly and sustainable
The country is witnessing higher growth than many developed
countries and is slated to be the emerging economic super power. The
state government also implements a number of similar programmes to
improve the welfare of the people.
243
exercises
iii. activity
1. Make a chart of various currently ongoing programmes of
development and discuss with your friends about them
2. Gather information about development and welfare programmes
being implemented by the Government of Karnataka
iV. project
1. Prepare a report of 1000-1500 words indicating the progress of
Indian economy since economic reforms.
244
BUSINESS STUDIES
ChapTEr - 1
245
2. profession: It is mainly concerned with rendering of specialized
technical and personal services. e.g.-Lawyers, doctors, chartered
accountants etc.
3. Employment: It is the work undertaken by the people under
an employer for salary or wages. e.g. agricultural labourers,
industrial labourers.
You Know :
Employer is a person who appoints people to do work under him.The people
who are appointed to do the work are called employees. Employer is also called
the owner and the employee is called the worker.
246
The important stages are:
1. Hunting and fishing stage 2. Pastoral stage
3. Agricultural stage 4. Handicraft stage
5. Barter system stage 6. Money Economy stage
7. Town Economy stage 8. International Trade stage
248
markets developed into towns and centres to supply goods. The
merchants came into existence, they invited the craftsmen to a
particular place, collected raw materials and started producing
finished products and supplied to the consumers. During this
stage commerce developed largely and markets extended far and
wide.
8. International Trade stage: Geographical discoveries took place
during 15th and 16th centuries. Columbus discovered America.
Vasco-da-gama discovered the new sea route to India. Megallan,
a Portuguese navigator with the help of the king of Spain, set his
sail to circum navigate the world. He crossed over the southern
cape of South America and reached Pacific ocean. He reached
Philippine islands and was killed by locals but his ship Victoria
returned to Spain after three years. This was the first ship which
sailed round the world. That is what we say“Megallan was the
first whose ship sailed round the word .
The Industrial Revolution, which took place in England and
geographical discoveries helped for large scale production of goods not
only for the local markets but also for other countries. Standardized goods
were produced with the help of machines. Revolution in transportation
and communication helped for the expansion of markets. The production
of goods was carried out not only for the national markets but also for the
international markets.
role of Business and Commerce in Economic Development :
Trade is nothing but buying and selling of goods. On the
otherhand commerce includes trade and also aids to trade or
auxiliaries to trade. The aids to trade include transport, banks,
warehouse facilities, advertisement agencies, insurance etc. Traders
supply goods to the consumers according to their daily needs. They
provide some services also. For the smooth conduct of business transport
helps for the movement of goods from one place to another, banks help to
provide financial assistance. During transit or during the storage goods
are exposed to some damage or loss, the insurance companies cover the
loss while goods are in transit or storage. Warehouses help to store goods
and bridge the gap between production and consumption.Advertisement
helps to give information about the good sproduced.
To sum up, commerce is responsible for smooth and continuous
supply of goods to consumers. Commerce helps in bringing the
factors required for the establishment of industries.Commerce brings the
249
different parts of the world closer, there by creating one market.
It helps the traders to become more adventurous. Commerce equalizes
prices, blends the ideas and cultures and helps for national and
international integration. Commerce also helps the government; through
paying rates, taxes and duties. It is a good source of income to the government.
Development of Commerce during 21st century:
21st century is called the age of information technology.
Internet banking, mobile banking, privatisation of insurance,
advancement of telecommunication services, online shopping,
e-commerce,better transportation facilities, electronic media and
such others have spread all over the world. Through the
technological advancements the entire world has become a global
village now. Multinational Companies (MNC) have spread their
business in many countries. They help to increase production and
supply of goods to the world market. These companies produce
specialised goods on large scale and their prices are competitive.
On the whole, commerce is developing at a greater speed.
EXErCISES
251
ChapTEr - 2
Objectives of Business :
Business has two main objectives
1. Economic objectives
2. Social objectives
Economic objectives : We are under the impression that
earning profit is the main objective of business. But it is not so, the sole
objective of business includes earning reasonable profit that is sufficient
to enable the business to cover the costs and the business man to lead
a normal comfortable life. Business supplies goods and services to the
consumers and thus creates consumers. It uses the available resources
to produce the goods that are sufficient to consumers. It produces such
goods that are required from time to time according to changes that take
place. It brings changes in production by adopting new techniques. It also
enables the consumers to know about the changes in products through
avertisement.
252
Social objectives : Business produces goods and supplies the
goods that are required for the development of a nation. It provides
employment to many and pays them fair wages and salaries and helps
them to improve their standard of living. Business contributes its
share to the economic development of a nation by paying rates, taxes
and duties. Business also contributes a fair share for the social
welfare of the nation by starting and running of schools, colleges,
hospitals, and also by maintaining public gardens etc.
253
permanent shops : They are
opened at a fixed place and carry
out trade.
Itinerant or Mobile Traders
: They do not have a fixed place
tocarry on their trade. The
important among them are
Hawkers, Peddlers,Street vendors
and Market vendors.
permanent shops
hawkers
Street traders
254
Market sellers (shandy sellers) :
Weekly markets take place at
villages or towns once in a week.
Different traders take their
goods to these markets and sell
them to the consumers. Another
speciality of these weekly markets
is that the surrounding villagers
bring the goods which they have
Market sellers
grown or produced and sell them,
eg. vegetables, eggs, butter,agricultural implements, blankets etc.,
With the money they get, they buy their requirements. At some
places yearly fairs take place and here too the traders gather and sell the
products to the consumers.
Wholesale Trade : Wholesale traders buy goods in large quantity
from producers and sell them to the retailers in small quantities. Generally,
they deal with one or two types of goods. They help the retailers in many
ways such as supplying goods to the retailers in small quantities. When
ever required, they provide credit facility to the retailes. They advertise for
goods on behalf of the retailers. They supply market trends to the retailers.
They do not keep high margin of profit. They render some services to the
producers such as market trends, and advertise on behalf of the producers.
They also provide storage facility for goods.
2. Foreign Trade: The trade between two countries is called foreign
trade. Foreign trade can be classified into three types. They are Imports,
Exports and Entrepot trade. Imports refer to a country buying goods from
other countries for its use. Exports refer to a country selling its goods to
other countries for their use. Entrepot Trade refers to buying of goods
from one country with a view to sell it to other countries. Singapore and
Middle East countries are the best examples for entrepot trade. Now a
days many countries carry out entrepot trade.
Need for foreign Trade: No country in the world is self sufficient
in all the natural resources. Some countries have plenty of natural
resources. Using the available natural resources they produce more
goods than they require and the excess is exported to other countries.
255
In the same way some countries have deficit of some natural resources
and depend on other countries for their requirement and import them.
Thus there is a great need for foreign trade. The need for foreign trade
is increasing day by day. It also helps to foster friendship among the
countries.
INDUSTrIES
Industry is an economic activity. It is concerned with production of
goods, extraction of minerals and also providing some services.
Types of Industries :
Industries may be classified into two main types. They are
Primary Industries and Secondary Industries. The following chart shows
the further classification of Industries.
Industries
Primary Industries Secondary Industries
primary Industries
These industries produce goods by using the natural resources. e.g.
- agriculture, fishing, dairy farming, mining etc. These industries are
further divided as genetic industries and extractive industries.
i) Genetic industries: These industries are engaged in reproduction
of different crops, plants and animals. They help to increase the wealth of
a nation. e.g. - horticulture, dairy farming, poultry farming, etc.
ii) Extractive Industries: They are engaged in extracting different
raw materials and ores from the earth. (It is also called non-renewable
industry) e.g. - Extraction of ores, drilling of oil wells etc.,
Secondary Industries:
They are labour oriented industries. They are further divided into
Manufacturing industries and Construction industries.
256
i) Manufacturing Industries: These industries are engaged in
converting raw materials or semi finished products into finished
products. They are mainly labour oriented and supply finished
products to consumers, e.g. - Converting iron ore into steel, Sugar out of
sugarcane etc.
ii) Construction Industries: They are engaged in construction
of roads, canals, bridges etc. These industries help in the quick
development of economic activities like - transport and communication etc.
257
hindrance of place-Transportation: To over come the hindrance of
place the services of transportation are used. Road transport, Railways,
Water transport and Air transport are different media. These media help
to reach the goods from producers to the traders and from traders to the
consumers.
Financial Services–Banks: In the distribution of goods from the
producers to the consumers there is the hindrance or problem of finance.
The supply of finance is required in all stages. Money is required to
exchange goods. These problems are solved by banks. Banks provide
finance to the traders and serve to conduct the business smoothly.
hindrance of Loss-Insurance companies: While moving goods from
producers to consumers or while the goods are stored in warehouses,
There is a problem of damage or destruction. To over come this hindrance
insurance facilities are available. The insurance companies help business
by making good the loss incurred by fire or water or that caused by natural
calamities and thus help for the smooth conduct of business.
hindrance of Time-Storage: The production of goods and their
consumption take place at different times. To supply goods to consumers
when ever they required them, they have to be stored. For this purpose
there are warehouses. These warehouses are scientifically constructed
and many warehouses have cold storage facilities also.
hindrance of Knowledge-advertisement: While distributing goods
to the consumers, the knowledge about the goods has to be given to
the consumers. Even when new goods are introduced into the market
knowledge about them is also required or knowledge about alternatives
is also to be given to the consumers. For all these proposes advertising
services are very useful.
BUSINESS EThICS
We are under the impression that earning profit is the main
objective of business. But it is not so, The objective should be to include
reasonable profit and to enable the business to cover the cost. Trade
and commerce are perhaps the older traditional occupations. Traders
supply goods to the consumers. They supply essential commodities. They
are supposed to keep marginal profit to cover their cost. By doing so the
258
ethical principles in the business are developed. But it is unfortunate
that greed and profit ering have entered into business. To earn more
profits, some anti-social and unethical practices are followed. Some of
them are-adulteration, charging excess or abnormal rates, using false
weights and measures, creating artificial scarcity by hoarding the
goods and carrying out black marketing etc. These are unethical
business practices.
By such acts people suffer untold miseries. Such unethical
practices should be avoided. In our country to avoid such
practices the Government has introduced Public Distribution
System. (Ex Supplying essential commodities through fair price
shops operated by the government agencies). To maintain the
standard of goods and essential commodities the government has
opened an institution-Bureau of Indian Standards.ISI and AGMARK
marks are printed on goods and commodities to certify their quality etc.
Every industrial product must have a seal on its cover pack, which
contains the quantity, the date of manufacture, date of expiry, Maximum
retail price (MRP). It is a legal mandatory provision.
EXErCISES
259
5. Mention the important goods produced by cottage and small scale
industries.
6. Which organizations overcome the hindrance of place and risk
7. Mention the antisocial activities of traders to earn more profit.
8. What are the steps taken by the government to overcome the
antisocial practices in business
IV. activity:
1. Visit weekly market near your place and learn how buying and
selling is carried on there.
260
ChapTEr - 3
Features :
• It is one of the oldest and simplest forms of business
organizations.
• It is owned and managed by a single person.
• It is easy to start this kind of business.
• These concerns are run by the sole traders for profits.
• The sole trader uses his own skill and responsible for all the losses.
Sole trader takes the help of his family members or appoints some
261
workers to help him in business. Generally they are small in size. But
now a days they run on big scale also.
advantages of Sole Trading concerns:
• No legal formalities are required to commence the business.
• It can be started by own capital.
• No difficulties arise in day to day running of the business.
• The owner enjoys all the profits and bears all the losses.
• They directly come into contact with the consumers.
• They render some social services also.
• They provide employment to some people.
• They help in distribution of wealth.
• They understand the likes and dislikes of the customers and
supply goods accordingly they pay rates, taxes and duties to the
government.
• They are in a position to take quick decisions regarding business.
• They maintain business secrets.
Disadvantages of Sole trading concerns: Sole trading concerns
are not free from some disadvantages. They are Capital is limited and
they cannot expand the business. Since it is run by a single person,
the managerial ability is limited (group decisions are always better and
effective). All the losses are to be borne by a single person. Life of the
sole trading concerns may be short, with the death or in solvency of the
sole trader, the trading concerns will be closed.
partnership Firms
The limitations of the sole trading concerns lead to the formation
of partnership firms. In these firms two or more persons join together
and carry out the business. Partnership firms Act was passed in 1932.
According to the section 4 of partnership act, the partnership firm is
defined as the relation between the persons who have agreed to share
the profits of a business carriedon by all or any of them acting for all.
The maximum number of partners is fixed to Ten if they carry out the
banking business and twenty in case of carrying out general business.
Types of partners: There are several types of partners, but generally
we find Active or working partners, Sleeping partners, Nominal partners
and Minor partners.
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• active partners: They contribute fixed amount of capital, and
share profits and losses in proportion to their capital contribution
and take active part in carrying out the day-to-day affairs of the
business.
• Sleeping partners: They contribute capital but do not take active
part in day-to-day transactions of the firm. The profits and losses
are shared in proportion to their capital contribution.
• Nominal partners: They neither contribute capital nor take
active participation in day to day transactions of the firm. They
are not entitled for any share in profit but they are liable for
business losses.
• Minor partners: These partners are those who have not yet
attained the age 18 years. A minor cannot become a partner. But
by mutual agreement of the partners a minor can be admitted
as a partner. The minor partners are eligible for profits but not
eligible for defaults or losses. When a new partnership is started
the minor cannot he admitted. In addition to these types there
are secret partners, limited partners and partners eligible only
for profits.
partnership deed: There shall be a deed of partnership. Generally it
is in writing, duly stamped and signed by all the partners. It differs from
firm to firm. It contains all the terms and conditions of the firm. Generally
it contains the name of the firm, names and addresses of partners, the
address of the firm, nature of business, address of the branches if any,
date of the commencement of business, contribution of capital by each
partner, the ratio of sharing profits and losses, duties of each partner,
division of work by each partner, the conditions to be followed at the time
of admission of a new partner, valuation of good will at the time of admission
of a partner or at the time of closing the business, the procedure to be
followed whenever differences arise among the partners.
Merits of partnership Firms
• Easy to form: No legal formalities are required for the formation
of partnership firms. Even the registration of partnership firm
is not compulsory, therefore the partnership firms are started
easily.
• More capital: Partnership firms are formed by more than two
persons, so the capital investment is more.
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• Better efficiency: There are more than one person as
partners. Division of labour can easily be adopted, so there is better
managerial ability and it increases efficiency.
• Credit worthiness: The liability of partners is unlimited, so it
leads to increase the credit worthiness.
• Sharing of business loss: All the partners have to share the
profits and losses. The loss is not borne by one but it is shared
among all the partners.
• Secrecy of business: The partnership firms need not publish
their accounts. Thus there is a scope for maintaining secrets of
business.
• Simple dissolution: Partnership firms can be dissolved easily.
Any partner can apply for dissolution by giving fourteen days
notice or with the consent of all the partners it can be dissolved.
advantages of registration
1. A Registered firm can file a suit in the court of law against third
party. But it is not possible in case of an unregistered firm.
2. A Registered firm can file a case against the other partners against
the loans they owe to the firm.
3. How ever third parties can file a case against an unregistered firm
for the recovery of loans.
4. Any partner can file a case against the firm or other partners for
the dissolution of the firm or for the settlement of accounts.
IV. activity :
1. Collect two advertisements and study them in the context of your
lesson.
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