CLASS XII Subject- CHEMISTRY

Chapter-1 SOLUTIONS

INTRODUCTION For example, common salt in water.

In normal life we rarely come across pure substances. 1.2 Classification
Most of these are mixtures containing two or more
pure substances. Their utility or importance in life Solutions which contain two components in it are called
depends on their composition. The air around us is a Binary Solutions.
mixture of gases primarily oxygen and nitrogen; the water
Substances which are used to prepare a solution are
we drink contains very small amounts of various salts
dissolved in it. Our blood is a mixture of different called as Components.
components. Alloys such as brass, bronze, stainless steel, The component that is present in the largest quantity is
etc. are also mixtures. In this Unit, we will consider known as Solvent. Solvent determines the physical state
mostly liquid solutions and their properties. in which solution exists.
The other component present in lesser quantity in the
1. SOLUTIONS
solution is termed as Solute.

1.1 Definition
Each component may be solid, liquid or in gaseous state.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more than
two components.

1.3 Strength of Solutions

Mass of component in the sol.
Mass % of a component = ×100
The amount of solute dissolved per unit solution or Total Mass of sol.
solvent is called Strength of solution. There are various
2. Volume percentage (%v/v):
methods of measuring strength of a solution. :
“It represents volume of a component in 100 mL of
1. Mass Percentage (%w/w): solution”
“It represents mass of a component present in 100 g of Vol. of component
Vol. % of a component ×100
solution” Total vol. of solution
=

3. Mass by volume percentage (%w/v): Vol. of sol. in mL

“It represents mass of solute in grams present in 100 mL 4. Parts per Million (ppm)
of solution”

Mass of solute in g
Mass by vol. percent = ×100
8. Normality, N No. of Equivalents of solute
Normality, N =
It represents no. of equivalents of solute present in 1 L Vol. of sol. in L
of solution.
Weight
No. of equivalents, eq =

Parts per Million No. of parts of the component Equivalent weight (W / E)

×10
6
= Total no. of all the componens of sol.
E=
M (z is the valency factor)
Concentration in parts per million can be expressed as z
mass to mass, volume to volume and mass to volume.
SOME IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIPS
5. Mole Fraction (x)
Dilution Law
“It represents the moles of a solute present in one mole of
solution” If a solution is diluted by adding solvent to it, then the
amount of solute remains constant and we can write:
No. of moles of the component M V = M V and N V = N V
Mole fraction =
Total no. of moles all the components 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2

Molarity and Normality

For example, in a binary mixture, if the number of moles
of A and B are nA and nB respectively, the mole fraction Normality = z × Molarity
of A will be
IMPORTANT :

xA =
nA Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality are
nA + independent of temperature, whereas molarity &
nB normality are a function of temperature. This is
because volume depends
6. Molarity, M on temperature and the mass does not.
“It represents moles of solute present in 1 L of solution”
2. VAPOUR PRESSURE
Moles of solute
Molarity, M = Vol. of sol. in L
2.1 Definition

Units of Molarity are mol/L also represented by ‘M’ or Vapour pressure of a liquid/solution is the pressure
‘Molar’. exerted by the vapours in equilibrium with the
“Density of a solution is mass of the solution per unit liquid/solution at a particular temperature.
volume” Vapour pressure a escaping tendency
Mass of sol. 2.2 Vapour pressure of liquid solutions
Density, d = =m/V
Vol. of sol. and Raoult’s Law :

7. Molality, m (Raoult’s law for volatile solutes)

“It represents moles of solute present per kg of solvent” Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids,
Molality, m Moles of solute the partial vapour pressure of each component in the
= Mass of solvent in kg solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
Consider a solution containing two volatile components
Units of molality are mol/kg which is also represented by
1and 2 with mole fractions and x2 respectively. Suppose
‘m’ or ‘molal’. x1
 at a particular temperature, their partial vapour pressures are In general
p and p and the vapour pressure in pure state are p0 and p0 .
1 2 1 2 pi = yi ptotal
Thus, according to Raoult’s Law, for
2.3 Vapour pressures of solutions of solids in liquids
component 1 p1 a x1 and Raoult’s Law
and p1 = p0 x (Raoult’s law for non volatile solutes)
11

Similarly, for component 2

If a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent to give a
p2 = p02 x2 solution, the number of solvent molecules escaping from
the surface is correspondingly reduced, thus, the vapour
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressure, the total pressure is also reduced.
pressure (ptotal) over the solution phase in the container
will be the sum of the partial pressures of the components The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends
of the solution and is given as : on the quantity of non-volatile solute present in the
ptotal = p1 + p2 solution, irrespective of its nature.

Substituting the values of p1 and p2, we get Raoult’s law in its general form can be stated as, for
any solution the partial vapour pressure of each
1 1 2 2
volatile
ptotal = x p0 + x p0 component in the solution is directly proportional to its
mole fraction.
= (1 – x2 ) p1 + x 2p2
0 0

In a binary solution, let us denote the solvent by 1 and

= p + (p – p ) x 2
0 0 0 solute by 2. When the solute is non-volatile, only the
1 2 1
solvent molecules are present in vapour phase and
contribute to vapour pressure. Let p1 be the vapour
pressure of the
solvent, x1 be its mole fraction, p0 be its vapour pressure
1

in the pure state. Then according to Raoult’s law

p1a x 1

and p1 = 0
p1 = p total
x1

The plot of vapour pressure and mole fraction of an

ideal solution at constant temperature. The dashed
line I and II represent the partial pressure of the
components. It can be seen from the plot that p 1 and
p2 are directly proportional to x1 and x2,
respectively. The total vapour pressure is given by
line marked III
in the figure.
Mole fraction in vapour phase
If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the components 1
and 2 respectively in the vapour phase then, using If a solution obeys Raoult’s law for all
Dalton’s law of partial pressures: concentrations, its vapour pressure would vary
linearly from zero to the vapour pressure of the pure
p1 = y1 ptotal solvent.

p2 = y2 ptotal
 Solutions showing negative deviations from Raoult’s law :
2.4 Ideal and Non-ideal solutions
• Solvent-Solute(A-B) type of force is stronger than the
Ideal solutions : other two.
An ideal solution is the solution in which each component • The vapour pressure is lower than predicted by the law
obeys Raoult’s law under all conditions of temperatures
and concentrations. • OHMIXING < 0

Properties of Ideal solutions : • OVMIXING< 0

• O For example,phenol and aniline, chloroform and acetone

H MIXING
=0
etc
• O MIXING
=0
V
• Intermolecular attractive forces between the A-A and B-
B are nearly equal to those between A-B.

Eg. solution of benzene and toluene,

Pressure composition curves for solution showing
solution of n-hexane and n-heptane negative deviation
Non – ideal solutions :

When a solution does not obey Raoult’s law over the

entire range of concentration, then it is called non-ideal
solution.

Solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s Law :

• Solvent-Solute(A-B) type of force is weaker than Solute-

Solute(B-B) & Solvent-Solvent(A-A) forces.

• The vapour pressure is higher than predicted by the law.

• OHMIXING > 0

• OVMIXING > 0

Eg. ethanol and acetone, carbon disulphide and acetone

Pressure composition curve for solution showing

positive deviation 2.5 Azeotropes

Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same

composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a
constant temperature.

Minimum boiling azeotrope

The solutions which show a large positive deviation from

Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a
specific composition.
For example, ethanol-water mixture containing
approximately 95% of ethanol forms an azeotrope with
boiling point 351.15 K.
 3. SOLUBILITY

3.1 Solubility of a solid in liquid

Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can

be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent.
Factors affecting the solubility of a solid in liquid :
1. Nature of solute and solvent :
Like dissolves like. For example, While sodium chloride
and sugar dissolve readily in water, naphthalene and
anthracene do not. On the other hand, naphthalene and
anthracene dissolve readily in benzene but sodium
chloride and sugar do not.
2. Temperature :
In a nearly saturated solution,
Boiling temperature - composition Diagram for solutions
showing large positive deviations. Iƒ (OsolH > 0), the solubility increases with rise in
temperature and
(Minimum boiling azeotrope)
If (O sol H < 0) the solubility decreases with rise in
Maximum boiling azeotrope : temperature.

The solutions that show large negative deviation from Effect of pressure :
Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a Does not have any significant effect as solids and liquids
specific composition. Nitric acid and water mixture are highly incompressible.
containing 68% nitric acid forms an azeotrope with a
boiling point of 393.5 K. 3.2 Henry’s law

Henry’s law states that at a constant temperature, the

solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas.
The most commonly used form of Henry’s law states
that “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p)
is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the
solution”. This is expressed as:
p = KH x

Here KH is the Henry’s law constant.

Characteristics of KH :

• KH is a function of the nature of the gas.

• Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is

the solubility of the gas in the liquid.
Boiling temperature - composition Diagram for solutions
showing large negative deviations. • K Hvalues increase with increase of temperature indicating
(Maximum boiling azeotrope) that the solubility of gases increases with decrease of
temperature.

Applications of Henry’s law

Knowing that x2 = 1 – x1, equation reduces to
1. In the production of carbonated beverages.
Op1 = x2 p1
0
2. In the deep sea diving.
3. For climbers or people at high altitudes. Equation can be wirtten as
Raoult’s Law as a special case of Henry’s Law
Op p –p
0

= =
1 1 1
x2
 p0 p0
1 1
According to Raoult’s law,
The expression on the left hand side of the equation as
pi = xi i p 0
mentioned earlier is called relative lowring of vapour
In the solution of a gas in a liquid, one of the components pressure and is equal to the mole fraction of the solute.
is so volatile that it exists as a gas. Its solubility according The above equation can be written as :
to Henry’s law,
p -p
0
n { n ⎞
p = K x. 1 0 1 2 |since x 2
2 |
H
p1 n1 +n2 ⎝ n1 +n2 ⎠
Thus, Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law
0 Here n1 and n2are the number of moles of solvent and solute
in which K becomes equal to p .
H i
respectively present in the solution. For dilute solutions
4. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES n2 << n1, hence neglecting n2 in the denominator we have

The properties that depend on the number of solute p10 – p1 n2

particles irrespective of their nature relative to the total =
p10 n1
number of particles present in the solution are called
colligative properties.
p –p w×M
0

or
1 1
= 2 1
There are four colligative properties: 0
p M 2× w1
1

1. Relative Lowering of vapour Pressure

Here w1 and w2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the
2. Elevation in Boiling Point molar masses of the solvent and solute respectively.
3. Depression in freezing point
4.2 Elevation in Boiling Point
4. Osmotic pressure
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the
4.1 Relative Lowering of vapour Pressure vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the
vapour pressure decreases. On addition of non-volatile solute the vapour pressure of
the solvent decreases and therefore, to boil the solution
The lowering of vapour pressure w.r.t. the vapour
pressure of the pure solvent is called “Relative the required temperature will be higher. So, there will be
lowering in vapour pressure”. a rise in the boiling point of the solution.

According to Raoult’s Law :

The increase in boiling point OT = T – T0 where T0 is
b b b b

p=xp
0
the boiling point of pure solvent and Tb is the boiling point
1 11
of solution is known as elevation of boiling point.
The reduction in the vapour pressure of solvent (Op1) is
given as: Expression :

Op1 = p 1– p =
0
1 p –
0 0
1 p x1 1
OTb = Kb m

Kb is called Boiling Point Elevation Constant or Molal

= p1 (1 – x )
0

Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic Constant).

 5. Solved the following questions -

1- Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C 6H6)and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) if 22 g of benzene is dissolved in
122 g of carbon tetrachloride .
2- Calculate the amount of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) required for preparing 250 ml of 0.15 M solution in methanol.
3- Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity (c) mole fraction of KI if the density of 20% (mass/mass) aqueous KI is 1.202g
mL-1 .
4- Under what conditions, molality and molarity of a solution will be same ?

NOTE: Write all the answers in CW copy .

Attempt all the question answers from your text book also (NCERT) .