1

early societies
i
From the Beginning of Time

Writing and City Life

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2 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY

early societies

I
N this section, we will read about two themes relating to
early societies. The first is about the beginnings of human
existence, from the remote past, millions of years ago. You will
learn how humans first emerged in Africa and how archaeologists
have studied these early phases of history from remains of bones and
stone tools.
Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct the lives of early
people – to find out about the shelters in which they lived, the food
they ate by gathering plant produce and hunting animals, and the
ways in which they expressed themselves. Other important
developments include the use of fire and of language. And, finally, you
will see whether the lives of people who live by hunting and gathering
today can help us to understand the past.
The second theme deals with some of the earliest cities – those of
Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. These cities developed around temples,
and were centres of long-distance trade. Archaeological evidence –
remains of old settlements – and an abundance of written material are
used to reconstruct the lives of the different people who lived there –
craftspeople, scribes, labourers, priests, kings and queens. You will
notice how pastoral people played an important role in some of these
towns. A question to think about is whether the many activities that
went on in cities would have been possible if writing had not developed.
You may wonder as to how people who for millions of years had
lived in forests, in caves or temporary shelters and rock shelters
began to eventually live in villages and cities. Well, the story is a
long one and is related to several developments that took place
at least 5,000 years before the establishment of the first cities.
One of the most far-reaching changes was the gradual shift
from nomadic life to settled agriculture, which began around
10,000 years ago. As you will see in Theme 1, prior to the adoption
of agriculture, people had gathered plant produce as a source of
food. Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds of plants –
where they grew, the seasons when they bore fruit and so on.

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 EARLY SOCIETIES 3

From this, they learnt to grow plants. In West Asia, wheat and
barley, peas and various kinds of pulses were grown. In East and
Southeast Asia, the crops that grew easily were millet and rice.
Millet was also grown in Africa. Around the same time, people
learnt how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goat, cattle,
pig and donkey. Plant fibres such as cotton and flax, and animal
fibres such as wool were now woven into cloth. Somewhat later,
about 5,000 years ago, domesticated animals such as cattle and
donkeys were harnessed to ploughs and carts.
These developments led to other changes as well. When people
grew crops, they had to stay in the same place till the crops
ripened. So, settled life became more common. And with that,
people built more permanent structures in which to live.
This was also the time when some communities learnt how to make
earthen pots. These were used to store grain and other produce, and
to prepare and cook a variety of foods made from the new grains that
were cultivated. In fact, a great deal of attention was given to processing
foods to make them tasty and digestible.
The way stone tools were made also changed. While earlier
methods of making tools continued, some tools and equipment
were now smoothened and polished by an elaborate process of
grinding. New equipment included mortars and pestles for
processing and grinding grain, as well as stone axes and hoes,
which were used to clear land for cultivation, as well as for digging
the earth to sow seeds.
In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as copper
and tin. Sometimes, copper ores were collected and used for their
distinctive bluish-green colour. This prepared the way for the more
extensive use of metal for jewellery and for tools subsequently.
There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce
from distant lands (and seas). This included wood, stones, including
precious and semi-precious stones, metals and shell, and obsidian
(hardened) volcanic lava. Clearly, people were going from place
to place, carrying goods and ideas with them.
With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and the
movements of people, in place of the small communities of early people
there now grew small states. While these changes took place slowly,
over several thousand years, the pace quickened with the growth of
the first cities. Also, the changes had far-reaching consequences.
Some scholars have described this as a revolution, as the lives of
people were probably transformed beyond recognition. Look out for
continuities and changes as you explore these two contrasting themes
in early history.
Remember too, that we have selected only some examples of early
societies for detailed study. There were other kinds of early societies,
including farming communities and pastoral peoples. And there were
other peoples who were hunter-gatherers as well as city dwellers, apart
from the examples selected.

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 4 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY

How to Read Timelines

You will find a timeline like this
one in every section. Timeline i
Each of these will indicate some of
the major processes and events in
world history. (6 MYA TO 1 BCE)
As you study the timelines,
remember—
• Processes through which
ordinary women and men have
shaped history are far more
difficult to date than events
such as a war between kings.
• Some dates may indicate the
beginning of a process, or when
it reaches maturation.
• Historians are constantly
revising dates in the light of
new evidence, or new ways of
assessing old data.
• While we have divided
the timelines on a geographical
basis as a matter of
convenience, actual historical
developments often transcend
these divisions.
• Also, there is a chronological
overlap in historical processes.
• Only some landmarks in human
history have been shown here –
we have highlighted the
processes dealt with in the This timeline focuses on the
themes that follow, which also
have separate timelines. emergence of humans and the
• Wherever you see a*, you will domestication of plants and animals.
also find an illustration related
to the date along the column. It highlights some major technological
• Blank spaces do not mean that developments such as the use of fire,
nothing was happening –
sometimes these indicate that metals, plough agriculture and the
we do not as yet know what
was happening. wheel. Other processes that are shown
• You will be lear ning more include the emergence of cities and the
about South Asian history in
general and Indian history in use of writing. You will also find
particular next year. The dates mention of some of the earliest
selected for South Asia
are only indicative of some empires – a theme that will be
of the developments in the
subcontinent. developed in Timeline II.

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 T IMELINE - I 5

DATES AFRICA EUROPE

6 mya-500,000 BP Australopithecus fossils (5.6 mya)

Evidence of use of fire (1.4 mya)
500,000-150,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (195,000 BP) Evidence of use of fire (400,000 BP)
150,000-50,000 BP
50,000-30,000 Homo sapiens fossils (40,000)
30,000-10,000 Paintings in caves/rock shelters (27,500) Paintings in caves/rock shelters
(especially France and Spain)
8000-7000 BCE
7000-6000 Domestication of cattle and dogs
6000-5000 Cultivation of wheat and barley (Greece)
5000-4000
4000-3000 Domestication of donkey, cultivation of Use of copper (Crete)
millet, use of copper
3000-2000 Plough agriculture, first kingdoms, cities, Domestication of horse (eastern Europe)
pyramids, calendar, hieroglyphic script*,
writing on papyrus (Egypt)
2000-1900 Cities, palaces, use of bronze, the potter’s
wheel, development of trade (Crete)
1900-1800
1800-1700
1700-1600 Development of a script (Crete)*
1600-1500
1500-1400 Use of glass bottles (Egypt)
1400-1300
1300-1200
1200-1100
1100-1000 Use of iron
1000-900
900-800 City of Carthage established in North
Africa by the Phoenicians from West Asia;
growing trade around the Mediterranean
800-700 Use of iron (Sudan) First Olympic games (Greece, 776 BCE)
700-600 Use of iron (Egypt)
600-500 Use of coins* (Greece); establishment of
the Roman republic (510 BCE)
500-400 Persians invade Egypt Establishment of a ‘democracy’ in Athens
(Greece)
400-300 Establishment of Alexandria, Egypt (332 Alexander of Macedonia conquers Egypt
BCE ), which becomes a major centre of and parts of West Asia (336-323 BCE)
learning
300-200
200-100
100-1 BCE

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 6 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY

DATES ASIA SOUTH ASIA

6mya-500,000 BP Use of fire (700,000 BP, China) Stone age site in Riwat (1,900,000 BP ,
Pakistan)
500,000-150,000 BP
150,000-50,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (100,000 BP, West
Asia)
50,000-30,000 BP
30,000-10,000 BP Domestication of dog (14,000, West Asia) Cave paintings at Bhimbetka (Madhya
Pradesh); Homo sapiens fossils (25,500
BP , Sri Lanka)
8000-7000 BCE Domestication of sheep and goat,
cultivation of wheat and barley (West Asia)
7000-6000 Domestication of pig and cattle (West Early agricultural settlements (Baluchistan)
and East Asia)
6000-5000 Domestication of chicken, cultivation of
millet and yam (East Asia)
5000-4000 Cultivation of cotton (South Asia); use of
copper (West Asia)
4000-3000 Use of the potter’s wheel, wheel for Use of copper
transport (3600 BCE), writing (3200 BCE,
Mesopotamia), use of bronze
3000-2000 Plough agriculture, cities (Mesopotamia); silk- Cities of the Harappan civilisation, use of
making (China); domestication of horse (Central script* (c.2700 BCE)
Asia); cultivation of rice (Southeast Asia)
2000-1900 Domestication of water-buffalo (East Asia)
1900-1800
1800-1700
1700-1600
1600-1500 Cities, writing, kingdoms (Shang
dynasty), use of bronze (China)*
1500-1400 Use of iron (West Asia) Composition of the Rig Veda
1400-1300
1300-1200
1200-1100 Use of iron, megaliths (Deccan and South
India)
1100-1000 Domestication of the one-humped camel (Arabia)
1000-900
900-800
800-700
700-600
600-500 Use of coins (Turkey); Persian empire (546 Cities and states in several areas, first
BCE ) with capital at Persepolis; Chinese coins, spread of Jainism and Buddhism
philosopher Confucius (c. 551 BCE)
500-400
400-300 Establishment of the Mauryan empire
(c. 321 BCE)
300-200 Establishment of an empire in China (221
BCE ), beginning of the construction of the
Great Wall
200-100
100-1 BCE

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 T IMELINE - I 7

DATES AMERICAS AUSTRALIA / PACIFIC ISLANDS

6 mya-500,000 BP
500,000-150,000 BP
150,000-50,000 BP
50,000-30,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils, earliest indications
of sea-faring (45,000 BP)

30,000-10,000 BP Homo sapiens fossils (12,000 BP ) Paintings (20,000 BP)

8000-7000 BCE
7000-6000 Cultivation of squash
6000-5000
5000-4000 Cultivation of beans ACTIVITY

4000-3000 Cultivation of cotton, bottle gourd Choose one date

3000-2000 Domestication of guinea pig, turkey,
from each of the
cultivation of maize six columns and
discuss the
2000-1900 Cultivation of potato, chilli * , cassava, possible
peanut, domestication of llama* and alpaca significance of
the process/
1900-1800 event for men
1800-1700
and women
living in the
1700-1600 region.
1600-1500
1500-1400
1400-1300
1300-1200
1200-1100 Olmec settlements around the Gulf of Settlements in Polynesia and Micronesia
Mexico, early temples and sculpture

1100-1000
1000-900 Development of a hieroglyphic script
900-800
800-700
700-600
600-500
500-400
400-300
300-200
200-100
100-1 BCE

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 THEME 8 T HEMES IN WORLD HISTORY

1 FROM THE BEGINNING

OF TIME

THIS chapter traces the beginning of human existence. It was

5.6 million years ago (written as mya) that the first human-
like creatures appeared on the earth's surface. After this,
several forms of humans emerged and then became extinct.
Human beings resembling us (henceforth referred to as
'modern humans') originated about 160,000 years ago. During
this long period of human history, people obtained food by
either scavenging or hunting animals and gathering plant
produce. They also learnt how to make stone tools and to
communicate with each other.
Although other ways of obtaining food were adopted later,
hunting-gathering continued. Even today there are hunter-
gatherer societies in some parts of the world. This makes us
wonder whether the lifestyles of present-day hunter-gatherers
can tell us anything about the past.

Fossils are the Discoveries of human fossils, stone tools and cave paintings
help us to understand early human history. Each of these
remains or
discoveries has a history of its own. Very often, when such
impressions of a
finds were first made, most scholars refused to accept that
very old plant, these fossils were the remains of early humans. They were
animal or human also sceptical about the ability of early humans to make stone
which have turned tools or paint. It was only over a period of time that the true
into stone. These significance of these finds was realised.
are often embedded The evidence for human evolution comes from fossils of
in rock, and are species of humans which have become extinct. Fossils can
thus preserved for be dated either through direct chemical analysis or indirectly
millions of years. by dating the sediments in which they are buried. Once fossils
are dated, a sequence of human evolution can be worked
out.
When such discoveries were first made, about 200 years
Species is a group ago, many scholars were often reluctant to accept that fossils
of organisms that and other finds including stone tools and paintings were
can breed to actually connected with early forms of humans. This
produce fertile reluctance generally stemmed from their belief in the Old
offspring. Members Testament of the Bible, according to which human origin was
of one species regarded as an act of Creation by God.
cannot mate with For instance, in August 1856, workmen who were quarrying
for limestone in the Neander valley (see Map 2, p. 18), a gorge
those of other
near the German city of Dusseldorf, found a skull and some
species to produce
skeletal fragments. These were handed over to Carl Fuhlrott,
fertile offspring. a local schoolmaster and natural historian, who realised that

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 F ROM THE B EGINNING OF TIME 9

they did not belong to a modern human. He then made a

plaster cast of the skull and sent it to Herman Schaaffhausen,
a professor of anatomy at Bonn University. The following year
they jointly published a paper, claiming that this skull
represented a form of human that was extinct. At that time,
scholars did not accept this view and instead declared that
the skull belonged to a person of more recent times.

RECOVERING FOSSILS
A painstaking process. The precise location of finds is important for dating.

Shows the equipment used to record the location of finds. The Shows how a fossil fragment is
square frame to the left of the archaeologist is a grid divided recovered from the surrounding
into 10 cm squares. Placing it over the find spot helps to stone, in this case a variety of
record the horizontal position of the find. The triangular limestone, in which it is
apparatus to the right is used to record the vertical position. embedded. As you can see, this
requires skill and patience.

ACTIVITY 1
24 November 1859, when Charles Darwin’s On the Origin
Most religions
of Species was published, marked a landmark in the study
have stories
of evolution. All 1,250 copies of the first print were sold out
about the
the same day. Darwin argued that humans had evolved from
creation of
animals a long time ago.
human beings
which often do
not correspond
with scientific
discoveries. Find
out about some
of these and
compare them
with the history of
The skull of Neanderthal man. Some human evolution
of those who dismissed the antiquity as discussed in
of the skull regarded it as 'brutish' or
this chapter.
that of a 'pathological idiot'.

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The Story of Human Evolution

(a) The Precursors of Modern Human Beings

Look at these four skulls.

A belongs to an ape.
B belongs to a species known as Australopithecus (see below).
C belongs to a species known as Homo erectus (literally ‘upright man’).
A D belongs to a species known as Homo sapiens (literally ‘thinking/wise
man’} to which all present-day human beings belong.
List as many similarities and differences that you notice, looking
carefully at the brain case, jaws and teeth.

B The differences that you notice in the skulls shown in the illustration
are some of the changes that came about as a result of human
evolution. The story of human evolution is enormously long, and
somewhat complicated. There are also many unanswered questions,
and new data often lead to a revision and modification of earlier
C
understandings. Let us look at some of the developments and their
implications more closely.
It is possible to trace these developments back to between 36 and
24 mya. We sometimes find it difficult to conceptualise such long
spans of time. If you consider a page of your book to represent
D
10,000 years, in itself a vast span of time, 10 pages would represent
100,000 years, and a 100 pages would equal 1 million years.
To think of 36 million years, you would have to imagine a book
3,600 pages long! That was when primates, a category of mammals,
emerged in Asia and Africa. Subsequently, by about 24 mya, there
emerged a subgroup amongst primates, called hominoids. This
Primates included apes. And, much later, about 5.6 mya, we find evidence of
are a subgroup of a the first hominids.
larger group of While hominids have evolved from hominoids and share certain
mammals. They common features, there are major differences as well. Hominoids have
include monkeys, a smaller brain than hominids. They are quadrupeds, walking on all
apes and humans. fours, but with flexible forelimbs. Hominids, by contrast, have an
They have body upright posture and bipedal locomotion (walking on two feet). There
hair, a relatively are also marked differences in the hand, which enables the making
long gestation and use of tools. We will examine the kinds of tools made and their
period following significance more closely later.
birth, mammary Two lines of evidence suggest an African origin for hominids. First,
glands, different it is the group of African apes that are most closely related to hominids.
types of teeth, and Second, the earliest hominid fossils, which belong to the genus
the ability to Australopithecus, have been found in East Africa and date back to
maintain a constant about 5.6 mya. In contrast, fossils found outside Africa are no older
body temperature. than 1.8 million years.

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 F ROM THE B EGINNING OF T IME 11

THE EVOLUTION OF THE HAND A

A shows the precision grip of the chimpanzee.
B
B shows the power grip of the human hand.
C shows the precision grip of the hominid.
The development of the power grip probably
preceded the precision grip.
Compare the precision grip of the chimpanzee with that of the
human hand.
Make a list of the things you do using a precision grip.
What are the things you do using a power grip?

C
Hominids belong to a family known as Hominidae, which includes
all forms of human beings. The distinctive characteristics of hominids
include a large brain size, upright posture, bipedal locomotion and
specialisation of the hand.
Hominids are further subdivided into branches, known as genus, of
which Australopithecus and Homo are important. Each of these in
turn includes several species. The major differences between
Australopithecus and Homo relate to brain size, jaws and teeth. Hominoids are
The former has a smaller brain size, heavier jaws and larger teeth than different from
the latter. monkeys in a
Virtually all the names given by scientists to species are derived number of ways.
from Latin and Greek words. For instance, the name Australopithecus They have a larger
comes from a Latin word, ‘austral’, meaning ‘southern’ and a Greek body and do not
word, ‘pithekos’, meaning ‘ape.’ The name was given because this earliest have a tail.
form of humans still retained many features of an ape, such as a Besides, there is a
relatively small brain size in comparison to Homo, large back teeth and longer period of
limited dexterity of the hands. Upright walking was also restricted, as infant development
they still spent a lot of time on trees. They retained characteristics and dependency
amongst
hominoids.

This is a view of the

Olduvai Gorge in the
Rift Valley, East Africa
(see Map 1b, p.14),
one of the areas from
which traces of early
human history have
been recovered. Notice
the different levels of
earth at the centre of
the photograph. Each
of these represents a
distinct geological
phase.

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 12 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY

(such as long forelimbs, curved hand and foot bones and mobile ankle
joints) suited to life on trees. Over time, as tool making and long-
distance walking increased, many human characteristics also developed.

The Discovery of Australopithecus, Olduvai Gorge,

17 July 1959
The Olduvai Gorge (see p. 14) was first ‘discovered’ in the early twentieth
century by a German butterfly collector. However, Olduvai has come to be
identified with Mary and Louis Leakey, who worked here for over 40 years.
It was Mary Leakey who directed archaeological excavations at Olduvai
and Laetoli and she made some of the most exciting discoveries. This is
what Louis Leakey wrote about one of their most remarkable finds:
‘That morning I woke with a headache and
a slight fever. Reluctantly, I agreed to spend the
day in camp.With one of us out of commission,
it was even more vital for the other to continue
the work, for our precarious seven-week season
was running out. So Mary departed for the
diggings with Sally and Toots [two of their dogs]
in the Land-Rover [a jeep-like vehicle], and I
settled back to a restless day off.
Some time later – perhaps I dozed off – I heard
the Land-Rover coming up fast to camp. I had a
momentary vision of Mary stung by one of our
hundreds of resident scorpions or bitten by a
snake that had slipped past the dogs.
The Land-Rover rattled to a stop, and I heard
Mary’s voice calling over and over: “I’ve got him!
I've got him! I’ve got him!” Still groggy from
the headache, I couldn’t make her out. “Got what? Are you hurt?” I asked.
“Him, the man! Our man,” Mary said. “The one we’ve been looking for 23
years. Come quick, I’ve found his teeth!” ’
– From ‘Finding the World's Earliest Man’, by L.S.B. Leakey, National Geographic, 118
(September 1960).

The remains of early humans have been classified into different

species. These are often distinguished from one another on the basis
of differences in bone structure. For instance, species of early humans
are differentiated in terms of their skull size and distinctive jaws (see
illustration on p.10). These characteristics may have evolved due to
what has been called the positive feedback mechanism.

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 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 13

THE POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

The arrows pointing towards a box indicate the influences that
shaped that particular development.

The arrows pointing away from a box indicate how developments

mentioned in the box influenced other processes.

For example, bipedalism enabled hands to be freed for carrying

infants or objects. In turn, as hands were used more and more, upright
walking gradually became more efficient. Apart from the advantage of
freeing hands for various uses, far less energy is consumed while walking
as compared to the movement of a quadruped. However, the advantage
in terms of saving energy is reversed while running. There is indirect
evidence of bipedalism as early as 3.6 mya. This comes from the
fossilised hominid footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania (see Section cover).
Fossil limb bones recovered from Hadar, Ethiopia provide more direct
evidence of bipedalism.
Around 2.5 mya, with the onset of a phase of glaciation (or an Ice
Age), when large parts of the earth were covered with snow, there were
major changes in climate and vegetation. Due to the reduction in
temperatures as well as rainfall, grassland areas expanded at the expense
of forests, leading to the gradual extinction of the early forms of
Australopithecus (that were adapted to forests) and the replacement
by species that were better adapted to the drier conditions. Among
these were the earliest representatives of the genus Homo.

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Homo is a Latin word, meaning ‘man’, although there were

women as well! Scientists distinguish amongst several types of
Homo. The names assigned to these species are derived from
what are regarded as their typical characteristics. So fossils are
classified as Homo habilis (the tool maker), Homo erectus (the
upright man), and Homo sapiens (the wise or thinking man).
Fossils of Homo habilis have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia
and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The earliest fossils of Homo
erectus have been found both in Africa and Asia: Koobi Fora and
west Turkana, Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran, Java. As the
finds in Asia belong to a later date than those in Africa, it is
likely that hominids migrated from East Africa to southern and
northern Africa, to southern and north-eastern Asia, and perhaps
to Europe, some time between 2 and 1.5 mya. This species survived
for nearly a million years.

MAP 1(a): Africa

MAP 1(b): The East

African Rift Valley

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 F ROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME 15

In some instances, the names for fossils are derived from the
places where the first fossils of a particular type were found. So
fossils found in Heidelberg, a city in Germany, were called Homo
heidelbergensis, while those found in the Neander valley (see p.
18) were categorised as Homo neanderthalensis.
The earliest fossils from Europe are of Homo heidelbergensis
and Homo neanderthalensis. Both belong to the species of archaic
(that is, old) Homo sapiens. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis
(0.8-0.1 mya) have a wide distribution, having been found in
Africa, Asia and Europe. The Neanderthals occupied Europe and
western and Central Asia from roughly 130,000 to 35,000 years
ago. They disappeared abruptly in western Europe around 35,000
years ago.
In general, compared with Australopithecus, Homo have a larger
brain, jaws with a reduced outward protrusion and smaller teeth (see
illustration on p. 10). An increase in brain size is associated with more
intelligence and a better memory. The changes in the jaws and teeth
were probably related to differences in dietary habits.

PEOPLING OF THE WORLD

WHEN WHERE WHO

5-1 mya Sub-Saharan Africa Australopithecus, early
Homo, Homo erectus
1 mya-40,000 years ago Africa, Asia and Europe in Homo erectus, archaic
mid-latitudes Homo sapiens,
Neanderthals, Homo
sapiens sapiens/modern
humans
45,000 years ago Australia Modern humans
40,000 years ago to Europe in high-latitudes Late Neanderthals,
present and Asia-Pacific islands modern humans
North and South America
in deserts, rain forests

ACTIVITY 2

Plot the changes indicated in the chart above on an outline

map of the world. Use different colours for the four time
brackets. List the continents where you use (a) a single
colour, (b) two colours, (c) more than two colours.

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 16 THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY

The Story of Human Evolution

(b) Modern Human Beings

If you look at this chart, you will notice that

THE EARLIEST FOSSILS OF some of the earliest evidence for Homo sapiens
MODERN HUMANS has been found in different parts of Africa.
This raises the question of the centre of human
WHERE WHEN (years ago) origin. Was there a single centre or were there
several?
ETHIOPIA 195,000-160,000 The issue of the place of origin of modern
Omo Kibish humans has been much debated. Two totally
divergent views have been expounded, one
SOUTH AFRICA 120,000-50,000 advocating the regional continuity model (with
Border Cave
multiple regions of origin), the other the
Die Kelders
replacement model (with a single origin in
Klasies River Mouth
Africa).
MOROCCO 70,000-50,000 According to the regional continuity model,
Dar es Solton the archaic Homo sapiens in different regions
gradually evolved at different rates into modern
ISRAEL 100,000-80,000 humans, and hence the variation in the first
Qafzeh Skhul appearance of modern humans in different
parts of the world. The argument is based on
AUSTRALIA 45,000-35,000 the regional differences in the features of
Lake Mungo
present-day humans. According to those who
advocate this view, these dissimilarities are due
BORNEO 40,000
Niah Cave to differences between the pre-existing Homo
erectus and Homo heidelbergensis populations
FRANCE 35,000 that occupied the same regions.
Cro-Magnon,
near Les Eyzies The Replacement and Regional
Continuity Models
The replacement model visualises the
complete replacement everywhere of all older forms of humans
with modern humans. In support of this view is the evidence of
the genetic and anatomical homogeneity of modern humans. Those
who suggest this argue that the enormous similarity amongst
modern humans is due to their descent from a population that
originated in a single region, which is Africa. The evidence of the
earliest fossils of modern humans (from Omo in Ethiopia) also
supports the replacement model. Scholars who hold this view
suggest that the physical differences observed today among
modern humans are the result of adaptation (over a span of
thousands of years) by populations who migrated to the particular
regions where they finally settled down.

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Early Humans: Ways of Obtaining Food

So far, we have been considering the evidence of skeletal remains and

seeing how these have been used to reconstruct the histories of the
movements of peoples across continents. But, there are other, more
routine aspects of human life as well. Let us see how these can be studied.
Early humans would have obtained food through a number of
ways, such as gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing.
Gathering would involve collecting plant foods such as seeds,
nuts, berries, fruits and tubers. That gathering was practised is
generally assumed rather than conclusively established, as there
is very little direct evidence for it. While we get a fair amount of
fossil bones, fossilised plant remains are relatively rare. The only
other way of getting information about plant intake would be if
plant remains were accidentally burnt. This process results in
carbonisation. In this form, organic matter is preserved for a
long span of time. However, so far archaeologists have not found
much evidence of carbonised seeds for this very early period.
In recent years, the term hunting has been under discussion
by scholars. Increasingly, it is being suggested that the early *Foraging means to
hominids scavenged or foraged* for meat and marrow from the search
for food.
carcasses of animals that had died naturally or had been killed
by other predators. It is equally possible that small mammals
such as rodents, birds (and their eggs), reptiles and even insects
(such as termites) were eaten by early hominids.
Hunting probably began later – about 500,000 years ago. The
earliest clear evidence for the deliberate, planned hunting and butchery
of large mammals comes from two sites: Boxgrove in southern England
(500,000 years ago) and Schoningen in Germany (400,000 years ago)

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(see Map 2 ). Fishing was also important, as is evident from the

discovery of fish bones at different sites.
MAP 2: Europe

From about 35,000 years ago, there is evidence of planned

hunting from some European sites. Some sites, such as Dolni
Vestonice (in the Czech Republic, see Map 2), which was near a
river, seem to have been deliberately chosen by early people.
Herds of migratory animals such as reindeer and horse probably
crossed the river during their autumn and spring migrations
and were killed on a large scale. The choice of such sites indicates
that people knew about the movement of these animals and
also about the means of killing large numbers of animals quickly.
Did men and women have different roles in gathering,
scavenging, hunting and fishing? We do not really know. Today
we find societies that live by hunting and gathering, where women
and men undertake a range of different activities, but, as we will
see later in the chapter, it is not always possible to suggest
parallels with the past.

Early Humans
From Trees, to Caves and Open-air Sites

We are on surer ground when we try to reconstruct the evidence

for patterns of residence. One way of doing this is by plotting the
distribution of artefacts. For example, thousands of flake tools and
hand axes have been excavated at Kilombe and Olorgesailie (Kenya).
These finds are dated between 700,000 and 500,000 years ago.

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 FROM THE BEGINNING OF T IME 19

How did these tools accumulate in one place? It is possible Left: The site of
Olorgesailie. The
that some places, where food resources were abundant, were
excavators, Mary and
visited repeatedly. In such areas, people would tend to leave Louis Leakey, had a
behind traces of their activities and presence, including artefacts. catwalk built around
The deposited artefacts would appear as patches on the landscape. the site for observers.
The places that were less frequently visited would have fewer Above: A close-up of
tools found at the site,
artefacts, which may have been scattered over the surface. including hand axes.
It is also important to remember that the same locations could
have been shared by hominids, other primates and carnivores.
Look at the diagram below to see how this may have worked.

Artefacts are
objects that are
made by human
beings. The term
can refer to a wide
range of things –
tools, paintings,
sculpture,
Archaeologists suggest that early hominids such as Homo habilis probably engravings.
consumed most of the food where they found it, slept in different places, and
spent much of their time in trees. How would bones have reached the site? How
would stones have reached the site? Would bones have survived intact?

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Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, caves and open-

air sites began to be used. Evidence for this comes from
sites in Europe. In the Lazaret cave in southern
France, a 12x4 metre shelter was built against the
cave wall. Inside it were two hearths and evidence of
different food sources: fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts,
bird eggs and freshwater fish (trout, perch and carp).
At another site, Terra Amata on the coast of southern
France, flimsy shelters with roofs of wood and grasses
were built for short-term, seasonal visits.
Pieces of baked clay and burnt bone along with stone
This is a
tools, dated between 1.4 and 1 mya, have been found at Chesowanja,
reconstruction of a hut
at Terra Amata. The Kenya and Swartkrans, South Africa. Were these the result of a
large stone boulders natural bushfire or volcanic eruption? Or were they produced through
were used to support the deliberate, controlled use of fire? We do not really know.
the sides of the hut. Hearths, on the other hand, are indications of the controlled
The small scatters of
stone on the floor were use of fire. This had several advantages – fire provided warmth
places where people and light inside caves, and could be used for cooking. Besides,
made stone tools. The fire was used to harden wood, as for instance the tip of the spear.
black spot marked The use of heat also facilitated the flaking of tools. As important,
with an arrow
fire could be used to scare away dangerous animals.
indicates a hearth.
In what ways do you
think life for those
who lived in this Early Humans: Making Tools
shelter would be
different from that of
To start with, it is useful to remember that the use of tools and
the hominids who
lived on trees? tool making are not confined to humans. Birds are known to
make objects to assist them with feeding, hygiene and social
encounters; and while foraging for food some chimpanzees use
tools that they have made.
However, there are some features of human tool making that are not
known among apes. As we have seen (see p. 11),
certain anatomical and neurological (related to
the nervous system) adaptations have led to
Some early tools. the skilled use of hands, probably due to the
These tools were
found in Olduvai.
important role of tools in human lives.
The one above is a Moreover, the ways in which humans use
chopper. This is a large and make tools often require greater memory
stone from which and complex organisational skills, both
flakes have been
of which are absent in apes.
removed to produce a
working edge. The earliest evidence for the
The one below is a making and use of stone tools
hand axe. comes from sites in Ethiopia and
Can you suggest what Kenya (see Map 1). It is likely that
these tools may have
been used for?
the earliest stone tool makers
were the Australopithecus.

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 FROM THE BEGINNING OF T IME 21

As in the case of other activities, we do not know whether

tool making was done by men or women or both. It is possible
that stone tool makers were both women and men. Women in
particular may have made and used tools to obtain food for
themselves as well as to sustain their children after weaning.
About 35,000 years ago, improvements in the techniques for
killing animals are evident from the
appearance of new kinds of tools such
as spear -throwers and the bow and
arrow. The meat thus obtained was
probably processed by removing the
bones, followed by drying, smoking and
storage. Thus, food could be stored for
later consumption.
There were other changes, such as the trapping of fur-bearing A spear-thrower.
Note the carving on
animals (to use the fur for clothing) and the invention of sewing
the handle. The use of
needles. The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about the spear-thrower
21,000 years ago. Besides, with the introduction of the punch enabled hunters to
blade technique to make small chisel-like tools, it was now hurl spears over
possible to make engravings on bone, antler, ivory or wood. longer distances.
Can you suggest any
advantage in using
such equipment?

THE PUNCH BLADE TECHNIQUE

A C

D
B

(a) The top of a large pebble is removed using a hammer stone.

(b) This produces a flat surface called the striking platform.
(c) This is then struck using a hammer and a punch, made of bone or antler.
(d) This leads to the production of blades that can be used as knives, or
modified to serve as chisels or burins which could be used to engrave bone,
antler, ivory or wood.
(e) An example of engraving on bone. Note the drawings of animals on it.

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Modes of Communication: Language and Art

Among living beings, it is humans alone that have a language.
There are several views on language development: (1) that hominid
language involved gestures or hand movements; (2) that spoken
language was preceded by vocal but non-verbal communication
such as singing or humming; (3) that human speech probably began
with calls like the ones that have been observed among primates.
Humans may have possessed a small number of speech sounds in
the initial stage. Gradually, these may have developed into language.
When did spoken language emerge? It has been suggested that
the brain of Homo habilis had certain features which would have
made it possible for them to speak. Thus, language may have
developed as early as 2 mya. The evolution of the vocal tract was
equally important. This occurred around 200,000 years ago. It is
more specifically associated with modern humans.
A third suggestion is that language developed around the same
time as art, that is, around 40,000-35,000 years ago. The
development of spoken language has been seen as closely
connected with art, since both are media for communication.

Cave Paintings at Altamira

Altamira is a cave site in Spain. The
paintings on the ceiling of the
cave were first brought to the
attention of Marcelino Sanz de
Sautuola, a local landowner and
an amateur archaeologist, by his
daughter Maria in November
1879. The little girl was ‘running
about in the cavern and playing
about here and there’, while her
father was digging the floor of the
cave. Suddenly she noticed the
paintings on the ceiling: ‘Look,
Papa, oxen!’ At first, her father just
laughed, but soon realised that
A drawing of a bison
at Altamira, northern some sort of paste rather than paint had been used for the
Spain. paintings and became ‘so enthusiastic that he could hardly speak’.
He published a booklet the following year, but for almost two
decades his findings were dismissed by European archaeologists
on the ground that these were too good to be ancient.

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Hundreds of paintings of animals (done between 30,000

and12,000 years ago) have been discovered in the caves of Lascaux
and Chauvet, both in France, and Altamira, in Spain. These
include depictions of bison, horses, ibex, deer, mammoths, rhinos,
lions, bears, panthers, hyenas and owls.
More questions have been raised than answered regarding these
paintings. For example, why do some areas of caves have paintings
and not others? Why were some animals painted and not others? Why
were men painted both individually and in groups, whereas women
were depicted only in groups? Why were men painted near animals
but never women? Why were groups of animals painted in the sections
of caves where sounds carried well?
Several explanations have been offered. One is that because of the
importance of hunting, the paintings of animals were associated with
ritual and magic. The act of painting could have been a ritual to ensure
a successful hunt. Another explanation offered is that these caves
were possibly meeting places for small groups of people or locations for
group activities. These groups could share hunting techniques and
knowledge, while paintings and engravings served as the media for
passing information from one generation to the next.
The above account of early societies has been based on
archaeological evidence. Clearly, there is much that we still do not
know. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, hunter-gatherer
societies exist even today. Can one learn anything about past societies
from present-day hunter-gatherers? This is a question we will
address in the next section.

Early Encounters with Hunter-Gatherers

in Africa
The following is an account by a member of an African pastoral
group about its initial contact in 1870 with the !Kung San, a
hunter-gatherer society living in the Kalahari desert:
When we first came into this area, all we saw were strange
footprints in the sand. We wondered what kind of people these
were. They were very afraid of us and would hide whenever we
came around. We found their villages, but they were always
empty because as soon as they saw strangers coming, they
would scatter and hide in the bush. We said: ‘Oh, this is
good; these people are afraid of us, they are weak and we
can easily rule over them.’ So we just ruled them. There
was no killing or fighting.
You will read more about encounters with hunter-gatherers in
Themes 8 and 10.

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Anthropology is a The Hadza

discipline that ‘The Hadza are a small group of hunters and gatherers, living in
studies human the vicinity of Lake Eyasi, a salt, rift-valley lake...The country of the
culture and
eastern Hadza, dry, rocky savanna, dominated by thorn scrub and
evolutionary
acacia trees...is rich in wild foods. Animals are exceptionally
aspects of human
numerous and were certainly commoner at the beginning of the
biology.
century. Elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, zebra, waterbuck,
gazelle, warthog, baboon, lion, leopard, and hyena are all common,
as are smaller animals such as porcupine, hare, jackal, tortoise and
many others. All of these animals, apart from the elephant, are
hunted and eaten by the Hadza. The amount of meat that could be
regularly eaten without endangering the future of the game is
probably greater than anywhere else in the world where hunters
and gatherers live or have lived in the recent past.
Vegetable food – roots, berries, the fruit of the baobab tree, etc. –
though not often obvious to the casual observer, is always abundant
even at the height of the dry season in a year of drought. The type
of vegetable food available is different in the six-month wet season
from the dry season but there is no period of shortage. The honey
and grubs of seven species of wild bee are eaten; supplies of these
vary from season to season and from year to year.
Sources of water are widely distributed over the country in the wet
ACTIVITY 3
season but are very few in the dry season. The Hadza consider that
Why do the about 5-6 kilometres is the maximum distance over which water
Hadza not assert can reasonably be carried and camps are normally sited within a
rights over land kilometre of a water course.
and its Part of the country consists of open grass plains but the Hadza
resources? Why never build camps there. Camps are invariably sited among trees
do the size and
or rocks and, by preference, among both.
location of
camps keep
The eastern Hadza assert no rights over land and its resources.
changing from Any individual may live wherever he likes and may hunt animals,
season to collect roots, berries, and honey and draw water anywhere in Hadza
season? Why is country without any sort of restriction...
there never any In spite of the exceptional numbers of game animals in their
shortage of food area, the Hadza rely mainly on wild vegetable matter for their
even in times of food. Probably as much as 80 per cent of their food by weight
drought? Can is vegetable, while meat and honey together account for the
you name any remaining 20 per cent.
such hunter-
Camps are commonly small and widely dispersed in the wet
gatherer
societies in India
season, large and concentrated near the few available sources of
today? water in the dry season.
There is never any shortage of food even in the time of drought.’
– Written in 1960 by James Woodburn, an anthropologist.

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Hunter-Gatherer Societies
From the Present to the Past

As our knowledge of present-day hunter -gatherers increased Ethnography is the

through studies by anthropologists, a question that began to be study of
posed was whether the information about living hunters and contemporary
gatherers could be used to understand past societies. Currently, ethnic groups. It
there are two opposing views on this issue. includes an
On one side are scholars who have directly applied specific examination of
data from present-day hunter-gatherer societies to interpret the their modes of
archaeological remains of the past. For example, some livelihood,
archaeologists have suggested that the hominid sites, dated to 2 technology, gender
mya, along the margins of Lake Turkana could have been dry roles, rituals,
season camps of early humans, because such a practice has political
been observed among the Hadza and the !Kung San. institutions and
On the other side are scholars who feel that ethnographic data social customs.
cannot be used for understanding past societies as the two are
totally different. For instance, present-day hunter -gatherer
societies pursue several other economic activities along with
hunting and gathering. These include engaging in exchange and
trade in minor forest produce, or working as paid labourers in
the fields of neighbouring farmers. Moreover, these societies are
totally marginalised in all senses – geographically, politically and
socially. The conditions in which they live are very different from
those of early humans.
Another problem is that there is tremendous variation amongst
living hunter -gatherer societies. There are conflicting data on
many issues such as the relative importance of hunting and
gathering, group sizes, or the movement from place to place.
Also, there is little consensus regarding the division of labour
in food procurement. Although today generally women gather and
men hunt, there are societies where both women and men hunt
and gather and make tools. In any case, the important role of
women in contributing to the food supply in such societies cannot ACTIVITY 4
be denied. It is perhaps this factor that ensures a relatively equal What do you
role for both women and men in present-day hunter-gatherer think are the
societies, although there are variations. While this may be the advantages and
case today, it is difficult to make any such inference for the past. disadvantages of
using
Epilogue ethnographic
accounts to
For several million years, humans lived by hunting wild animals reconstruct the
and gathering wild plants. Then, between 10,000 and 4,500 years lives of the
ago, people in different parts of the world learnt to domesticate certain earliest peoples?
plants and animals. This led to the development of farming and
pastoralism as a way of life. The shift from foraging to farming was a

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major turning point in human history. Why did this change take
place at this point of time?
The last ice age came to an end about 13,000 years ago and
with that warmer, wetter conditions prevailed. As a result,
conditions were favourable for the growth of grasses such as
wild barley and wheat. At the same time, as open forests and
grasslands expanded, the population of certain animal species
such as wild sheep, goat, cattle, pig and donkey increased. What
we find is that human societies began to gradually prefer areas
that had an abundance of wild grasses and animals. Now
relatively large, permanent communities occupied such areas
for most parts of the year. With some areas being clearly preferred,
a pressure may have built up to increase the food supply. This
may have triggered the process of domestication of certain plants
and animals. It is likely that a combination of factors which
included climatic change, population pressure, a greater reliance
on and knowledge of a few species of plants (such as wheat,
barley, rice and millet) and animals (such as sheep, goat, cattle,
donkey and pig) played a role in this transformation.
One such area where farming and pastoralism began around 10,000
years ago was the Fertile Crescent, extending from the Mediterranean
coast to the Zagros mountains in Iran. With the introduction of
agriculture, more people began to stay in one place for even longer
periods than they had done before. Thus permanent houses began to
be built of mud, mud bricks and even stone. These are some of the
earliest villages known to archaeologists.
Farming and pastoralism led to the introduction of many other
changes such as the making of pots in which to store grain and
other produce, and to cook food. Besides, new kinds of stone
tools came into use. Other new tools such as the plough were
used in agriculture. Gradually, people became familiar with metals
such as copper and tin. The wheel, important for both pot making
and transportation, came into use.
About 5,000 years ago, even larger concentrations of people
began to live together in cities. Why did this happen? And what
are the differences between cities and other settlements? Look
out for answers to these and other questions in Theme 2.

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TIMELINE 1 (mya)

36-24 mya Primates;

Monkeys in Asia and Africa
24 mya (Superfamily) Hominoids;
Gibbons, Asian orang-utan and
African apes (gorilla, chimpanzee and
bonobo or ‘pygmy’ chimpanzee)
6.4 mya Branching out of hominoids and hominids
5.6 mya Australopithecus
2.6-2.5 Earliest stone tools
2.5-2.0 Cooling and drying of Africa, resulting in decrease in
woodlands and increase in grasslands
2.5-2.0 mya Homo
2.2 mya Homo habilis
1.8 mya Homo erectus
1.3 mya Extinction of Australopithecus
0.8 mya ‘Archaic’ sapiens, Homo heidelbergensis
0.19-0.16 mya Homo sapiens sapiens (modern humans)

TIMELINE 2 (years ago)

Earliest evidence of burials 300,000

Extinction of Homo erectus 200,000
Development of voice box 200,000
Archaic Homo sapiens skull in the Narmada valley, India 200,000-130,000
Emergence of modern humans 195,000-160,000
Emergence of Neanderthals 130,000
Earliest evidence of hearths 125,000
Extinction of Neanderthals 35,000
Earliest evidence of figurines made of fired clay 27,000
Invention of sewing needles 21,000

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The Rift Valley, East

Africa.

Exercises
ANSWER IN BRIEF
1. Look at the diagram showing the positive feedback mechanism on
page 13. Can you list the inputs that went into tool making? What
were the processes that were strengthened by tool making?
2. Humans and mammals such as monkeys and apes have certain
similarities in behaviour and anatomy. This indicates that humans
possibly evolved from apes. List these resemblances in two columns
under the headings of (a) behaviour and (b) anatomy. Are there any
differences that you think are noteworthy?
3. Discuss the arguments advanced in favour of the regional continuity
model of human origins. Do you think it provides a convincing
explanation of the archaeological evidence? Give reasons for your
answer.
4. Which of the following do you think is best documented in the
archaeological record: (a) gathering, (b) tool making, (c) the use of fire?

ANSWER IN A SHORT ESSAY

5. Discuss the extent to which (a) hunting and (b) constructing shelters
would have been facilitated by the use of language. What other modes
of communication could have been used for these activities?
6. Choose any two developments each from Timelines 1 and 2 at the
end of the chapter and indicate why you think these are significant.

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