PHY 102 Physics II

Dr.rer.nat. ESLAM ALHOGARATY

Revision for the Midterm

1
Electric charge
◦ Two positive or two negative charges repel each other. A positive
charge and a negative charge attract each other.
◦ Figure 21.1 below shows some experiments in electrostatics.
Electric charge and the structure of matter
Electric charge and the structure of matter
◦ The particles of the atom are
the negative electron, the
positive proton, and the
uncharged neutron.
◦ Protons and neutrons make
up the tiny dense nucleus
which is surrounded by
electrons (see Figure 21.3 at
the right).
◦ The electric attraction
between protons and
electrons holds the atom
together.
 Atoms and ions
•A neutral atom has the same number of protons as electrons.
•A positive ion is an atom with one or more electrons removed. A
negative ion has gained one or more electrons.
 Conservation of charge
• The proton and electron have the same magnitude charge.
• The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton is a natural unit of charge. All observable
charge is quantized in this unit.
• The universal principle of charge conservation states that the algebraic sum of all the electric
charges in any closed system is constant.
Conductors and insulators
• A conductor permits the easy
movement of charge through
it. An insulator does not.
• Most metals are good
conductors, while most
nonmetals are insulators.
(See Figure 21.6 at the right.)
• Semiconductors are
intermediate in their
properties between good
conductors and good
insulators.
Charging by induction
• In Figure 21.7 below, the negative rod is able to charge the metal
ball without losing any of its own charge. This process is called
charging by induction.
 Electric forces on uncharged objects
• The charge within an insulator can shift slightly. As a result, two
neutral objects can exert electric forces on each other, as shown in
Figure 21.8 below.
Electrostatic painting
•Induced positive charge on the metal object attracts the
negatively charged paint droplets.
Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s law
•Coulomb’s Law: The
magnitude of the electric
force between two point
charges is directly
proportional to the
product of their charges
and inversely proportional
to the square of the
distance between them.
(See the figure at the
right.)
•Mathematically:
F = k|q1q2|/r2 = (1/4π0)|q1q2|/r2
Measuring the electric force between point charges
•The figure at the upper
right illustrates how
Coulomb used a torsion
balance to measure the
electric force between
point charges.

•Example 21.1 compares the

electric and gravitational
forces. Follow it using
Figure 21.11 at the lower
right.
Electric field
Electric field
◦ A charged body produces an electric field in the space around it (see
Figure 21.15 at the lower left).
◦ We use a small test charge q0 to find out if an electric field is present
(see Figure 21.16 at the lower right).
 Definition of the electric field
◦ Follow the definition in the text of the electric field using Figure 21.17 below.
Electron in a uniform field
◦ Example 21.7 requires us to find the force on a charge that
is in a known electric field. Follow this example using
Figure 21.20 below.
 Superposition of electric fields
◦ The total electric field at a point is the vector sum of the fields due to
all the charges present. (See Figure 21.21 below right.)
 Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines help us visualize the electric field and predict
how charged particles would respond to the field.
Electric field lines

• An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve

whose tangent at any point is the direction of the electric
field vector at that point.
Electric field lines of point charges

• Figure 21.28 below shows the electric field lines of a single point
charge and for two charges of opposite sign and of equal sign.
 Electric Field Lines

Example: electric field lines for isolated +2e and -e charges.

Here’s how electric field lines are related to the field:
 The electric field vector E is tangent to the field lines.
 The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the electric field
strength in that region
 The field lines begin on positive charges and end on
negative charges.
 The number of lines leaving a positive charge or
approaching a negative charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
 No two field lines can cross.
 http://www.its.caltech.edu/~phys1/java/phys1/EField/EField.html
This applet has issues with calculating the correct number of field lines, but the “idea” is OK.

Example: draw the electric field lines for charges +2e and -1e,
separated by a fixed distance. View from “near” the charges.
 http://www.its.caltech.edu/~phys1/java/phys1/EField/EField.html
This applet has issues with calculating the correct number of field lines, but the “idea” is OK.

Example: draw the electric field lines for charges +2e and -1e,
separated by a fixed distance. This time you are looking from
“far away.”
Applets illustrating motion of charged particle in electric field:
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/physical/giambattista/electric/electric_fields.html

http://www.nhn.ou.edu/~walkup/demonstrations/WebAssignments/ChargedParticles001.htm

http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/charges-and-fields/charges-and-fields_en.html
Electric dipoles
◦ An electric dipole is a pair of
point charges having equal
but opposite sign and
separated by a distance.
◦ Figure 21.30 at the right
illustrates the water
molecule, which forms an
electric dipole.
 Electric Dipole in an
External Electric Field

An electric dipole consists of two charges +q and -q, equal in

magnitude but opposite in sign, separated by a fixed distance d.
q is the “charge on the dipole.”

The electric field along the perpendicular bisector of a dipole

(this equation gives the magnitude only).

qd
E . Caution! This is not the general expression
for the electric field of a dipole!
4o r 3

The electric field depends on the product qd. This is true in

general.
q and d are parameters that characterize the dipole; we define
the "dipole moment" of a dipole to be the vector
r r
p  qd, caution: this p is not momentum!

where the direction of p (as well as d) is from negative to

positive (NOT away from +).
+q -q
p

To help you remember the direction of p, this is on your

equation sheet:
r
p  q d, from  to plus
A dipole in a uniform electric field experiences no net force, but
probably experiences a torque…

F+
+q
p E

-q
F-

There is no net force on the dipole:

r r r r r
 F  F  F  qE  qE  0.
 E
F+
+q
p ½ d sin
½ d sin -q

F-

If we choose the midpoint of the dipole as the origin for

calculating the torque, we find

d sin  d sin 
       2 qE  2 qE  qdE sin ,
and in this case the direction is into the plane of the figure.
Expressed as a vector,
r r r
  p  E. Recall that the unit of torque is
N·m, which is not a joule!
 E
F+
+q
p ½ d sin
½ d sin -q

F-

The torque’s magnitude is p E sin and the direction is given by

the right-hand rule.

What is the maximum torque magnitude? For

what angle  is the torque a maximum?
 Energy of an Electric Dipole in an
External Electric Field
E
F+
+q
p

-q
F-

If the dipole is free to rotate, the electric field does work* to

rotate the dipole.
W  pE(cos initial  cos final ).
The work depends only on the initial and final coordinates, and
not on how you go from the initial to the final coordinates.
*Calculated using W   z d, which you learned in Physics 1135.
 Udipole  pE cos 
+q
F+
p E


-q
F-

With this definition, U is zero* when =/2.

*Remember, zero potential energy does not mean minimum potential energy!
 Udipole  pE cos 

E
+q  -q
p
F+ F-

U is maximum when cos=-1, or = (a point of unstable

equilibrium*).

*An small change of  away  will result in rotation.

 Udipole  pE cos 

E
-q =0 +q
p
F- F+

U is minimum when cos=+1, or =0 (stable equilibrium*).

*An small change of  away 0 will result in rotation back towards  = 0.

 Udipole  pE cos 

E
F+
+q
p

-q
F-

With this definition, U is zero when =/2.

U is maximum when cos=-1, or = (a point of unstable
equilibrium).
U is minimum when cos=+1, or =0 (stable equilibrium).
It is “better” to express the dipole potential energy as
r r Recall that the unit of energy is the
U dipole   p  E. joule, which is a N·m, but is not the
same as the N·m of torque!
Summary:

r r r
  p E   pE sin   max  pE Units are N·m, but not joules!

r r
U dipole  p  E  pE cos  U max  pE Units are N·m = joules!

p +q

E

-q

The information on this slide is enough to work homework problems involving torque.
 Electric Flux

We have used electric field lines to visualize electric fields and

indicate their strength.

We are now going to count* the

number of electric field lines passing
through a surface, and use this E
count to determine the electric field.

*There are 3 kinds of people in this world: those who can count, and those who can’t.
The electric flux passing through a surface is the number of
electric field lines that pass through it.

Because electric field lines are drawn A

arbitrarily, we quantify electric flux E
like this: E=EA,

…except that…

If the surface is tilted, fewer lines cut

the surface. E

Later we’ll learn about magnetic flux, which is
why I will use the subscript E on electric flux.
The green lines miss!
Question: you gave me five different equations for electric flux.
Which one do I need to use?
Answer: use the simplest (easiest!) one that works.
 E  EA Flat surface, E  A, E constant over surface. Easy!

 E  EA cos  Flat surface, E not  A, E constant over surface.

r r
E  E  A Flat surface, E not  A, E constant over surface.

r r
 E   E  dA Surface not flat, E not uniform. Avoid, if possible.
This is the definition of electric flux, so it is on your equation sheet.

r r
 E  dA
E  Ñ Closed surface.
The circle on the integral just reminds you to integrate over a closed surface.

If the surface is closed, you may be able to “break it up” into

simple segments and still use E=E·A for each segment.
Gauss’ Law

Mathematically*, we express the idea of the last two slides as

r r q enclosed
 E  dA  o
E  Ñ Gauss’ Law
Always true, not always useful.

We will find that Gauss’ law gives a simple way to calculate

electric fields for charge distributions that exhibit a high degree
of symmetry…
…and we will save more complex charge distributions for
advanced classes.

*“Mathematics is the Queen of the Sciences.”—Karl Gauss

Capacitance and Dielectrics
 Capacitors
Device for storing electrical energy which can then be released in a controlled manner

Consists of two conductors, carrying charges of q and –q, that are separated, usually
by a nonconducting material - an insulator

Symbol in circuits is

It takes work, which is then stored as potential energy in the electric field that is set up
between the two plates, to place charges on the conducting plates of the capacitor

Since there is an electric field between the plates there is also a potential difference
between the plates
Capacitors
We usually talk about
capacitors in terms of
parallel conducting
plates

They in fact can be

any two conducting
objects
Capacitance
The capacitance is defined to be the ratio of the
amount of charge that is on the capacitor to the
potential difference between the plates at this point
Q
C
Vab

1Coulomb
Units are 1 farad 
1Volt
Calculating the Capacitance
We start with the simplest form – two parallel conducting plates separated by
vacuum

Let the conducting plates have area A and be separated by a

distance d

The magnitude of the electric field between the  Q

two plates is given by E 
0 0A

We treat the field as being uniform allowing us Qd

to write Vab  Ed 
0A
Calculating the Capacitance
Putting this all together, we have for the
capacitance

Q A
C  0
Vab d

The capacitance is only dependent upon

the geometry of the capacitor
1 farad Capacitor
Given a 1 farad parallel plate capacitor having a plate separation of
1mm. What is the area of the plates?

A
We start with C  0
d
And rearrange to solve Cd 1.0F 1.0  103 m 
A 
0 8.85  10 12 F / m
for A, giving

 1.1  108 m 2

This corresponds to a square about 10km on a side!

 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Electrical Potential energy is stored in a capacitor

The energy comes from the work that is done in charging the capacitor

Let q and v be the intermediate charge and potential on the capacitor

The incremental work done in bringing an incremental charge, dq, to the

capacitor is then given by

q dq
dW  v dq 
C
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
The total work done is just the integral of this equation from 0 to Q

1 Q Q2
W
C 0 q dq 
2C
Using the relationship between capacitance, voltage and charge we also obtain

Q2 1 1
U  C V  QV
2
2C 2 2
where U is the stored potential energy
 Example 5
Suppose the capacitor shown here is charged to Q and then the A
battery is disconnected ++++
d
Now suppose you pull the plates further apart -----
so that the final separation is d1
Which of the quantities Q, C, V, U, E change?
Q: Charge on the capacitor does not change

C: Capacitance Decreases

V: Voltage Increases

U: Potential Energy Increases

E: Electric Field does not change

How do these quantities change?

d d1 d1
Answers: C1  C V1  V U1  U
d1 d d
 Example 6
Suppose the battery (V) is kept
attached to the capacitor
Again pull the plates apart from d to d1
Now which quantities, if any, change?
Q: Charge Decreases

C: Capacitance Decreases

V: Voltage on capacitor does not change

U: Potential Energy Decreases

E: Electric Field Decreases

How much do these quantities change?

d d d d
Answers: Q1  Q C1  C U1  U E1  E
d1 d1 d1 d1
Electric Field Energy Density
The potential energy that is stored in the capacitor can be thought of as being
stored in the electric field that is in the region between the two plates of the
capacitor

The quantity that is of interest is in fact the energy density

1
CV 2
Energy Density  u  2
Ad

where A and d are the area of the capacitor plates and their separation, respectively
 Electric Field Energy Density
A and
Using C  0 V  E d we then have
d
1
u  0 E 2
2
Even though we used the relationship for a parallel capacitor, this result holds for all
capacitors regardless of configuration

This represents the energy density of the electric field in general

 Energy Storage in Capacitors
work to charge a capacitor:
• capacitor already has charge q, voltage (difference) V
• move extra charge element dq from one plate to the other
• external work required: dW = dq V. V
+ -
dq
q +
dW  V dq  dq from q=CV
C

• start with zero charge, end up with Q: +q -q

2 Q
Q Q q q Q2
W   dW   dq   .
0 0 C 2C 0 2C
Dielectrics
Most capacitors have a nonconducting material between their plates

This nonconducting material, a dielectric, accomplishes three things

1) Solves mechanical problem of keeping the plates separated

2) Increases the maximum potential difference allowed between the plates

3) Increases the capacitance of a given capacitor over what it would be without

the dielectric
Dielectrics
Suppose we have a capacitor of value C0 that is charged to a potential difference of
V0 and then removed from the charging source

We would then find that it has a charge of Q  C 0V0

We now insert the dielectric material into the capacitor

We find that the potential difference decreases by a factor K

V0
V
K
Or equivalently the capacitance has increased by a factor of K

C  K C0
This constant K is known as the dielectric constant and is dependent upon the
material used and is a number greater than 1
 Polarization
Q
+++++++++++++++
Without the dielectric in the
capacitor, we have V0 E0
---------------
The electric field points undiminished from the positive to the negative plate

Q
+++++++++++++++
With the dielectric in place
V 
-
- - -

we have +
- +
-
+
+ +
+
-
+
E
---------------
The electric field between the plates of the capacitor is reduced because some of the
material within the dielectric rearranges so that their negative charges are oriented
towards the positive plate
Polarization
These rearranged charges set up an internal
electric field that opposes the electric field due to
the charges on the plates

The net electric field is given by

E0
E
K
Redefinitions
We now redefine several quantities using the dielectric
constant

We define the permittivity of the dielectric as being

  K 0
A A
Capacitance:
C  KC 0  K 0  
d d
with the last two relationships holding for a parallel plate capacitor

1 1 2
Energy Density u  K 0 E  E
2
2 2
 Example 7
Two identical parallel plate capacitors are given the same charge Q, after which they are
disconnected from the battery. After C2 has been charged and disconnected it is filled with
a dielectric.

Compare the voltages of the two capacitors.

a) V1 > V2 b) V1 = V2 c) V1 < V2

We have that Q1 = Q2 and that C2 = KC1

We also have that C = Q/V or V= Q/C

Q1 Q2 Q 1
Then V1  and V2   1  V1
C1 C 2 KC1 K
Dielectrics

• if insulating material (“dielectric”) is

placed between capacitor plates
dielectric
capacitance increases by factor 
•  (greek letter kappa) is the
dielectric constant
 A
C= .
d

•  depends on the material

vacuum = 1
air = 1.0006
PVC = 3.18
SrTiO₃ =310
How does a dielectric work?

• dielectric material contains

dipoles

• dipoles align in electric field

• induced charges partially

compensate charges on plates

• electric field and voltage in

capacitor reduced (V  Ed)
Q
• C capacitance increases
V
Conceptual Example

V=0
A capacitor connected to a voltage
source as shown acquires a charge Q.

V
While the capacitor is still connected
to the battery, a dielectric material is
inserted.

Will Q increase, decrease, or stay the same? V

Why?
Example: a parallel plate capacitor has an area of 10 cm2 and
plate separation 5 mm. A 300 V battery is connected to its
plates. If neoprene is inserted between its plates, how much
charge does the capacitor hold.

A=10 cm2
 A
C=
d
 6.7   8.85×10-12 10×10-4 
C= F
5×10 -3
=6.7

C =1.19 10-11F
V=300 V
Q = CV d=5 mm 300 V

Q = 1.19 10-11   300  C   3.56 10-9 C  = 3.56 nC

Example: the dielectric is removed without changing the plate
separation. What are the capacitance, charge, potential
difference, and energy stored in the capacitor?

A=10 cm2
Knowing C and Q we can
calculate the new potential
difference.

Q
V = =
 3.56  10-9
V

C 
1.78  10 -12

V=?
V = 2020 V d=5 mm
Example: the dielectric is removed without changing the plate
separation. What are the capacitance, charge, potential
difference, and energy stored in the capacitor?

A=10 cm2
1
U = C  V 
2

1
 
U = 1.78 10  2020  J
2
-12 2

U= 3.63 10-6 J V=2020 V

d=5 mm
 Capacitance and Electric Fields
◦ Introduction
◦ Capacitors and Capacitance
◦ Alternating Voltages and Currents
◦ The Effect of a Capacitor’s Dimensions
◦ Electric Fields
◦ Capacitors in Series and Parallel
◦ Voltage and Current
◦ Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
◦ Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
◦ Circuit Symbols
Key Points
A capacitor consists of two plates separated by a dielectric
The charge stored on a capacitor is proportional to V
A capacitor blocks DC but appears to pass AC
The capacitance of several capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum
of their individual capacitances
The capacitance of several capacitors in series is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances
In AC circuits current leads voltage by 90 in a capacitor
The energy stored in a capacitor is ½CV2 or ½Q2/C
Introduction
We noted earlier that an electric current represents a flow of charge

A capacitor can store electric charge and can therefore store electrical energy

Capacitors are often used in association with alternating currents and voltages

They are a key component in almost all electronic circuits

Capacitors and Capacitance
Capacitors consist of two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating layer
called a dielectric
A simple capacitor
circuit
◦ when switch is closed electrons flow
from top plate into battery and from
battery onto bottom plate
◦ charge produces an electric field
across the capacitor and a voltage
across it
For a given capacitor the stored charge q is directly proportional to the voltage across it V
The constant of proportionality is the capacitance C and thus

Qvoltage in volts, then the capacitance is in farads

If the charge is measured in coulombs and the
C
V
Example –
A 10 F capacitor has 10 V across it. What quantity of charge is stored in it?

From above

Q
C
V
Q  CV
 10 5  10
 100 μC
A constant current cannot flow through a capacitor
◦ however, since the voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the charge on it, an
alternating voltage must correspond to an alternating charge, and hence to current
flowing into and out of the capacitor
◦ this can give the
impression that an
alternating current
flows through the
capacitor
A mechanical analogy may help to explain this
◦ consider a window - air cannot pass through it, but sound (which is a fluctuation in air pressure) can
The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to its area A, and
inversely proportional to the distance between its plates d. Hence C  A/d
◦ the constant of proportionality is the permittivity  of the dielectric
◦ the permittivity is normally expressed as the product of the absolute permittivity 0
and the relative permittivity r of the dielectric used

A  0 r A
C 
d d
Electric Fields
The charge on the capacitor produces an electric field with an electric field
strength E given by

E V
d
the units of E are volts/metre (V/m)
All insulating materials have a maximum value for the field strength that they can withstand
◦ the dielectric strength Em

To produce maximum capacitance for a given size of capacitor we want d to be as small as

possible
◦ however, as d is decreased the electric field E is increased
◦ if E exceed Em the dielectric will break down
◦ there is therefore a compromise between physical size and breakdown voltage
The force between positive and negative charges is described in terms of the electric flux linking
them
◦ measured in coulombs (as for electric charge)
◦ a charge Q will produce a total flux of Q coulombs

We also define the electric flux density D as the flux per unit area
In a capacitor we can almost always ignore edge effects, and

DQ
A
Combining the earlier equations it is relatively easy to show that

 D
E
Thus the permittivity of the dielectric within a capacitor is equal to the ratio of the electric flux
density to the electric field strength.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Capacitors in parallel
◦ consider a voltage V applied
across two capacitors
◦ then the charge on each is

◦ if the two capacitors are replaced with a single capacitor C which has a similar effect
as the pair, then

Q  VC Q  VC
1 1 2 2
Charge stored on C  Q  Q
1 2
VC  VC  VC
1 2
C  C C
1 2
Capacitors in series
◦ consider a voltage V applied
across two capacitors in series
◦ the only charge that can be
applied to the lower plate of C1
is that supplied by the upper plate
of C2. Therefore the charge on
each capacitor must be identical. V  V V
Let this be Q, and therefore if a 1 2
single capacitor C has the same
effect as the pair, then Q QQ
C C C
1 2
1 1  1
C C C
1 2
 Series or Parallel Capacitors
Sometimes in order to obtain needed values of capacitance, capacitors
are combined in either

Series

or

Parallel
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors are often combined in series and the question then becomes what
is the equivalent capacitance?

Given what is

We start by putting a voltage, Vab, across

the capacitors
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors become charged because of Vab

If upper plate of C1 gets a charge of +Q,

Then the lower plate of C1 gets a

charge of -Q

What happens with C2?

Since there is no source of charge at point c, and we have effectively put a
charge of –Q on the lower plate of C1, the upper plate of C2 gets a charge
of +Q

Charge Conservation

This then means that lower plate of C2 has a charge of -Q

 Capacitors in Series
We also have to have that the potential across C1 plus the potential across C2
should equal the potential drop across the two capacitors

Vab  Vac  Vcb  V1  V2

Q Q
We have V1  and V2 
C1 C2
Q Q
Then Vab  
C1 C 2
Vab 1 1
Dividing through by Q, we have  
Q C1 C 2
Capacitors in Series
The equivalent capacitor will also have the same voltage across it

Vab 1 1 The left hand side is the inverse of the definition of 1 V

  capacitance 
Q C1 C 2 C Q
So we then have for the equivalent capacitance

1 1 1
 
Ceq C1 C 2
If there are more than two capacitors in series, the resultant
capacitance is given by

1 1

C eq i Ci
Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors can also be connected in parallel

Given what is

Again we start by putting a voltage

across a and b
Capacitors in Parallel
The upper plates of both capacitors are at the
same potential

Likewise for the bottom plates

We have that V1  V2  Vab

Q1 Q2
Now
V1  and V2 
C1 C2
or
Q1  C1V and Q2  C 2V
Capacitors in Parallel
The equivalent capacitor will have the same voltage across it, as do the capacitors
in parallel

But what about the charge on the equivalent capacitor?

The equivalent capacitor will have the same total charge

Q  Q1  Q2
Using this we then have

Q  Q1  Q2
C eqV  C1V  C 2V
or
C eq  C1  C 2
Capacitors in Parallel
The equivalent capacitance is just the sum of the two capacitors

If we have more than two, the resultant capacitance is just

the sum of the individual capacitances

C eq   C i
i
 Example 1
C3
a
C
C1 C2  a b

b
Where do we start?

Recognize that C1 and C2 are parallel with each other and combine these to get C12

This C12 is then in series with with C3

The resultant capacitance is then given by

C3 (C1  C 2 )

1 1 1
  C
C C3 C1  C2 C1  C 2  C3
 Example 2
C
C C C
C

Configuration A
Configuration B Configuration C
Three configurations are constructed using identical capacitors
Which of these configurations has the lowest overall capacitance?

a) Configuration A The net capacitance for A is just C

b) Configuration B In B, the caps are 1 1 1 2 C
c) Configuration C in series and the     C net 
C net C C C 2
resultant is given
by
In C, the caps are in parallel and the C  C  C  2 C
net
resultant is given by
 Example 3
A circuit consists of three unequal capacitors C1, C2, and C3 which are connected to a
battery of emf E. The capacitors obtain charges Q1 Q2, Q3, and have voltages across
their plates V1, V2, and V3. Ceq is the equivalent capacitance of the circuit.

Check all of the following that apply:

a) Q1= Q2 b) Q2= Q3 c) V2= V3 d) E = V1 e) V1 < V2 f) Ceq >

C1

A detailed worksheet is available detailing the answers

 Example 4
o
What is the equivalent capacitance, Ceq, of
the combination shown? C
Ceq C C

(a) Ceq = (3/2)C (b) Ceq = (2/3)C (c) Ceq = 3C

C
C
C
 C C1

1 1 1 C C 3
  C1  Ceq C   C
C1 C C 2 2 2
Voltage and Current
The voltage across a capacitor is directly related to the charge on the capacitor

Q 1
Alternatively, since Q = CV we can see that V    Id t
C C

dQ dV
and since dQ/dt is equal to current, it follows that C
dt dt

dV
I C
dt
Consider the circuit shown here
◦ capacitor is initially discharged
◦ voltage across it will be zero
◦ switch is closed at t = 0
◦ VC is initially zero
◦ hence VR is initially V
◦ hence I is initially V/R
◦ as the capacitor charges:
◦ VC increases
◦ VR decreases
◦ hence I decreases
◦ we have exponential behaviour
Time constant
◦ charging current is determined by R and the voltage across it
◦ increasing R will increase the time taken to charge C
◦ increasing C will also increase time taken to charge C
◦ time required to charge to a particular voltage is determined by the product CR
◦ this product is the time constant  (greek tau)
Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
To move a charge Q through a potential difference V requires an amount of
energy QV

As we charge up a capacitor we repeatedly add small amounts of charge Q by

moving them through a voltage equal to the voltage on the capacitor

Since Q = CV, it follows that Q = CV, so the energy needed E is given by

1
E   CV dV  CV 2
V
0 2
Alternatively, since V = Q/C

2 2
1 1  Q  1 Q
E  CV 2  C   
2 2 C  2C
Example Calculate the energy stored in a 10 F capacitor when it is
charged to 100 V.

From above:

1 1
E  CV   10  5  100 2  50 mJ
2
2 2
Circuit Symbols
Electric Current
& Circuits
Objectives: After finishing this unit, you should
be able to:
• Write and apply Coulomb’s Law and apply it to problems
involving electric forces.
• Explain and demonstrate the first law of electrostatics and
discuss charging by contact and by induction.
• Define the electron, the coulomb, and the microcoulomb as
units of electric charge.
• Understand and apply the concepts of electric potential
energy, electric potential, and electric potential difference.
• Determine the effective resistance for a number of resistors
connected in series and in parallel; and determine the voltage
and current for each resistor.
 Electric Current
Electric current I is the rate of the flow of +Q
charge Q through point in space in a unit of +
time t.
t
Wire

One ampere A is charge flowing at the rate of one coulomb

per second.
Example 1: The electric current in a wire is 6 A.
How many electrons flow past a given point in a
time of 3 s?

q = (6 A)(3 s)
q = 18 C
I=6A

Recall that: 1 e- = 1.6 x 10-19 C, then convert:

1 e− 20
18 C −19
= 1.125 × 10 electrons
1.6 × 10 C
 Conventional Current
Imagine a battery cell with a voltage V that is allowed to discharge through a wire:

Electron flow: The direction of e-

flowing from – to +.

Conventional current: The motion of

proton from + to – has same effect.

Electric fields and potential are defined in terms of +q, so we will

assume conventional current (even if electron flow may be the
actual flow).
 Electromotive Force
A source of electromotive force (emf) is a device that uses chemical,
mechanical or other energy to provide the potential difference necessary
for electric current.

Power lines Battery Wind generator

 Water Analogy to EMF
High Constriction Low High Resistor Low
pressure pressure potential potential
+ -
R
Water I Switch
Valve
Flow E

Water Pump Source of

EMF

The source of emf (pump) provides the voltage (pressure) to force

electrons (water) through electric resistance (narrow constriction).
 Electric Resistance
Suppose we apply a constant potential difference of 4 V to the ends of
geometrically similar rods of, say: steel, copper, and glass.

Steel Copper Glass

Is Ic Ig

4V 4V 4V

The current in glass is much less than for steel or iron, suggesting a
property of each material called electrical resistance R.
 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current I through a given conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference V between its end points.

Ohm’s law allows us to define resistance R and to write the following

forms of the law:
 Factors Affecting Resistance
1. Length, L: Longer materials have greater resistance.

2. Area, A: Larger areas offer less resistance.

3. Temperature, T: Higher temperatures usually result in higher

resistances.

4. Material: Iron has more electrical resistance than a

geometrically similar copper conductor.
 Electrical Circuit Symbols
Electrical circuits often contain one or more resistors grouped together
and attached to an energy source, such as a battery.

The following symbols are often used:

Ground Battery Resistor

+ -

+ - + -
- + - + -
Example 2: When a 3 V battery is connected to a light, a
current of 6 mA is observed. What is the resistance of
the light filament?
V 3V
R= =
I 0.006 A

R = 500 W
R
The SI unit for electrical resistance is the ohm, W: I 6 mA
V=3V
1V
1W + -
1A Source of EMF
 Electric Power
Electric power P is the rate at which electric energy is expended, or work
per unit of time.

W qEd q
P= = = Ed = IV
t t t
Using Ohm’s law, we can find electric power from any two of the
following parameters: current I, voltage V, and resistance R.

V 2
P = IV = I 2 R =
R
Example 3: A power tool is rated at 9 A when used with
a circuit that provides 120 V. What power is used in
operating this tool?

P = VI = (120 V)(9 A) P = 1080 W

Example 4: A 500 W heater draws a current of 10 A.
What is the resistance?
P (500 W)
2
P = I R; R= 2 R= R = 5.00 W
I (10)2
 Simple Circuits
Resistors are said to be connected in series when there is a single path for the current.

The current I is the same for

each resistor R1, R2 and R3.
R1
R2 The energy gained through emf is
I
lost through R1, R2 and R3.
R3
V So, the same is true for voltages:
For series connections:
Only one current
I = I 1 = I 2 = I3 VT = V1 + V2 + V3
 Equivalent Resistance: Series
The equivalent resistance Re of a number of resistors connected in series is
equal to the sum of the individual resistances.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 ; (V = IR)
R1
R2 ITRe = I1R1+ I2R2 + I3R3
I
VT R3
But . . . IT = I1 = I2 = I3

Equivalent Resistance Re = R1 + R2 + R3
Example 4: Find the equivalent resistance Re.
What is the current I in the circuit?
Re = R1 + R2 + R3
2W
3W 1W Re = 3 W + 2 W + 1 W = 6 W
12 V
Equivalent Re = 6 W

The current is found from Ohm’s law: V = IRe

V 12 V
I= = I=2A
Re 6Ω
Example 4(Cont.): Verify that the voltage drops
across each of the three resistors totals the 12 V
emf.

2W
Re = 6 W I=2A
3W 1W
Current, I, is the same for each R.
12 V
V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3
V1 = (2 A)(1 W) = 2 V V1 + V2 + V3 = VT

V1 = (2 A)(2 W) = 4 V 2 V + 4 V + 6 V = 12 V

Check!
V1 = (2 A)(3 W) = 6 V
 Complex Circuits
A complex circuit is one containing more
I3
than a single loop and different current E2
paths. R3

At junctions m and n: R1
m n
I1 = I2 + I3 or I2 + I3 = I1
I1 E1
R2
Junction Rule:
SI (enter) = SI (leaving) I2
 Parallel Connections
Resistors are said to be connected in parallel when there is
more than one path for current.
Series Connection: For Series Resistors:
I2 = I4 = I6 = IT Re = SR
2W 4W 6W V2 + V4 + V6 = VT

Parallel Connection:
For Parallel Resistors:
V2 = V4 = V6 = VT
2W 4W 6W
I 2 + I 4 + I6 = IT
Example 5: Find the equivalent resistance Re for the
diagram below. Assume V = 12 V. What is the total
current through the circuit?
V R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
2W 4W 6W 𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑉 12 𝑉 𝑅𝑒 2 Ω 4 Ω 6 Ω
𝐼= =
𝑅𝑒 1.09 Ω 1 11 12
= ; Re = = 1.09 Ω;
Re 12 11
I = 11.0 A
 Alternating Currents
An alternating current such as that produced by a generator
has no direction in the sense that direct current has. The
magnitudes vary sinusoidally with time as given by:

AC-voltage Emax

and current Imax

E = Emax sin  time, t

I = Imax sin 