CHAPTER ONE

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physical Quantities and Units

Physics is sometimes defined as the study of energy and matter and their
relationships. Physics is also inherently a science of measurements and the
ultimate test for any theory in physics is its agreement with observations and the
measurements of the physical phenomenon. Thus, any number or set of numbers
used for the quantitative description of a physical phenomenon is called a physical
quantity. To define a physical quantity we must have a procedure for measuring
such quantity or specify a way of calculating it. We measure a physical quantity in
its own units and by comparison with a standard unit.

SI standard units
By international agreement a small number of physical quantities such as length,
time and mass (called Fundamental quantities) have been assigned standard units.
We can define all other physical quantities in terms of these fundamental
quantities. The units of these fundamental quantities are standard units and are
both accessible and invariable.

Table 1.1 SI units for fundamental quantities

Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Time second s
Mass kilogram kg
Derived Units and Standard Prefixes

1
In physics we sometimes deal with numbers that are very small and other times
we deal with numbers which are very large. It gets cumbersome to write numbers
in the conventional decimal notation. Once the fundamental units are defined, it
now becomes easy to introduce larger and smaller units for the same physical
quantities. In the metric system measurements additional units always relate to the

1
fundamental units by multiples of 10 or . The multiplicative factors are most
10

1
conveniently expressed in exponential notation; thus 10000  10 4 ,  10 2
100
etc. The names of the additional units are always derived by adding a prefix to the
name of the fundamental units.

Table 1.2 Prefixes for the power of ten

Power of ten Prefix Abbreviation

10 24
yocto- y
10 21 zepto- z
10 18 atto- a
10 15 fermto- f
10 12 pico- p
10 9 nano- n
10 6 micro- μ
10 3 milli- m
10 2 centi- c
103 kilo- k
106 mega- M
109 giga- G
1012 tera- T
1015 peta- P

2
 1018 exa- E
10 21 zetta- Z
10 24 yotta- Y

The following are a few examples of the use of the multiples of ten and their
prefixes.

1 nanometer = 1nm = 10-9 m

1 micrometer = 1μm = 10-6 m
1 millimeter = 1mm = 10-3 m
1 centimeter = 1cm = 10-2 m
1 kilometer = 1km = 103 m
1 milligram = 1mg = 10-6kg
1 gram = 1g = 10-3 kg
1 nanosecond = 1ns = 10-9 s
1 microsecond = 1ms =10-3 s

Unit Conversions
Relations among physical quantities are often expressed by equations in which
physical quantities are represented by algebraic symbols. An algebraic symbol
always denotes both a number and a unit. For example, x might represent distance
of 5m, t a time of 30s and m a mass of 10kg. We often need to change the units in
which a physical quantity is expressed. We do so by multiplying the original
measurement by a conversion factor which is a ratio of the units in question that
equals unity. For example

3
1 min 60 s
 1 and 1
60 s 1 min
This is so because multiplying any physical quantity (or algebraic symbol) by
unity leaves the quantity unchanged. For example we can convert 5min into

60s
seconds by multiplying it by the conversion factor of to have
1 min
60 s
5 min  (5 min)(1)  (5 min
 )( )  300s
1 min

Dimensions and unit analysis

The fundamental quantities used in physical descriptions are called dimensions.
For example length, time and mass are dimensions. You could measure the
distance between two points and express it in units of meters, centimeters, or feet,
but the quantity would still have the dimension of length. It is common to express
dimensional quantities by bracketed symbols as [L], [M] and [T] for length, mass
and time respectively. Derived quantities are a combination of dimensions. For
example, velocity v has dimensions of [ L ] [T ] (think of it as meters/second =
length/time) and volume, V has dimensions [ L]  [ L]  [ L] , or [ L3 ] . Any
equation must always be dimensionally consistent or homogenous-this means that
any two terms added or subtracted in an equation must have the same units. For
example given the equation: 3.0m + 2.0m = 5.0m (similar to a  b  c ), comparing
both sides we have [ L]  [ L]  [ L] or in words length plus length gives you
another length not 2[L]. The above procedure for checking units in equations is
called dimensional analysis. It is formally defined as a procedure by which the
dimensional consistency of any equation may be checked. One major advantage
of dimensional analysis is its usefulness for checking whether an equation that has
4
been derived or being used to solve a problem has the correct form. The
dimensions and units of some common quantities are given in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Dimensions and Units

Quantity Dimension Unit

mass [M] kg
time [T] s
length [L] m
area [L2] m2
volume [L3] m3
velocity [ L] m/s
[T ]
Acceleration (a or g) [ L] m/s2
[T 2 ]

Example 1.1. Check if the following equations are dimensionally correct:

(a) x  at (b) x  at 2

Solution:
(a) Equation x  at can be expressed dimensionally as
[ L] [ L]
[ L]   [T ]  which is not true. Thus x  at cannot be a correct
[T 2 ] [T ]

equation.
(b) Equation x  at 2 can be expressed dimensionally as
[ L]
[ L]  2
 [T 2 ]  [ L] this equation is dimensionally correct but as you
[T ]

will see later it is not physically correct. The correct form of x  at 2

5
 1 2 1
both dimensionally and physically is x  at . The fraction has no
2 2
dimensions i.e. it is a dimensionless number. Doing dimensional analysis with
the symbols is fine but in practice it is often more convenient to use actual unit
abbreviations such as m, s, and kg. Units can also be treated as symbols and
canceled. Using units instead of symbols in dimensional analysis is called
units analysis.

Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy is a measure of how close a result of an experimental observation comes
to the “true” value. Precision on the other hand is a measure of how carefully a
result is determined without reference to any “true” value. Measurements can
never be made with absolute precision in that physical quantities obtained from
experimental observations always have some uncertainty. A distance measured
with an ordinary ruler or meter rule is usually precise only to the nearest
millimeter, whilst a precision micrometer caliper can measure a distance to the
nearest 0.01mm or even less. The precision of a measurement or number is often
indicated by following the number with the symbol ± and a second number
indicating the maximum likely error. Errors are defined as the difference between
measured experimental values and the “true” value. It is generally applied to the
uncertainty in measurements but not blunders or mistakes. If for example, the
diameter of a metal rod is given as 48.64±0.01mm, then it means that the true
value is likely to be less than 48.65 or greater than 48.63. Precision can also be
expressed in terms of the maximum likely fractional error or percentage error. A
resistor labeled 47Ω, 10% probably has true resistance differing from 47Ω by no

6
more than 10% of 47Ω or about 5Ω i.e. the true resistance is between 42Ω and
52Ω.

Significant Figures
If a student is asked to find the numerical value of π by using a calculator, after
measuring the diameter and circumference of a circle as 135mm and 424mm
respectively, pi is the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle. They
get an answer like 3.140740741…… Depending on the type of calculator, they
could get decimal places more than the number stated. Does this number or any
other agree with the true value of π (correct value to ten digits is 3.141592654) or
not is the question. To answer this question we must recognize that at least the last
six digits in the student’s calculation are meaningless unless they imply a greater
precision in the result than possible with their measurement of π. The number of
meaningful digits in a number is called the number of significant figures. In
general, no numerical result can have more significant figures than do numbers
from which it was computed. Thus the student’s value of π has only three
significant figures and should be stated as 3.14 or (3.141 when rounded of to four
figures). The rules for significant figures and rounding offs are as follows:

Significant Figures:

1. The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant digit/figure.

2. If there is no decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least
significant digit/figure.

7
 3. If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least significant
digit/figure, even if it is zero.
4. All digits between the least and the most significant digits are counted as
the significant figures.

Round off:
Rounding off is simply to truncate a number to the specified number of significant
figures and treat the excess (remainder) digits as a decimal fraction.

1. If the fraction is equal to or greater than 1

2 (0.5) then increase the new
least significant figure by one.

2. If the fraction is less than 1

2 (0.5) then leave the new least significant
figure unchanged.

Exercise 1
1.1 Show that the expression V=Vo + at is dimensionally correct, where V and
Vo represent velocities, a is acceleration, and t is a time interval

1.2 Suppose we are told that the acceleration a of a particle moving with
uniform speed V in a circle of radius r is proportional to some power of r,
and some power of v. Use dimensional analysis to predict the form of the
relation. ( Ans: a =Kr-1V2 = KV2/r)

1.3 If x= a + bt + ct2 where x is in metres (m) and t in seconds (s), then what
is the unit of c? ( Ans: ms-2 )

8
1.4 The frequency of vibration, f, of a mass m, at the end of a spring that has
stiffness constant k is related to m and k by the relation of the form F=
(constant)ma kb. Use dimensional analysis to find a and b. It is known that
[F]= [T] -1 and k=[M][T] -2 ( Ans: a= -1/2 ; b= 1/2)

1.5 Use dimensional analysis to determine which of the following equations

is certainly wrong: λ= vt , F=m/a , F=mv/t , h=v2/2g , V=(2gh)1/2 (
Ans: F=m/a)

1.6 The micrometer (1μm) is often called the micron. How many microns
make up 1.0km? ( Ans: 109 μm)

1.7 Express the speed of light 3.0x108 ms-1 in millimeters per picosecond
(mm/ps). ( Ans: 0.3mm/ps)

1.8 How many significant figures are there in this figure, 0.007m2. ( Ans: 1)

1.9 How many significant figures do we have in the following? (i) 2.64  1024
kg (ii) 0.0006032 . ( Ans: [i] 3, [ii] 4 )

1.10 The significant figures in 0.2370gcm-3 is……………( Ans: 4 )

9
10
 CHAPTER TWO
VECTORS

Vectors and Scalars

Some physical quantities are scalar quantities whereas others are vector quantities.
When a particle is confined to a straight line, it moves in only two directions. It is
positive in one direction and negative in the other. In order to know the
temperature outside so that you will know how to dress, the only information you
need know is a number and the unit. Not all physical quantities involve a
direction. A quantity like temperature is an example of a scalar quantity.
A scalar quantity is specified by a single value with an appropriate unit and has
no direction. That is, a scalar quantity has only magnitude but no direction. Other
examples of scalar quantities are volume, mass, time intervals, pressure, and
energy.
If a particle is not confined to a straight line but moves in three dimensions,
however, a plus sign or minus sign is no longer enough to indicate the direction of
the motion. To describe such a particle a vector is needed.
A vector quantity has magnitude as well as direction. Examples of vector
quantities are displacement and velocity.

Components of a vector
Geometric or graphical method of adding vectors is not recommended whenever
greater accuracy is required or in three-dimensional problems as it can be very
tedious. An easier technique involves algebra but with the requirement that the
vector be placed on a rectangular coordinate system so that it is possible to make

11
projections of the vector along coordinate axes. These projections are called the
components of the vector.
Consider a vector A lying in the xy plane and making an arbitrary angle θ with the
positive x axis as shown in Figure 2.1.

Ay A

θ
x
O Ax
Figure 2.1 Any vector A lying in the xy plane can be
represented by a vector Ax lying along the x axis and by
a vector Ay lying along the y axis, where A = Ax + Ay
This vector can be expressed as the sum of two other vectors Ax and Ay. From
Figure 2.1, the three vectors form a right triangle and that A = Ax + Ay. Often refer
to “the components of a vector A,” written Ax and Ay (with no boldface). The
component Ax represents the projection of A along the x axis, and the component
Ay represents the projection of A along the y axis. If Ax points in the positive x
direction the component Ax is positive and vice versa. The same is true for the
component Ay. From Figure 2.1and the definition of sine and cosine, then

Ax Ay
cos   and sin   . Hence the components of A are
A A
Ax  A cos  2.1
Ay  A sin  2.2

12
It follows from Figure 2.1 that the magnitude and direction of A are related to its
components through the expressions

A  AX2  Ay2 2.3

A 
  tan 1  x  2.4
 Ay
 
Notice that the signs of the components Ax and Ay depend on the angle θ. As an

example, if θ = 1200, then Ax is negative and Ay is positive. If θ = 2250, then both

Ax and Ay are negative.

Unit Vectors
A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1 and points in a particular
direction. Unit vectors are used to specify a given direction and have no other
physical significance so that it lacks both dimension and unit. The unit vectors in
the positive directions of the x, y, z axes are represented by i , j and k as shown in
Figure 2.2. The unit vectors form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors in a
right-handed coordinate system as shown in Figure 2.2.
The magnitude of each unit vector equals 1; that is i  j  k  1 .

13
 y

k i x

z
Figure 2.2 Unit vectors i, j and k define the directions of
a right-handed rectangular coordinate system.

Consider a vector A lying in the xy plane as shown in Figure 2.3 The product of

the component Ax and the unit vector i is the vector Ax i , which lies on the x axis

and has magnitude Ax . Ay j is a vector of magnitude Ay lying on the y axis.

Ayj
A

x
O Axi

Figure 2.3 Vector A = Axi + Ayj lying in the xy

plane has components Ax and Ay

14
The unit vector notation for the vector A then is
A  Ax i  A y j 2.5

(x,y)

x
O

Figure 2.4 The point whose Cartesian coordinates

are (x, y) can be represented by the position vector
r = xi + yj

If a point lies in the xy plane with cartesian coordinates  x, y  as shown in

Figure 2.4, then its position vector r in unit-vector form is given by
r  xi  yj 2.6
Equation 2.6 tells us that the components of r are the lengths x and y .
If we want to add vectors A and B in component form so that the resultant is
R  A  B then,
R   Ax i  Ay j   Bx i  By j 2.7

or
R   A  B i   A  B j 2.8

But R  Rx i  Ry j , so that the components of the resultant vector are

15
Rx  Ax  Bx
2.9
Ry  Ay  By

The magnitude of R then becomes

 Ax  Bx    Ay  By 
2 2
R  Rx2  Ry2  2.10

and the angle that R makes with the x axis is

Ry Ay  By
tan    2.11
Rx Ax  Bx
If A and B both have x, y and z components, they can be expressed in the form
A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k
2.12
B  Bx i  By j  Bz k

The sum of A and B is

R   Ax  Bx  i   Ay  By  j   Az  Bz  k 2.13

Example 2.1. An expeditionary team in search of antiques in a cave travels a net

2.6km westward, 3.9km southward, and 25m upward. What was their
displacement vector?

Solution
Let their horizontal displacement be d h . Then by the Pythagoras theorem the

magnitude of d h is

 2.6km    3.9km   4.69km

2 2
dh 

The angle  of their displacement vector relative to the west is given by

16
 3.9km
tan    1.5
2.6km
or
  tan 1 1.5  560
We now find the magnitude of the overall displacement d ,
d  ( 4.69km) 2  (0.025km) 2  4.69km and the angle  ,
0.025km
  tan 1  0.30 .
4.69km

Example 2.2. A car travels 20km due north and then 35km in a direction 600 west
of north, as shown in Figure 2.4b. Find the magnitude and direction of the car’s
resultant displacement.
y (km)

40

600
 20
R
A

x(km)

-20 0
Figure 2.4b Graphical method for finding the resultant displacement
vector R = A + B

Solution

17
This problem can be solved in two different ways: 1. Geometrical method using
graph paper and protractor and by calculation. The geometrical method is as in
Figure 2.4b. The displacement R is the resultant when the two individual
displacements A and B are added.
Algebraically, the magnitude of the resultant R can be obtained from the law of
cosines as applied to the triangle. The angle is given as   1800  600  1200 and

R 2  A2  B 2  2 AB cos  , so that

R  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 

 20km    35km   2  20km   35km  cos1200

2 2
R
R  48.2km

From the law of sines, the direction of R is

sin  sin 

B R
B 35km
sin   sin   sin1200  0.629
R 48.2km
  38.9 0

The resultant displacement of the car is 48.2km in a direction 38.90 west of north.

Example 2.3. Find the sum of two vectors A and B lying in the xy plane and

given by A   2i  2 j m and B   2i  4 j m .

Solution
18
The general expression for A is A  Ax i  Ay j and comparing we see that Ax = 2m

and Ay = 2m. Also, Bx = 2m and By = -4m. Using Equation 2.8 to obtain the
resultant vector R we have
R  A  B   2  2 i m   2  4 j m
  4i  2 j m

or
Rx  4 m and Ry  2 m

The magnitude of R is given by Equation 2.10:

 4 m   2 m   4.5 m
2 2
R  Rx2  Ry2 

From Equation 2.11 we find the direction of R as,

Ry 2 m
tan     0.5
Rx 4m

  tan 1  0.5   270 clockwise from the x-axis.

Graphical addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Parallelogram Law of Vectors

The parallelogram law of vectors is another useful law for the addition of two
vectors.
Consider two vectors P and Q as shown in Figure 2.5a. Displace vector Q parallel
to itself till the tail of Q touches the tail of P. Complete the parallelogram as

19
shown in Figure 2.5b. Applying the triangle law of vectors to the vector triangle
OAC, we get
OA  AC  OC or P  Q  R

C
Q
Q
R

P O P A
Figure 2.5a Figure 2.5b

So, the two vectors are represented completely by the two adjacent sides of the
parallelogram and the diagonal drawn through the meeting point of the tails gives
the resultant vector.
The parallelogram law of vectors states that if two vectors, acting simultaneously
at a point, can be represented both in magnitude and direction by the two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the resultant is
represented completely both in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through that point.

Now, let us analytically calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant
vector R.
Let  be the angle between the two given vectors P and Q. Refer to Figure 2.6.

20
 B C

Q
R


O P A N
Figure 2.6

From C we draw a perpendicular CN on an extension of OA to form a right-

angled triangle ANC so that
CN
sin   or CN  AC sin  or CN  Q sin  , 2.14
AC

AC  OB  Q 2.15

and also,
AN
cos   or AN  AC cos  or AN  Q cos  2.16
AC

Now, ON  OA  AN  P  Q cos 

Consider the right-angled triangle ONC .

OC 2  ON 2  CN 2 2.17

Or

R 2   P  Q cos     Q sin  
2 2

21
R 2  P 2  Q 2 cos 2   2 PQ cos   Q 2 sin 2 

R 2  P 2  Q 2 cos 2   Q 2 sin 2   2 PQ cos 

 
R 2  P 2  Q 2 cos 2   sin 2  2 PQ cos 

R 2  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos  since cos 2   sin 2   1 . Then

R P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos  2.18

Equation 2.18 is the required expression for the magnitude of the resultant of two
vectors P and Q inclined to each other at an angle  .

Example 2.4. Two forces 5N and 7N act on a 10kg body. If the angle between
the two forces is 60o, calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
on the body.

Solution

5N R

60o
o
 120
7N

Completing the parallelogram gives R as the resultant force acting on the

body.

22
 Applying the cosine rule,
R2 = 52 + 72 + 2(5)(7) cos 60o

R 25  49   0.5 70  10.44 N

Using the sine rule to find the direction of the resultant force gives
sin  sin 120 5
  sin   sin 120
5 10.44 10.44

 = sin-1(0.415) = 24.5o

Exercise 2

1. A force of 3N acts at 90o to a force of 4N. Find the magnitude and

direction of their resultant, R. (Ans: R=5N, θ=37 o )

2. A particle which is moving due east at 4ms -1 changes direction and starts
to move due south at 3ms -1. Find the change in velocity. (Ans:
velocity = 5ms-1 at 37 o S of W )

3. Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of a force of 50N

which is acting at 40 o to the horizontal. (Ans: Horizontal = 38N ;
Vertical = 32N )

Use the information below to answer questions 2.4-2.6. Consider two

vectors A  3i  2 j and B  i  4 j . Calculate:

23
 4. (i) A  B ; (ii) A  B . (Ans: [i] 2 i - 6 j , [ii] 4 i +2 j )

5. (i) AB ; (ii) AB . (Ans: [i] 40 units, [ii] 20 units)

o
6. The direction of (i) AB ; (ii) AB (Ans: [i] θ=288 , [ii]
θ=26.57 o )

7. The resultant force on a body of mass 4.0kg is 20N. What is the

acceleration of the body? (Ans: 5.0ms-2 )

8. A body of mass 3.0kg slides down a plane which is inclined at 30 o to the

horizontal. Find the acceleration of the body: (g=10ms-2) (a) if the
plane is smooth (b) if there is a frictional resistance of 9.0N. (Ans:
[a] 5.0ms-2 , [b] 2.0ms-2 )

9. A body of mass 6.0kg moves under the influence of two oppositely

directed forces whose magnitudes are 60N and 18N. Find the magnitude
and direction of the acceleration of the body. (Ans: 7.0ms-2 in the
direction of 60N force)

10. A body of mass 5.0kg is pulled along smooth horizontal ground by

means of a force of 40N acting at 60 o above the horizontal. Find: (a) the
acceleration of the body (b) the force the body exerts on the ground.
(g = 10ms-2) (Ans: [a] 4ms-2 , [b] 15.4N )

CHAPTER THREE

24
 DYNAMICS

Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of motion and what
produces and affects motion. Mechanics is usually divided into two parts: (1)
Kinematics and (2) Dynamics. Kinematics deals with the description of motion of
bodies without consideration of what causes the motion. Dynamics analyzes the
causes of the motion.

Force
Force is that which changes a body’s state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line. It is measured in Newtons (N).
One Newton is defined as the force required to give a mass of one kilogram an
acceleration of one metre per second square.
A force will act on a body to do the following:
(i) to get the body to start moving
(ii) to increase or decrease the speed of a body in motion
(ii) to change its direction of motion in a straight line
(iv) to bring a moving body to rest
(v) to deform the body.

Types of Forces
There are several types of forces. These include:
(a) Frictional force: Friction is the name given to the force which opposes
the relative sliding motion of two surfaces in contact with each other. This

25
 type of force exists between two solid surfaces in contact. An example is
the opposing force between the sole of your sandals and the ground.
(b) Viscous drag: this is the frictional force experienced in fluids (gases and
liquids).
(c) Tension: this force is experienced in a stretched material. If you touch the
stretched material your fingers will feel a pull or tautness because of the
potential energy set up in it.
(d) Centripetal force: this force acts on objects to keep them moving in
circular paths. Its direction is always towards the center of the circular
path. It can also be defined as that part of the total gravitational force
which is required to constrain the body to move in its circle of latitude.
(e) Force of gravity: It is that part of the total gravitational force which acts
on a body and so enables it in turn to exert an equal force on its support.
This force on the support is called the body’s weight.
(f) Gravitational force: this is the force of attraction existing between two
masses.
(g) Electrostatic force: this force is produced by electric charges and electric
currents. Electric charges tend to exert attractive or repulsive forces on
each other depending on the sign of the charges. Like charges attract and
unlike charges repel each other.
(h) Magnetic force: this force is produced by magnets.

26
Mass and Weight
The mass is a property of matter equal to the measure of an object’s resistance
to changes in either speed or direction of its motion. Its SI unit is the kilogram
(kg). Mass is a scalar quantity and can be measured with a beam balance.
There are other devices like electronic balance which can be used to measure
the mass of an object. The mass of an object is the same irrespective of where
it is measured. This means that if the mass of an object is measured both on
the moon and on the earth the measuring device will give the same readings.

The weight of a body is the force it exerts on anything which freely supports
it. This is due to the Earth’s pull on it by the force of gravity. It is measured in
Newtons. Spring balance can be used to measure the weight of an object. The
weight of an object depends greatly on the gravitational pull on it, therefore, it
varies from one place to another place. . This means that if the weight of an
object is measured both on the moon and on the earth the measuring device
will give different readings.

Relation between mass and weight

The relationship between mass and weight is given by the expression

Weight (W) = mass (m) x acceleration due to gravity (g)

W  mg 3.1

27
Newton’s laws of motion
Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia. The tendency of
a body to remain at rest or if moving to continue its motion in a straight line is
called inertia. So we can say that inertia is the reluctance of a moving body to
stop and a body at rest to start moving.
Newton’s first law of motion states that everybody continues in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by a net external force to act
otherwise.

Newton’s Second law

Newton’s Second law of motion states that the time rate of change of momentum
of a body is directly proportional to the applied force acting on it and it takes
place in the direction of the force.
This law enabled scientists to define the unit of a force i.e. the Newton, N.
Suppose a force F acts on a body of mass m for a time t and causes its velocity to
change from u to v , then according to the second law
mv  mu
F , from which
t
mv  mu
F k and
t
 v  u
F  km 3.2
t
v  u
but a 
t
 F  kma 3.3

28
The Newton is defined as the force needed to give 1kg of mass an acceleration of
1ms-2 and therefore k  1 . Therefore Equation 3.3 becomes
F  ma 3.4

Impulse
The effectiveness of a force which produces motion depends on both the
magnitude of the force and the time for which the force acts. When a large force
acts for an extremely short duration, neither the magnitude of the force nor the
time for which it acts is important. In such a case, the total effect of force is
measured. The total effect of force is called impulse. It is a vector quantity and is
denoted by J . It is the product of a force and the time for which the force acts.
Therefore in SI units, impulse is measured in Newton second ( Ns ).

Suppose a force F acts for a short time dt . The impulse of this force is given by
dJ  Fdt 3.5
If we consider a finite interval of time from t1 to t2 , then the impulse is given by
t2

J   Fdt
t1
3.6

The right hand side of Equation 3.6 represents the impulse of a varying force.
If the force is constant both in magnitude and in direction, then

t2 t2

 Fdt  F  dt  F  t  t1  F (t 2  t1 )  Ft 3.7

t
J  2

t1 t1

29
From the above expression, impulse of a constant force F is equal to the product
of the force and time interval t for which the force acts.

Impulse and Momentum

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the applied force is,
Change in momentum dP
F  3.8
time taken dt
where P is the momentum of the body under consideration and t is the time.
Fdt  dP 3.9
Integrating both sides of Equation 3.9 gives
t2 P2

F  dt   dP 3.10
t1 P1

where P1 and P2 are momenta at times t1 and t2 respectively.

F  t  t2   P  P2
t P
 F (t 2  t1 )  P2  P1
1 1

Ft  P2  P1 3.11

So the impulse is equal to the change in momentum produced by the force.

Example 3.1 A force of 75N is used to pull a body of mass 55kg through a
distance of 35m in 6s. Find the change in momentum of the body.

Solution
mv  mu
Applying Newton’s second law of motion, F  ,
t
we can write Ft = mv – mu = momentum change.
Therefore momentum change ( mv – mu) = Ft = 75 x 6 = 450Ns.

30
Collision
A collision is said to occur when two or more bodies physically exert relatively
strong forces against each other or when the path of one body is changed by the
influence of another body.
Collision ranges from the microscopic scale of sub-atomic particles to the
astronomic scale of colliding Stars and Galaxies. The forces acting in the system
of colliding forces are Action and Reaction forces. Also, collision causes the
momentum and kinetic energy of the interacting bodies to change. But the total
momentum is conserved and so also is the total energy.
There are two types of collisions namely Elastic and Inelastic collisions.

Elastic collisions
A collision is said to be elastic if both the momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved in the collision. In an elastic collision, deformed bodies regain their
original shapes completely. So deformation is temporal. Colliding bodies always
separate after collision. The mechanical energy is not converted to any other
forms of energy. The forces of interaction are conservative in nature.

Perfectly elastic collision is an extremely rare physical phenomenon. Collisions

between atomic and sub-atomic particles are assumed to be the nearest perfectly
elastic collision.

31
Inelastic collision
A collision is said to be inelastic if the kinetic energy is not conserved in the
collision. However, momentum is conserved. In an inelastic collision, deformed
bodies do not recover their original shapes. So deformation is permanent. Part of
the mechanical energy is converted to other forms of energy such as sound, heat,
light etc. The interacting forces are non-conservative in nature. Most of the
collisions between macroscopic bodies are inelastic.

Perfectly inelastic (Plastic) collision occurs when the interacting bodies stick
together after the collision. In this type of collision the loss of kinetic energy is
maximum but not complete.
Examples of such a collision are (1) a lump of wet mud thrown against a wall
(2) collision between two putty balls.

Momentum
The Momentum of a body is the product of its mass m and the velocity v with
which it is moving.
i.e., Momentum, P  mass  velocity  mv .
Momentum has both magnitude and direction therefore it is a vector quantity. Its
direction is the same as that of the velocity since the mass has no direction. The SI

unit for momentum is kgms 1 .

When two bodies, a heavy one and a light one are acted upon by the same force
for the same time, the light body builds up a higher velocity than the heavy one. In
both cases the momentum gained by the bodies are the same.

32
The law of conservation of momentum
When two or more bodies act upon one another, their total momentum remains
constant provided no external forces are acting.

The law can also be stated as follows:

In a system of colliding bodies, total momentum before collision is equal to total
momentum after collision.
The condition under which the law holds is that no external forces should act on
the bodies.

One-dimensional collisions.
Conservation of momentum for interacting bodies moving in the same
straight line.
(a) Elastic collision between two bodies moving in the same direction.
Let m1 and m2 be the masses of the two bodies. Also let their initial velocities

be u1 and u2 respectively along the same direction. After collision they separate

and move with different velocities v1 and v2 .

m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 v1 m2 v2
=

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.1

Applying the law of conservation of momentum,

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v 2 3.12
33
Since the collision is elastic, kinetic energy will be conserved.
Therefore,
Total kinetic energy before collision = Total kinetic energy after collision.
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2 3.13
2 2 2 2

(b) Elastic collision between two bodies moving in opposite directions.

If after the collision they move in opposite directions then the law of conservation
of momentum becomes,

u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.2

m1u1  m2u 2   m1v1  m2 v2 3.14

Also, total kinetic energy before collision = total kinetic energy after collision.

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1u1  m2 u 2   m1v1  m2 v2 3.15
2 2 2 2
On the other hand if the momentum of one of the bodies involved is so great that
after collision they separate and move in the same direction then,

u1 u2 m2 v1 v2
m1 m1 m2
=
Before collision After collision
Figure 3.3

34
m1u1  m2u 2  m1v1  m2 v2 3.16
The conservation of kinetic energy expression will be
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1u1  m2u 2  m1v1  m2 v2 3.17
2 2 2 2

(c) Elastic collision between a moving body and a stationary body.

After collision they separate and move with different velocities v1 and v2 along the
same direction.

u1 u2=0 v1 v2
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.4

m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2 3.18

The conservation of kinetic energy expression becomes

1 2 1 2 1 2
m1u1  m1v1  m2 v2 3.19
2 2 2

On the other hand if after collision they separate and move in opposite directions

with different velocities v1 and v2 then,

.
u1 u2=0 v1 v2
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.5

35
 m1u1   m1v1  m2 v2 3.20
The conservation of kinetic energy expression changes to
1 2 1 2 1 2
m1u1   m1v1  m2 v2 3.21
2 2 2

(d) Inelastic collision between two bodies moving in the same direction.
After collision they stick together and move with a common velocity v

m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 m2 v
=

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.6

m1u1  m2 u 2   m1  m2  v 3.22

(e) Inelastic collision between two bodies moving in opposite directions.

After collision they stick together and move with a common velocity v

m1 u1 u2 m2 m1 m2 v
=

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.7
m1u1  m2 u 2   m1  m2  v 3.23

(f) Inelastic collision between a moving body and a stationary body.

After collision they stick together and move with a common velocity v

36
 u1 u2=0 v
m1 m2 = m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Figure 3.8

m1u1   m1  m2  v 3.24

Example 3.2 A ball of mass 10kg moving with a velocity of 20ms -1 collides
inelastically with a 15kg ball moving with a velocity of 12ms -1. Calculate their
common velocity after the collision if they initially moved in
(a) the same direction
(b) opposite direction.

Solution
From the law of conservation of linear momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

10 kg 20ms-1 15 kg 12ms-1 10 kg 15 kg v
=

Before collision After collision

(a) if the balls initially moved in the same direction then,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2, but v1=v2= v
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v + m2v = ( m1 + m2) v

37
 (10 x 20) + (15 x 12) = (10 + 15) v
200 + 180 = 150 v
380 = 150 v
380
Therefore common velocity in the same direction is v   2.53ms 1 .
150
(b) If the balls initially moved in opposite directions then,

10 kg 20ms-1 12ms-1 15 kg 10 kg 15 kg v
=

Before collision After collision

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

(a) m1u1 - m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2, but v1= v2= v
m1u1 - m2u2 = m1v + m2v = ( m1 + m2) v
(10 x 20) - (15 x 12) = (10 + 15) v
200 - 180 = 150 v
20 = 150 v
20
Therefore common velocity in the opposite direction is v   0.13ms 1
150
.

Example 3.3 A 100kg object moving with a velocity of 25ms-1 collides with a
stationary object of mass 45kg. (a) Calculate their common velocities after
collision if they stick together and moved in one direction.
(b) Assuming the two objects separated but moved in the same direction, find
the velocity of the 45kg mass if after impact the 100kg object moved with a
velocity of 15ms-1.

38
 Solution
From the law of conservation of linear momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

100 kg 25ms-1 45 kg 100 kg 45 kg v

=

Before collision After collision

(a) m1u1 = m1v1 + m2v2, but v1= v2= v
m1u1 = ( m1 + m2) v
(100 x 25) = (100 + 45) v
2500 = 145 v
2500
Therefore, their common velocity is v   17.24ms 1 .
145

(b) From the law of conservation of linear momentum

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

100 kg 25ms-1 45 kg 100 kg 15ms-1 45 kg v

=

Before collision After collision

m1u1 = m1v1 + m2v2,

m1u1 = m1v + m2v
(100 x 25) = (100 x 15) + 45 v
2500 - 1500 = 45v
1000 = 45 v

39
 Therefore the common velocity in the same direction is

1000
v  22.22ms 1 .
45

Elastic collision in two-dimensions (Oblique collision)

Oblique collision occurs when the two bodies separate and move at angles to
each other after collision.
Let a body m1 moving with initial velocity v1 collides obliquely with a stationary

body m2 . It is not a head-on collision so their lines of action do not coincide. After

collision, the bodies m1 and m2 travel with velocities v1 and v2 at angles  and 
respectively to the horizontal.
Note that in head-on collisions the lines of action of the bodies involved in the
collision coincide.

v2
m2

m2 
u1 
m1

m1
v1
Figure 3.9 Oblique collision between bodies m1 and m2

40
In the present case we shall apply the law of conservation of momentum to both
the x-component (horizontal) and the y-component (vertical).

X-component
m1u1  m1v1 cos   m2 v 2 cos  3.25

Y-component
0  m1v1 sin   m2 v2 sin 

or
m1v1 sin   m2 v2 sin  3.26

The collision is elastic therefore kinetic energy will be conserved

1 1 1
m1u12  m1v12  m2 v12 3.27
2 2 2

Newton’s Third law

Newton’s third law states that to every action there is equal and opposite
reaction.
Whenever a force acts on one body, an equal and opposite force acts on some
other body. It is important to note that the action and reaction forces take place on
different bodies. The two forces act normally to each other at the surface on which
they act.
Examples of the Third Law are:

41
 (i) The recoil of a gun. When a bullet is fired from a gun, equal and opposite
forces are exerted on the bullet and the gun.
(ii) Gases coming out of an inflated balloon. As the gas is forced out of the
nozzle the reactional force propels the balloon in the opposite direction.
(iii) A rocket in motion. As the hot gases are forced out of the tail the
reactional force propels the rocket forward
.
Inertial frames of reference
An Inertial reference frame is one which moves with constant velocity and
therefore does not accelerate. It is a reference frame in which Newton’s first law
holds.
If a bus travels at constant speed on a straight highway, then the bus can be
considered as an inertia frame of reference.
Frames translating at constant velocity along a curved trajectory or rotating at a
constant angular velocity are non-inertia frames due to centripetal acceleration.
This means that a bus accelerating in a straight path or curving at constant speed is
a non-inertia frame of reference. Rotating carousel is also an example of a non-
inertia frame of reference.

Strings, pulleys and inclines

Let us consider two bodies A and B connected with an inextensible string passed
over a pulley system. Body A slides on an inclined plane while body B hangs
vertically downwards. Refer to Figure 3.10.
First, let us consider the motion of body A along the inclined plane.
T   F  Mg sin    Ma 3.28

42
Where T is the tension in the string, F is frictional force, M is the mass of body A,
m is mass of body B, R is reactional force and a is the acceleration.

R a
T
T

A a

F B
Mg
mg

Figure 3.10 The downward movement of body B causes body
A to slide along the inclined plane because of the inextensible
string connecting them.

Resolving the forces acting on body A parallel and perpendicularly to the inclined
plane gives
R  Mg cos  3.29
Therefore,
F  R  Mg cos 3.30
and
T  ( Mg cos   Mg sin  )  Ma 3.31
Applying the equation of motion to body B,
Mg  T  ma 3.32
Solving Equations 3.31 and 3.32 simultaneously gives,
mg  Mg   cos   sin  
a 3.33
mM
and

43
 mMg 1   cos  sin  
T 3.34
mM
Friction
Friction is the retarding force which is called to play when a body actually moves
or tend to move over the surface of another body. The surfaces of the bodies in
contact are rough and therefore have irregular projections. Some surfaces appear
to be smooth when viewed with the naked eye but a powerful microscope can
expose all the irregularities. The resisted motion is caused by the interlocking of
the large number of irregularities on the surfaces in contact. The opposing force
called friction is always directed oppositely to the direction of motion.

Static friction – It is the force of friction which exactly balances the applied force
during the stationary state of the body. This means that static friction exists only
when the bodies in contact are at rest relative to each other.

P
Fs

W
Figure 3.11 A small force P is applied to move the block
but it is opposed by the static friction Fs.
44
Consider a block of wood resting on a horizontal surface. Let a small force P be
applied to try moving the block as shown in Figure 3.11. Also let Fs be the
resulting force of static friction. Then in the equilibrium position, the weight W of
the block will be balanced by the reactional force R and the pulling force P will be
balanced by Fs.

Limiting friction – It is the maximum value of static friction which is called into
play when a body is just about to start sliding over the surface of another body.
When the applied force P increases there is a corresponding increase in the static
friction Fs. However, there is a particular limit up to which the static friction Fs
can increase. Beyond this limit, the applied force P will overcome the opposing
force and produce motion in the body.

Dynamic or kinetic friction – This opposing force comes into play when the two
surfaces in contact are in relative motion. It acts in a direction opposite to the
direction of the instantaneous velocity. There are two types of dynamic or kinetic
friction namely Sliding and Rolling frictions.
(1) Sliding friction comes into play when a solid body slides over
the surface of another body.
(2) Rolling friction comes into play when a body rolls over the
surface of another body.

Coefficient of static friction

45
For any two surfaces in contact, it is the ratio of the limiting friction Fls and the
normal reaction R between them. It is denoted by s. s has no units and its value
depends upon the state of polish of the two surfaces in contact. s is small for a
highly polished surface and large for rough surfaces.
Fls
s  3.35
R
The force of static friction Fs is equal to the applied force. So Fs can have any
value from 0 to Fls. Therefore Fs  Fls . The equality sign holds only when Fs has
its maximum value.
 Fs   s R 3.36

Coefficient of kinetic friction

It is defined as the ratio of the kinetic friction and the normal reaction. It is
denoted by k.
Fk
k  3.37
R
Now,
 s Fls R Fls
 x 
k R Fk Fk

Fls R Fls
s  x  k 3.38
R Fk Fk

Therefore, Fls > Fk and  s > k

46
Example 3.4. A body of mass 8kg is on the point of slipping down a plane which
is inclined at 30o to the horizontal. What force parallel to the inclined force will
just move it up the plane?

30o

Solution
Resolving along the plane for equilibrium
T = R + mg sin 30o … … (1)
Resolving perpendicular to the plane
R = mg cos  … … (2)
Substituting equation (2) into (1)
T =  mg cos  + mg sin 30o
Since the body is about to slip down the plane at 30o,
 = tan 30o = 0.5774
therefore,
T = (0.5774 x 8 x 10 x 0.866) + ( 8 x 10 x 0.5 )
= 40.0 + 40.0 = 80.0N

Example 3.5. Suppose that in the figure below the block is at rest. The angle
of inclination of the plane is slowly increased until the block begins to slide at

47
  = 42o. What is the coefficient of static friction between the block and the
incline?

Solution
. At the point when the block begins to slide, F = R
F
therefore,    tan 
R
= tan 42o = 0. 90

Exercise 3

11. A 110g hockey puck slides on the ice for 15m before it stops. If its initial
speed was 6.0m/s, what was the magnitude of the frictional force on the
puck during the sliding? (Ans: 0.31N)

12. A 68kg crate is dragged across a floor by pulling on a rope inclined 15 o

above the horizontal. If μk=0.35 what is the magnitude of the initial
acceleration of the crate? (Ans: 1.3ms-2)

48
13. A bedroom bureau with a mass of 45kg, including drawers and clothing,
rests on the floor. (a) If the coefficient of static friction between the
bureau and the floor is 0.45 what is the minimum horizontal force a
person must apply to start the bureau moving? (b) If the drawers and
clothing, with 17kg mass are removed before the bureau is pushed, what
is the new minimum magnitude? (Ans: [a] 200N, [b] 120N )

14. The coefficient of static friction between Teflon and scrambled eggs is
about 0.04. What is the smallest angle from the horizontal that will cause
the eggs to slide across the bottom of a Teflon-coated Skillet? (Ans: 2o )

15. A horizontal force of 12N pushes a block weighing 5.0N against a

vertical wall. The coefficient of static friction between the wall and the
block is 0.60, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.40. Assume that
the block is not moving initially. (a) Will the block start moving? (b) In a
unit-vector notation, what is the force exerted on the block by the wall?
(Ans: [a] No, [b] (-12 i +5 j )N )

16. For the situation shown in the figure below, find the values of T 1 and T2
if the objects weight is 600N. (Ans: 503N; 783N).

49
 17. The following coplanar forces pull on a ring: 20N at 30o , 500N at 80o ,
300N at 240o , and an unknown force. Find the magnitude and direction
of the unknown force if the ring is to be in equilibrium. (Ans: 350N at
252o)

18. In the figure below, the pulleys are frictionless and the system hangs at
equilibrium. If w3, the weight of the object on the right, is 200N, what
are the values of w1 and w2? (Ans: 260N; 150N)

Use the diagram below to answer questions 3.9& 3.10.

50
 19. If in the figure the friction between the block and the incline is
negligible, how much must the object on the right weigh if the 200N
block is to remain at rest? (Ans: 115N )

3.10 The system in the figure remains at rest when w=220N. What are the

magnitude and direction of the frictional force on the 200N block?

(Ans: 105N down the incline)

3.11 A rough inclined plane is 100m long and is inclined to the horizontal at
an angle sin-1(3/5), the coefficient of friction being 0.5. a body slides
down it from rest at the highest point. Find its velocity on reaching the
bottom.

3.12 A particle is placed on an inclined plane of inclination,, the coefficient

of friction between the particle and the plane at all points of the plane is
. Prove that the particle cannot rest on the table unless   tan .

3.13 A body A of mass, 2m and a body of mass, m move in the same

direction along a common line. The velocity of A is 40cm/s and that of B

51
 is 10cm/s. if A and B undergo a perfect elastic collision, calculate (i) the
velocity of A and B after the collision (ii) the impulse on A and B and
show that Newton’s third law of motion is obeyed

CHAPTER FOUR

KINEMATICS

Distance and Displacement

Distance and speed are scalar quantities.

Distance
Distance is simply the total path length traversed in moving from one position to
the other. In general, the distance between two points depends on the path
traveled.

Displacement
Displacement is defined as a straight line distance between two points, along the
direction from the starting point to the final point. Displacement is a vector
quantity.

Speed and Velocity

Speed
When a body is in motion, its position changes with time i.e., it moves a certain
distance in a given time. This implies that both length and time are therefore

52
important quantities when describing motion. Imagine that two cars- car1 and car
2- are moving in the same direction but car 2 is moving faster than car1. Car 2
will cover a definite distance x in a shorter time than car1 will do. This relation
can be expressed by using the length and time to give the rate at which distance is
traveled or speed, for each. Average speed is the distance d traveled, divided by
the total time t elapsed in traveling that distance
distance d
Average speed, s,   4.1
time t

Velocity
Velocity is defined as how fast a body is moving and in what direction. Velocity
is also another quantity used to describe motion. We have the average velocity
defined as displacement divided by time taken:

displacement x x  x0
Average velocity =   v 4.2
time t t  t0

Where x0 is the initial point, x is final position, t is initial time, t0 is final time, x
is the change in position or displacement and t is the change in t.

The SI units of velocity is meters per unit second (m/s). Instantaneous velocity on
the other hand is defined as
dx x  x0
Instantaneous velocity   lim t 0 4.3
dt t  t0

Acceleration

53
Analogous to average velocity we have average acceleration. Average
acceleration is defined as change in velocity divided by time taken:
velocity v v  v0
Average acceleration    a 4.4
time t t  t0

Accelerated Motion
Since velocity is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction, an
acceleration can occur when there is
(a) a change in magnitude of the velocity but not the direction
(b) a change in the direction of the velocity but not the magnitude
(c) a change in both the magnitude and direction

Example 4.1 Mr. Tetteh and his driver are traveling to Cape Coast in a Toyota
pickup which is moving at 90 km/h down a straight highway. The driver of the
pickup sees an accident in the distance and slows down to 40 km/h in 5.0 s. What
is the average acceleration of the Toyota pickup?

Solution
Given the initial and final velocities and the time duration
v 0  (90km / h)  (25m / s ) , v  (40km / h)  (11m / s ) , t  5.0 s

We are solving to find: average acceleration, a , which from Equation 4.4 is

v v  v0 11m / s  25m / s
a    2.8m / s
t t 5.0 s

54
Average Velocity and Instantaneous velocity in components

In knowing how fast a particle moves from one point to the other one has to deal
with
1. Average velocity and
2. Instantaneous velocity

These are vectors and so vector notation has to be used.

If a particle moves through a displacement r in a time interval t , then its
average velocity v is
displacement r
v  4.5
time t
This tells us that, the direction of v is the same as that of r . v can also be
written in unit vector form as
xi  xj  xk x y z
v  i j k 4.6
t t t t
The velocity of a particle usually refers to the instantaneous velocity v which is
the value that v approaches in the limit as we shrink the time interval to 0 about
the instant. Using the language of calculus, we may write v as the derivative
dr
v 4.7
dt
The direction of the instantaneous velocity v of a particle is always tangent to the
particles path at the particles position.
In substituting r  xi  yj  zk into Equation 4.7 we get
dr d dx dy dz
v  ( xi  yj  zk )  i  j k 4.8
dt dt dt dt dt

55
v  vx i  v y j  vz k 4.9
dx dy dz
where, v x  ,vy  , vz 
dt dt dt
dx
. Since is the scalar component of v along the x-direction, it means we can
dt
find the scalar components of v by differentiating the scalar components of r .

Average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration in components

As a particles velocity changes from v1 to v 2 in a time interval t , its average
acceleration a during t is
change in velocity v 2 - v1 v
a   4.10
time interval t t
If t is zero about some instant, then in the limit approaches the
instantaneous acceleration (or acceleration a ) at the instant; that is
dv d dv dv y dv
a  (v x i  v y j  v z k )  x i  j z k 4.11
dt dt dt dt dt
a  ax i  a y j  az k 4.12

dv x dv y dv z
where a x  ,ay  and a z  . We can therefore find the scalar
dt dt dt
components of a by differentiating the scalar component of v .

Example 4.2 If a rabbit’s velocity is v  0.62t 2 i  7.2 j , find the acceleration a

at the time t  5s , in unit-vector notation and in magnitude notation.
Solution
dv
Given that v  0.62ti  7.2 j , a   0.62( 2t )i  1.24ti
dt

56
At time t=5s
dv
a  1.24(5)i  6.2i ms - 2
dt
dv
a    1.24(5)i    6.2  2  6.2 ms - 2
dt

Kinematic equations and problem solving

Any rectilinear motion can be defined by the position of that body in space at any
given instant. In order to make such a definition to describe a motion, we need to
find the relationships between distance and displacement, speed and velocity,
acceleration and time. The kinematic equations are equations of motion that relate
the above-mentioned quantities with each other. The assumption of a uniform
motion is made in all cases for use of these kinematics equations of motion. The
following kinematics equations will not work, for example, for an object that is
accelerating erratically. Below is the list of the kinematic equations.
s
Average velocity, v  4.13
t
1
Displacement, s  ( v  u)t 4.14
2
v v  u
Average acceleration, a   4.15
t t
v  u  at 4.16

s  x  u t  1 at 2 4.17
2
v 2  u 2  2as 4.18

Note that in some of the equations above we have replaced the time interval Δt with t, representing
total time.

57
Example 4.3 A car traveling at a speed of +12 m/s accelerates at a rate of +4 m/s 2
for a time of 5s. What is the car's speed at the end of 5s?
Solution
Given u = 12m/s, a = 4m/s, t = 5s, v = ?. We use Equation 4.16 to find v
v  u  at  12m / s  (4m / s 2  5s )  12m / s  20m / s  32m / s

Derivation of the equations of motion

Suppose that an object is initially moving with a constant acceleration a , and
increases its velocity from u to v and its displacement from 0 to s in the time
interval t, then since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, we have
vu
a
t
Rearranging gives
v  u  at . 4.16

The average velocity is 1 (u  v) and therefore since displacement is

2
average velocity  time , we have
1
s (v  u )t 4.14
2
But from Equation 4.16, we can write

s  1 (u  u  at )t  ut  1 at 2 4.17
2 2
From Equation 4.15 t  (v  u ) a and substituting into Equation 4.17 we have

vu vu
s( )( )
2 a
 2as  u 2  v 2
 v 2  u 2  2as 4.18
58
Graphs of Motion
The motion of a body or an object in a straight line (rectilinear motion) can be
represented by graphical analysis. Graphical analysis is often helpful in
understanding motion and its related quantities. For example the motion of a
runner can be graphed as a plot of position x versus time t.
We have
(a) displacement-time graph
(b) velocity-time graph and
(c) acceleration-time graph

Displacement-Time Graph

3
s
A
2
ΔS

Δt

t
Figure 4.1

From Figure 4.1 we can make the following deductions about the following
curves:
(1) slope = 0: velocity is zero (i.e. the body or object is stationary)
(2) slope = constant : The body moves with uniform velocity
59
(3) The slope varies at different points and the gradient at a given point say A is
the instantaneous velocity. This implies the body moves with a non-uniform
velocity.
Velocity-Time Graph

3
v
B
2
Δv

Δt

t
Figure 4.2

(1) slope = 0: acceleration is zero and hence velocity is constant

(2) slope = constant: The body moves with uniform acceleration
(3) The slope varies at different points and the gradient at a given point say B is
the instantaneous acceleration. The body moves with a non-uniform
acceleration. Note that for Velocity-Time graph the area under the graph is
equal to displacement.

Acceleration-Time Graph

Area under graph =

velocity

60
t
Figure 4.3
For acceleration-Time graph the area under the graph is equal to the velocity.

Free fall and acceleration due to gravity

An object is in free fall if it falls freely under the influence of gravity. Any object,
regardless of its mass which falls near the surface of earth falls with an
acceleration of 9.8 m/s2. Since the free fall acceleration is constant, we can use the
kinematic equations of motion to solve problems involving free fall.

Example 4.4 A ball is dropped from rest from a high window of a tall building
and falls for 3s. Neglecting air resistance (a) what is the speed of the ball? (b)
What is the distance the ball has fallen from where it was released? (c) What is the
ball’s acceleration?

Solution

t  0, u  0

t  3s
Figure 4.4

61
We start solving by listing the quantities already given in this problem
u  0 since the ball was dropped from rest, t  3s , a  g  10m / s 2 since the ball
is falling freely under the influence of gravity.
(a) We are looking for the speed v after 3s, so we find an equation that includes v,
u, a and t. Equation 4.16 gives v  u  at  0  (10m / s 2 )(3s)  30m / s

(b) The distance fallen can be found by using Equation 4.17, choosing the
downward direction as positive:

 
s  ut  1 gt 2  (0)(3s)  1 10m / s 2 (3s ) 2  45m
2 2

(c) After 3s of free fall, the ball is still accelerating at 10m/s2. The ball’s speed is
increasing, but the rate at which its speed is increasing (i.e. its acceleration)
is constant.

Relative Motion and Velocity in one dimension

Q
PQ

P
Figure 4.5

62
Suppose that P and Q are moving points. Then PQ represents the position vector

d
of Q relative to P, and (PQ ) represents its rate of change, which we shall call
dt

the velocity of Q relative to P and is written as VPQ . So

d
v PQ  (PQ ) 4.19
dt
If we consider three moving points P, Q and R

R
Figure 4.6

PQ  QR  PR 4.20

Hence differentiating with respect to time we have

d d d d
(PQ )  (QR )  (PQ  QR )  (PR ) 4.21
dt dt dt dt

 v PQ  v QR  v PR 4.22

VPR
VQR

VPQ 63
Figure 4.7
Furthermore, the rate of change of v PQ can be called the acceleration of Q relative
to P and is written as
d
a PQ  ( v PQ ) 4.23
dt

and it immediately follows that

a PQ  a QR  a PR 4.24

Circular Motion
Uniform Circular Motion
A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels around a circle or a circular
arc at constant speed. A car moving in a circular path with linear constant speed v
is in uniform circular motion. Although the speed does not vary, the car is
accelerating. Since the car’s direction of motion changes, the car has acceleration.
This fact may be surprising because acceleration is usually thought of as an
increase or decrease in speed. But actually v is a vector, not a scalar. If v changes,
even only in direction, there is acceleration, as happens in uniform circular
motion. For any motion, the velocity vector is tangent to the path. Consequently,
when an object moves in a circular path, its velocity vector is perpendicular to the
radius of the circle.
To find the magnitude and direction of the acceleration, consider Figure 4.8a
which shows a particle first at point A and then at point B. Let the particle be at
point A at time ti, with velocity vi and at point B at time tf with velocity vf.
64
Assume that vi and vf have the same magnitudes (speeds) but differ only in
direction.
vi
A
B
r vf

vi

r v
r
vf


(b)
O (a)

Figure 4.8 (a) As a particle moves from A to B, its velocity vector changes from Vi to Vf .
(b) The construction for determining the direction of the change in velocity V, which is
toward the center of the circle for small r

We know from the definition of average acceleration that:

v f  vi v
a  4.25
t f  ti t

Consider the triangle in Figure 4.8b with sides Δr and r. This triangle is similar
with the one in Figure 4.8a having sides v and v . From the two triangles we can
write
v r
 4.26
v r

Solve for v and substitute in the expression a  v t to get

vr
a 4.27
r t

65
If points A and B are extremely close together, then Δv points toward the centre of
the circular path, and because the acceleration is in the direction of Δv, the
acceleration also points toward the centre. In the limit as Δt approaches zero, the

ratio r t also goes to the speed v and the magnitude of the acceleration is

v2 4.28
ar 
r
We then conclude that, when a particle moves at constant speed v in a circle of
radius r, the acceleration of the particle is directed toward the centre of the circle
and has a constant magnitude v2/r.
Consider a particle moving along a curved path where the velocity changes in
both direction and magnitude, as shown in Figure 4.9 As always, the velocity
vector is tangent to the path, but the direction of the acceleration vector a changes
from point to point. This vector can be resolved into two components: a radial
component ar and a tangential component at. Thus a becomes
a  a r  at 4.29

at

a
ar
ar a
ar at
at a

Figure 4.9 The motion of a particle along an arbitrary curved path lying in the xy plane.
If the velocity vector v (always tangent to the path ) changes in direction and magnitude, the
component vectors of the acceleration a are a tangential component at and a radial component ar.
66
The tangential acceleration causes the change in the speed of the particle and it is
parallel to the instantaneous velocity, and its magnitude is
d v
at  4.30
dt
The radial acceleration arises from the change in direction of the velocity vector
and has an absolute magnitude given by
v2
ar  4.31
r
where r is the radius of curvature of the path at the point under consideration.
The acceleration associated with uniform circular motion is called a centripetal
(center seeking) acceleration.
During this acceleration at constant speed, the particle travels the distance 2 r
(circumference) of the circle in time T given by
2 r
T 4.32
v
which is called the period of revolution, or the period, of the motion. In general,
T is the time for a particle to go round a closed path exactly once.

Circular Motion
Consider an object moving in a circle with a uniform speed round a fixed point O
as centre as shown in Figure 4.10. Assume the object moves from A to B so that
the radius OA moves through an angle θ. A particle at B is at a fixed distance r
from the origin and rotates about it in a circle of radius r. We represent the
position of B with its polar coordinates (r, θ), where r is the distance from the

67
origin to B and θ is measured anticlockwise from some preferred direction like the
positive x – direction.

T
B v

 s
O
A

Figure 4.10 Circular motion

In this way only the angle θ changes with time; r remains constant. If s is the
length of the arc AB, then s/r = θ, by definition of an angle in radians.

 s  r 4.33
and

  sr 4.34

One radian is the angle subtended by an arc length equal to the radius of the arc.
Since the circumference of a circle is 2 r , it follows from Equation 4.34 that

3600 corresponds to an angle of 2 r r rad  2 rad. Hence 1rad  360 2  57.3

0 0

. To convert an angle in degrees to an angle in radians, we have: 2 rad  3600


  rad     deg  4.35
1800

68
As an example, 60   3 rad and 90   2 rad . As the object travels from
0 0

position P to position Q in a time Δt as shown in Figure 4.11, the radius vector

sweeps out an angle    f   i called the angular displacement of the body.

That is
   f   i

The angular speed, ω, about O is defined as the change of the angle per second. If
t is the time taken to move from A to B as in Figure 4.10, then

 4.36
t
expressed in ‘radians per second’ (rad s-1).
Define the average angular speed  as the ratio of the angular displacement to the
y
time interval Δt (Figure 4.11)

Q, tf

P, ti

qf
qi
x
O
Figure 4.11 A particle on a rotating rigid object
moves from P to Q along the arc of a circle. In the
time interval t = tf – ti, the radius vector sweeps
 f  i  out an angle  = f - i.
  4.37
t f  ti t

69
The instantaneous angular speed  is defined as the limit of the ratio  t as Δt

goes to zero:
 d
  lim  4.38
t  0 t dt
ω is taken to be positive when θ is increasing (anticlockwise motion) and negative
when θ is decreasing (clockwise motion).
Divide Equation 4.33 by t, the time to move from A to B in Figure 4.10,
s 
 r 4.39
t t
 v  r 4.40
If the angular velocity of a rotating body is not constant, then the body has an

angular acceleration. Let  f and i be the angular velocities at time tf and ti,
respectively. The average angular acceleration of the rotating body in the interval
from ti to tf (Δt) is defined as
 f  i 
  4.41
t f  ti t

where Δω is the change in the angular velocity that occurs during the time interval
Δt. The instantaneous angular acceleration is defined as the limit of the ratio


t as Δt goes to zero:
 d
  lim  4.42
t  0 t dt
The unit of angular acceleration is the radian per second-squared (rad/s 2) or the
revolution per second –squared (rev/s2).
Divide Equation 4.40 by t to get:

70
v 
r 4.43
t t
v/t is the tangential component at of the linear acceleration and ω/t is the angular
acceleration . Then
at   r 4.44
As has been seen already, the radial component of the acceleration is:
v2
ar    2r . 4.45
r
Example 4.5 Express each of the following in terms of the other angular
1
measures: (a) 280, (b) rev s , (c) 2.18 rad s 2 .
4

Solution

(a)
 1 rev 
280   28 deg     0.078 rev
 360 deg 
 2 rad 
  28 deg     0.49 rad
 360 deg 

(b)
1 rev  rev   360 deg  deg
  0.25    90
4 s  s   1 rev  s
 rev   2 rad   rad
  0.25  
 s   1 rev  2 s

(c)

71
 rad  rad   360 deg  deg
2.18   2.18 2     125 2
s 2
 s   2 rad  s
 rad   1 rev  rev
  2.18 2     0.35 2
 s   2 rad  s

Example 4.6 A car moves round a circular track of radius 0.3 m at 2 revolutions
per second. What is
(a) the angular speed ω,
(b) the period T,
(c) the speed v of the car? Find also
(d) the angular speed of the car if it moves with a uniform speed of 2 ms-1 in a
circle of radius 0.4 m.

Solution
 
(a) For 1 revolution, angle turned   2 rad 360 . So that
0

  2  2  4 rads 1
2 2
(b) Period T  time for 1 rev.    0.5 s
 4

(c) Speed v  r  0.3  4  1.2  3.8 ms 1

(d) From v  r

v 2 ms 1
   5 rads 1
r 0.4 m

Simple Harmonic Motion

72
Any motion that repeats itself at regular intervals is called periodic motion or
harmonic motion. It turns out that for such motion the displacement x of the
particle from the origin is given as a function of time.
Consider a physical system that consists of a block of mass m attached to the end
of a spring, with the block free to move on a horizontal, frictionless surface as
shown in Figure 4.12. When the spring is neither stretched nor compressed, the
block is at the position x  0 , which is the equilibrium position of the system as
shown in Figure 4.12b.
When the block is displaced a distance x , which is small, from equilibrium, the
spring, with a spring constant k , exerts a force on the block which is proportional
x = law
to the displacement and given by Hooke’s 0 as
F
F   kx 4.46
(a) force is always directed towards the equilibrium
The m position and therefore
opposite the displacement and it is called a restoring force. This means that when
x 4.12c then the displacement is
the block is displaced to the left of x  0 in Figure
F=0
negative and the restoring force is directed to the right. When the block is
displaced
(b) to the right of x  0 , then the displacement is positive and the restoring
m
force is directed to the left.
Let us apply Newton’s second law to the motion of the block, together with
F
Equation
(c ) 4.46 to obtain
F  kx  ma 4.47
m
k
a x 4.48
m
x

Figure 4.12 A block attached to a spring moving on a frictionless surface. (a) when the
block is displaced to the right of equilibrium (x  0), the force exerted by the spring acts to
the left. (b) when the block is at its equilibrium position (x = 0), the force exerted by the
spring is zero. (c) when the block is displaced to the left of equilibrium (x  0), the force 73
exerted by the spring acts to the right.
But the acceleration is also given by
a   2 x 4.49
which means that
k  m 2 and

 km 4.50

74
From Equation 4.49 the acceleration is proportional to the displacement but
opposite in sign, and the two quantities are related by the angular frequency-
squared. Systems that behave this way are said to show simple harmonic motion.
Simple harmonic motion is the motion executed by a particle of mass m
subject to a force that is proportional to the displacement of the particle but
opposite in sign.
In general, it turns out that for such motion the displacement x of the particle from
the origin is given as a function of time by
x  A cos  t    4.51

where A ,  , and  are constants. The quantity A , a positive constant whose

value depends on how the motion was started, is called the amplitude of the
motion. The cosine function in Equation 4.51 varies between the limits 1 , so the
displacement x varies between the limits  A , as shown in Figure 4.13.
The time-varying quantity ( t   ) is called the phase of the motion, and the

constant  is called the phase constant (or phase angle). If the particle is at its
maximum position x  A at t  0 , then   0 as shown in Figure 4.13b. Let us
interpret the constant ω. The displacement x must return to its initial value after

one period T of the motion. That is, x must equal x  t  T  for all t . Let us put

  0 in Equation 4.51 to simplify the analysis. From Equation 4.51 we have

A cos t  A cos   t  T   4.52

75
 x

/
T
A

-A
(a)
x

-A
(b)
Figure 4.13 (a) An x – t curve for a particle undergoing simple
harmonic motion. The amplitude of the motion is A, the period is T, and
the phase constant is . (b) The x – t curve in the special case in which
x = A at t = 0 and hence  = 0.

The cosine function first repeats itself when its argument (the phase) has increased
by 2π rad, so that we should have
  t  T   t  2
T  2 4.53

76
Thus
2
 4.54
T
The constant ω is called the angular frequency of the motion and has units of
radians per second.
The linear velocity of a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion can be found
by differentiating Equation 4.51 with respect to time:
dx d
v   A cos  t     4.55
dt dt 
which means
v   A sin  t    4.56
From Equation 4.56, the acceleration of the particle is
dv d
a    A sin  t    
dt dt 
which gives
a   2 A cos  t    4.57

But x  A cos  t    so Equation 4.57 becomes

a   2 x 4.58
From Equation 4.57, because the sine function oscillates between 1 , the extreme
values of v are  A . From Equation 4.58, and since the cosine function oscillates
between 1 , the extreme values of a are  2 A . Therefore, the maximum speed
and the magnitude of the maximum acceleration of a particle moving in simple
harmonic motion are

77
vmax   A 4.59

amax   2 A 4.60
The importance of the phase constant can be seen when comparing the motion of
two or more oscillating objects. Let us imagine two identical pendulum bobs
swinging side by side in simple harmonic motion, with one being released later
than the other. Then the bobs have different phase constants. We can also show
how the phase constant and the amplitude of any particle moving in simple
harmonic motion can be determined if we know the particle’s initial speed and
position and the angular frequency of its motion.
Now suppose that at t  0 the initial position of a single oscillator is x  xi and its

initial speed is v  vi . Under such conditions, Equation 4.51 and Equation 4.56
give
xi  A cos  4.61
vi   A sin  4.62
vi
Equation 4.62 divided by Equation 4.61 eliminates A, to give   tan  , or
xi

vi
tan   4.63
 xi
Square Equations 4.61 and 4.62, divide Equation 4.62 by  2 , and then add terms
to obtain,
2
v 
xi 2   i   A2 cos 2   A2 sin 2  .
 
But sin 2  cos 2  1 , then

78
 2
v 
A  xi   i 
2
4.64
 

Recall that the period of any simple harmonic oscillator is T  2  and that the

frequency is the inverse of the period. Also   k m , so the period and the

frequency of the spring-block system become

2 m
T  2 4.65
 k

1 1 k
f   4.66
T 2 m
Equations 4.65 and 4.66 tell us that a large angular frequency and thus a small
period go with a stiff spring (i.e. large k) and a light block (small m).
Furthermore, the frequency and period are independent of the amplitude of the
motion.

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

We examine the mechanical energy of the block-spring system illustrated in
Figure. 4.14. Since the surface is assumed frictionless, it is expected that the total
mechanical energy will be constant. The potential energy of a linear oscillator like
that of Figure 4.14 is associated entirely with the spring. Its value depends on how
much the spring is stretched or compressed, that is, on x .

79
The elastic potential energy stored in the spring of any elongation x is given by

1 2
kx . From Equation 4.51, we have
2
1 2 1 2
U kx  kA cos 2  t    4.67
2 2

t=0
A
xi = A. x = A cos t
vi = 0
m

x=0
Figure 4.14 A block – spring system that starts from rest at xi = A.
In this case  = 0 and thus x = A cos t.

The kinetic energy of the system is associated with the block only. Its value
depends on how fast the block is moving, that is, on v . From Equation 4.56, the
kinetic energy can be expressed as
1 2 1
K mv  m 2 A2 sin 2  t    4.68
2 2

U and K are always positive quantities. Since   k m , the mechanical energy of

2

the simple harmonic oscillator can be expressed as

1 2
E U  K  kA sin 2  t     cos 2  t     4.69
2
But the identity sin 2   cos 2   1 , so that if we let   t   for the quantity in
bracket, then
1 2
E kA 4.70
2

80
The mechanical energy of a linear oscillator is indeed constant, independent of
time. The total mechanical energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is a
constant of the motion and is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
Note also that U is small when K is large, and vice versa, because the sum must
be constant.

K. U K
=0
U
1
kA 2
2

(a)

T/2 T

1 2
K mv
2
1
U  kx 2
2
K, U

(b)

-A 0 A
Figure 4.15 (a) Kinetic energy and potential energy verses time for a simple harmonic
oscillator with  = 0. (b) Kinetic energy and potential energy verses displacement for a
simple harmonic oscillator. In either plot, note that K + U = constant
81
The total mechanical energy is equal to the maximum potential energy stored in
the spring when x   A because v  0 at these points and thus there is no kinetic
energy. At the equilibrium position, where U  0 because x  0 , the total energy,

1 2
all in the form of kinetic energy, is again kA .That is
2
1 2 1 1 k 1
E mvmax  m 2 A2  m A2  kA2 4.71
2 2 2 m 2
when x  0 .
Plots of the kinetic and potential energies against time are shown in Figure. 4.15a,
with   0 . The variations of K and U with the displacement x of the block are
plotted in Figure 4.15b. Energy is continuously being transformed between
potential energy stored in the spring and kinetic energy of the block.
It can now be understood why an oscillating system contains an element of
springiness and an element of inertia: it uses the former to store its potential
energy and the latter to store its kinetic energy.

Example 4.7 A spring makes 12 vibrations in 40 s. Find the period and frequency
of the vibration.

Solution

elapsed time 40s

T   3.3s
vibrations made 12

vibrations made 12
f    0.30 Hz
elapsed time 40s

82
Example 4.8 When a 400 g mass is hung at the end of a vertical spring, the spring
stretches 35 cm. What is the spring constant of the spring, and how much further
will it stretch if an additional 400 g mass is hung from it?
Solution

We know that

F  ky since the spring is vertical, where

 
F  mg   0.400kg  9.8 m s 2  3.92 N so that

F 3.92 N
k   11.2 N m
y 0.35m

With an additional 400 g load, the total force stretching the spring is 2F = 7.84 N.
Then
F 7.84 N
y   0.70m  2  35cm
k 11.2 N m
So that each 400 g load stretches the spring by the same amount whether the
spring is loaded or not.

Example 4.9 A 200 g mass vibrates horizontally without friction at the end of a
horizontal spring for which k = 7.0 N/m. The mass is displaced 5.0 cm from
equilibrium and released. Find (a) its maximum speed and (b) its speed when it is
3.0 cm from equilibrium. (c) What is its acceleration in each of these cases?

Solution
Using the conservation of energy law in this case gives,

83
1 2 1 2 1 2
x0  mv  kx where
2 2 2
k  7.0 N m , x0  0.050m, and m  0.200kg . Then v becomes

k 2
v
m

x0  x 2 
(a) For maximum speed x  0 ; i.e., when the mass is passing through the
equilibrium position:
k 7.0 N m
v  x0   0.05m   0.296 m s
m 0.200kg

(b) When x  0.030m ,

7.0 N m 
 0.050    0.030   m2  0.237 m s
2 2
v
0.200kg 

(c) Using F  ma and F  kx , we have

k
a
m

x  35s 2   x which gives a = 0 when the mass is at x  0 and

a  1.05 m s 2 when x  0.030m

Example 4.10 A 50 g mass vibrates in S.H.M at the end of a spring. The

amplitude of the motion is 12 cm, and the period is 1.70 s. Find: (a) the frequency,
(b) the spring constant, (c) the maximum speed of the mass, (d) the maximum
acceleration of the mass, (e) the speed when the displacement is 6 cm, and (f) the
acceleration when x  6 cm .

84
Solution

1 1
(a) f    0.588 H z
T 1.70 s

(b) We know that T  2 m k , so that

4 2 m 4  0.050kg 
2

k   0.68 N m
 1.70s 
2
T2

k 0.68 N m
(c) v0  x0   0.12m   0.44 m s
m 0.050kg

 
(d) From a   k m x , a has a maximum magnitude when x is maximum, i.e., at

the endpoints x   x0 . So that

k 0.68 N m
a0  x0   0.12m   1.63 m s 2
m 0.050kg

(e) We know v  x2

0  x2   k m ,
0.68
v   0.12 2
 0.062  0.050  0.38 m s

k 0.68 N m
(f) a   x  0.06m   0.82 m s 2
m 0.050kg

85
Example 4.11 A 20 kg electric motor is mounted on four vertical springs, each
having a spring constant of 30 N cm . Find the period with which the motor
vibrates vertically.

Solution
The four springs can be replaced by an equivalent spring an its spring constant

becomes 4  3000 N m  or 12000 N m . Then

m 20kg
T  2  2  0.256 s
k 12000 N m

Pendulums
Let us turn now to a class of simple harmonic oscillators in which the springiness
is associated with the gravitational force rather than with the elastic properties of a
twisted wire or a compressed or stretched spring.

The Simple Pendulum

It is another mechanical system that exhibits periodic motion. It consists of a
particle-like bob of mass m suspended from an unstretchable, massless string of
length L fixed at the upper end as shown Figure 4.16a . The bob is free to swing
back and forth in the plane of the page, to the left and right of a vertical line
through the point at which the upper end of the string is fixed. The forces acting
on the particle, shown in Figure 4.16b are its weight mg and the tension T in the
string. The weight can be resolved into a radial component mg cos  and a

86
component mg sin  tangent to the path taken by the particle. This tangential
component is a restoring force, since it always acts opposite the displacement of
the particle so as to bring the particle back toward its central location, the
equilibrium position (θ = 0), where it would be at rest were it not swinging.
We use Newton’s second law to write the restoring force as
d 2s
Ft  mg sin   m 4.72
dt 2
where s is the bob’s displacement measured along the arc and the minus sign
indicates that the tangential force acts toward the equilibrium (vertical) position.
Since s  L and L is constant, Equation 4.72 reduces to
d 2 g
2
  sin  4.73
dt L
For small angles (i.e. sin    ) the equation of motion for the simple pendulum
becomes
d 2 g
2
  4.74
dt L

 

L
L
(a) (b)

m s=L

mg cos 

Figure 4.16 (a) A simple pendulum. (b) The forces acting on

mg sin
the bob are its weight mg and the tension T in the string. The 87
tangential component mg sin  of the weight is a restoring
force that brings the pendulum back to the central position. mg
Equation 4.74 is in the form of Equation 4.58, and we conclude that the motion
for small amplitudes of oscillation is a simple harmonic motion. Therefore, θ can

be written as    max cos(t   ) , where θmax is the maximum angular

displacement and the angular frequency ω is

g
 4.75
L

The period of the motion of a simple pendulum is

2 L
T  2 . 4.76
 g
We see that, the period and frequency of a simple pendulum depend only on the
length of the string and the acceleration due to gravity. Because the period is
independent of the mass, we conclude that all simple pendulums that are of equal
O
length and are at the same location (so that g is constant) oscillate with the same
period.


The conical Pendulum

T cos 
Suppose a small object of mass m is tied to a
T
string OA of length l and then whirled round in

a horizontal circle of radius r ,
A r B
with O fixed directly above the centre B
T sin 
of the circle as shown in Figure 4.17.

88
mg
Figure 4.17 Conical pendulum
If the circular speed of A is constant,
the string turns at a constant angle θ
to the vertical. This is called a conical
pendulum.

Since A moves with a constant speed v in a circle of radius r, there must be a

2
centripetal force, mv r , acting towards the centre B. The horizontal component,

T sin  , of the tension in the string provides this force along AB. So
mv 2
T sin   4.77
r
Also, since the mass does not move vertically, its weight mg must be
counterbalanced by the vertical component T cos  of the tension. So
T cos   mg 4.78
Dividing Equation 4.77 by Equation 4.78 gives
v2
tan   4.79
rg

Projectile Motion
Anyone observing the motion of a stone or any object thrown into the air is
observing projectile motion. The stone moves in a curved path, and the motion is
simple to analyze if two assumptions are made: (1) the acceleration of free-fall g
is constant over the range of motion and is directed downward, and (2) the effect
of air resistance is negligible. Using these assumptions, it is found that the path of

89
a projectile, also called trajectory, is always a parabola. Projectile motion looks
complicated but we have the following simplifying feature:
The horizontal motion and vertical motion are independent of each other; that is,
neither motion affects the other.
To show that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola, we choose our reference
frame such that the y direction is vertical and positive is upward. Neglecting air

resistance, we have a y   g and that ax  0 (the projectile has no horizontal

acceleration). Furthermore, let us assume that at t  0 , the projectile leaves the

origin ( x0  y0  0 ) with speed v0 as shown in Figure 4.18.

The vector v0 makes an angle θ0 with the horizontal, where θ0 is the angle at which
the projectile leaves the origin. The initial velocity v0 can be written as
v 0  v0 x i  v0 y j 4.80
The components
y v0x and v0y can be found if the angle between v0 and the positive
x direction θ0 is known:
v
v0 x  v0 cos 0 and v0 y  vo sin  0 4.81
vy v v =0 y
vx
vx
voy vo

vy v vx x
R
vox

vy v vx

vy v
Figure 4.18 The path of a projectile that is launched at xo = 0 and yo = 0, with an
initial velocity vo. The initial velocity and the velocities at various points along its
90 path are shown, along with their components. Note that the horizontal velocity
component remains constant but the vertical velocity component changes
continuously. The range R is the horizontal distance the projectile has traveled
when it returns to its launch height.
As stated earlier for projectile motion, the horizontal motion and vertical motion
are independent of each other; that is neither motion has an effect on the other.
This allows breaking up a problem involving two-dimensional motion into two
separate and easier one-dimensional problems, one for the horizontal motion and
one for the vertical motion.

Analysis of projectile motion

The Horizontal motion
Since there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, the horizontal component
v ox of the projectile’s initial velocity remains unchanged throughout the motion.

The horizontal displacement x  x0 from an initial position xo is given as

x  x0  v0 xt 4.82
since a  0 .
But v0 x  v0 cos 0 , so that

x  x0   v0 cos 0  t 4.83

The vertical motion

The vertical motion is the motion for a particle in free fall, i.e.

91
 1 2
y  y0  v0 y t  gt
2
1 2
  v0 sin  0  t  gt 4.84
2
where the initial vertical velocity component v 0 y is replaced with the equivalent

v o sin o .

The equation of the path

To find the equation of the path (the trajectory) of the projectile, eliminate t
between Equations 4.83 and 4.84. Solve Equation 4.83 for t and substitute into
Equation 4.84 and obtain after a little rearrangement,
gx 2
y   tan  0  x  4.85
2  v0 cos 0 
2

This is the equation of the path shown in Figure 4.18.

For simplicity in the derivation, we let xo  0 and yo  0 in Equations 4.83 and

4.84, respectively. Since g ,  o , and vo are constants, Equation 4.85 is of the form

y  ax  bx 2 , in which a and b are constants. This is the equation of a parabola, so

the path is parabolic.

The Horizontal Range

The horizontal range R of the projectile is the horizontal distance the projectile
has traveled when it returns to its initial (launch) height as shown in Figure 4.18.

92
To find the range R of the projectile, put x  x0  R in Equation 4.83 and

y  y0  0 in Equation 4.84, obtaining

x  x0  (v0 cos 0 )t  R 4.86

and
1 2
y  y0   v0 sin  0  t  gt  0 4.87
2
Eliminating t between Equations 4.86 and 4.87 yields
2v02
R sin  0 cos  0 4.88
g

Using the identity sin 2 0  2sin  0 cos  0 we obtain

v02
R  sin 20 4.89
g

Note that R has a maximum value when sin 2 0  1 , which corresponds to

2o  90 or  o  450 .

The horizontal range R is a maximum for a launch angle of 450.

We have assumed throughout that the air through which the projectile moves has
no effect on its motion, which is a reasonable assumption at low speeds. However,
at higher speeds, the disagreement between our calculations and the actual motion
of the projectile can be large because of air resistance offered to the motion.

Exercise 4

20. A driver moving with a velocity of 30.0ms -1 is approaching a traffic

light. The light turns yellow, and the driver applies the brakes and skids

93
 to a stop. If his acceleration is 8.00ms -2, determine the displacement of
the car during the skidding process. (Ans: 56.3m )

21. A car moving with a velocity of 15ms -1 accelerates uniformly at the rate
of 20ms-1. Find (i) the time taken (ii) the distance traveled in this time.
(Ans: [i] t = 2.5s, [ii] s = 43.75 )

22. A particle moves along a circular path of radius 3.0m with an angular
velocity of 20 rads-1. Calculate: (a) the linear speed of the particle (b) the
angular velocity in revolutions per second (c) the time for one
revolutions (d) the centripetal acceleration.
(Ans: [a] 60ms-1 , [b] 3.2revs-1 , [c] 0.31s , [d] 1.2  103ms-2 )

23. A particle of mass 0.2kg moves in a circular path with an angular

velocity of 5rads-1 under the action of a centripetal force of 4N. What is
the radius of the path? (Ans: 0.8m )

24. A particle of mass 0.20kg is attached to one end of a light inextensible

string of length 50cm. The particle moves in a horizontal circle with an
angular velocity of 5.0rads-1 with the string inclined at θ to the vertical.
Find the value of θ. (Ans: 37 o )

25. A flywheel with a moment of inertia of 5.0kgm 2 moves from rest

under the action of a torque of 3.0Nm. Find: (a) the angular acceleration
(b) the angular velocity after10 revolutions. (Ans: [a] 0.60rads-2 , [b]
8.7rads-1 )

94
26. A particle is moving with SHM of period 16s and amplitude 10m. Find
the speed of the particle when it is 6.0m from its equilibrium position.
(Ans: 3.1ms-1 )

27. A particle moving with SHM has a speed of 8.0ms-1 and an acceleration
of 12ms-2 when it is 3.0m from its equilibrium position. Find: (a) the
amplitude of the motion (b) the maximum velocity (c) the maximum
acceleration. (Ans: [a] 5.0m , [b] 10ms-1 , [c] 20ms-2 )

28. A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20 o and jumped a

distance of 7.94m. With what speed did he leave the ground?
(Ans: 11ms-1 )

29. A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20o to the horizontal and
at a speed of 11ms-1. (a) How far does he jump? (b) what is the
maximum height .(Assume that motion of the long jumper is equivalent
to that of a particle) (Ans: [a] 7.94m , [b] 0.722m )

95
 CHAPTER FIVE

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER.

Introduction
The term ‘work’ as understood in everyday life has a different meaning in
scientific sense. If a woman is carrying a load on his head and waiting for the
arrival of the bus, she is not performing any work in the scientific sense. In this
chapter, we shall look at the scientific meaning of the term ‘work’ which is
commonly used by ordinary people. In addition to this, we shall also discuss into
details the term ‘energy’. How many forms of energy are there? How is energy
related to work? What are the laws which govern energy?

Work
The physical meaning of the term work is entirely different from the meaning
attached to it in everyday life. In everyday life, the ‘work’ is considered to be
synonymous to ‘labour’, ‘toil’, ‘effort’ etc. In physics there is a specific way of
defining work.

Definition: Work is said to be done by a force when the force produces a

displacement in the body which it acts on in any direction except perpendicular to
the direction of the force.

96
For work to be done, the following two conditions must be fulfilled.
i. A force must be applied.
ii. The applied force must produce a displacement in any direction
except perpendicular to the direction of the force.
Suppose a force F is applied on a body in such a way that the body suffers
displacement S in the direction of the force. Then the work done is given by

W  F.S 5.1
However, the displacement does not always take place in the direction of the
force. Suppose a constant force F applied to a body produces a displacement S in
such a way that S is inclined to F at an angle  as shown Figure 5.1. Now the
work done will be given by the dot product of force and displacement defined as

W  component of force in the direction of displacement x magnitude of the

displacement.

W  F.S  FS cos   ( F cos  ) S 5.2

S Fcosθ
Figure 5.1 Force F acts on the object at an angle q
to the horizontal.

97
So, work is the product of the component of force in the direction of displacement
and the magnitude of the displacement.
In terms of vector components, F and S may be written as:

F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k 5.3

S  Sxi  S y j  Szk 5.4

F.S   Fx i  Fy j  Fzk   S xi  S y j  S zk  5.5

 Fx S x  i.i   Fx S y  i.j  Fx S z  i.k   Fy S x  j.i   Fy S y  j.j   Fy S z  j.k   Fz S x  k .i   Fz S y  k.j   Fz S z  k.k 

But i.j  i.k  j.i  j.k  k.i  k.j  0

and i.i  j.j  k.k  1

 F.S  Fx S x  Fy S y  Fz S z 5.6
Since work done is the dot product of two vectors it is therefore considered as a
scalar quantity.

Example 5.1. A ladder 3.0m long and weighing 200N has its center of gravity
1.2m from the bottom. At its top end is a 50N weight. Calculate the work required
to raise the ladder from a horizontal position on the ground to a vertical position.

Solution

The work done (against gravity) consists of two parts.

(1) The work done to raise the center of gravity of the ladder to a height of 1.2m.
(2) The work done to raise the weight at the end of the ladder through 3.0m.

98
The work done to raise the center of gravity of the ladder = 200N x 1.2m = 240 J.
The work done to raise the weight at the end of the ladder.= 50N x 3.0 =150 J
Total work done = 240 + 150 = 390 J.

Special Cases:

Case (i). When   900 , then W  FS cos 900  0 (since cos 900  0 )

So, work done by a force is zero if the body is displaced in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of the force.

90o
S
Figure 5.2
Example 5.2. Consider a body sliding over a smooth horizontal surface. The
work done by the force of gravity and the reactional force of the surface will be
zero. This is because both force of gravity and the reaction act normally to the
displacement.
The same argument can be applied to a man carrying a load on his head and
walking on a street.

99
Example 5.3. Consider a body moving in a circle with constant speed. At every
point on the circular path, the centripetal force and the displacement are mutually
perpendicular. So the work done by the centripetal force is zero. The same
argument can be applied to a satellite moving in a circular orbit. In this case, the
gravitational force is always perpendicular to the displacement. So, work done by
the gravitational force is zero.

Fc

Figure 5.3 A body moving in a circular path

Example 5.4. The tension in the string of a simple pendulum is always

perpendicular to the displacement. So, work done by the tension is zero.

Case (ii). When S  0 , then W  0 .

So, work done by a force is zero if the body suffers no
T
displacement on the application of a force.

Example 5.5: A man carrying a load on his head and S

standing at one place does no work. Figure 5.4 simple pendulum

Case (iii). When 0 0    90 0 , then cos  is positive .

Therefore, W  FS cos  is positive.

100
 F


S
Definition: Work done by 5.5
Figure a force is said to be positive if the applied force has a
component in the direction of the displacement.

Example 5.6. When a horse pulls a cart, the applied force and displacement are in
the same direction. So work done by the horse is positive.

Example 5.7. When a body is lifted, the lifting force and the displacement act in
the same direction. So work done is positive.

Example 5.8. When a spring is compressed, both the compressing force and the
displacement act in the same direction therefore work done is positive.

Case iv. When 90 0    180 0 , then cos  is negative. Therefore W  FS cos  is

negative.

Definition: Work done by a force is said to be negative if the applied force has a
component in a direction opposite to that of the displacement.

S
Figure 5.6

101
Example 5.9. When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the work done by the
braking force is negative. This is because the braking force and the displacement
act in opposite directions.

Example 5.10. When a body is dragged along a rough surface, the work done by
the friction force is negative.. This is because the frictional force acts in a
direction opposite to that of the displacement.

Example 5.11. When a body is lifted, the work done by the gravitational force is
negative. This is because the gravitational force acts vertically downwards while
the displacement is in the vertical upward direction.

Work done by a variable force

When the applied force varies both in magnitude and direction, then the total work
done by the variable force is calculated by integration as described below.

b
F

dS

a
Figure 5.7 A path taken by a variable force

102
Suppose the variable force displaces a body from position a to position b along a
curved path. Let us divide the path of the particle into a large number of
infinitesimally small displacements. Each displacement should be so small that
the force, during that displacement, may be regarded as constant.
Let dW be the small amount of work done in giving an infinitesimally small
displacement ds to the body. Let F be the corresponding force. Then,

dW  F.ds 5.7

The total work done Wab, on the body as it moves from a to b can be obtained by
adding up the elements of work done over each of the infinitesimally small
displacements between a and b. This can be done by integrating both sides of
Equation 5.7 to get

 dW   F.ds
or

Wab   Fds cos  5.8

or

Wab    F cos   ds 5.9

Equation 5.9 is the required expression for work done by a variable force.

Units of Work

103
Unit work is the amount of work done when a unit force displaces a body through
a unit distance in the direction of the force. So, the units of work will depend
upon the units of force and distance.

Absolute units of work. Work done is said to be one absolute unit if an absolute
unit of force moves a body through unit distance in the direction of the force.
In SI units, the absolute unit of work is joule (abbreviated as J).
One Joule of work is said to be done when a force of one Newton displaces a body
through one metre in its own direction.
1 joule  1newton 1metre

 1kg 1ms 2 1m

 1kgm2 s 2 or Nm . 5.10
Energy
It is the capacity or ability of a body to do work.
It is a scalar quantity. Its units and dimensions are the same as those of work.

Energy is of many types:- mechanical energy, sound energy, heat energy, light
energy, chemical energy, atomic energy, nuclear energy etc. The mechanical
energy is of two types –kinetic energy and potential energy.

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. It is

logical that a body moving with higher speed should possess more kinetic energy
than a body moving with lower speed.

104
Below are a few examples of bodies possessing kinetic energy.
(i) A ball in motion
(ii) A moving vehicle
(iii) Running water
(iv) Air in motion

Deriving expression for kinetic energy

Method 1.
Consider a body of mass m lying on a smooth horizontal surface as shown in
Figure 5.8. Let a constant force F displace this body in its own direction through
S . Let the velocity of the body, after traveling the distance S be v.

v=v
u =0

S
Figure 5.8 A force F displaces a body of mass m through a distance S

If W is the work done by the force, then

W  F.S  FS cos  5.11

Both the force and the displacement are in the same direction

  0
Therefore,
W  FS cos 0  FS 5.12

105
If a is the acceleration produced in the body, then

F
a 5.13
m
From v 2  u 2  2aS , with u  0

v  0  2aS so that
2 2

F
v  2   S and using Equation 5.12
2

m
1 2
FS  W  mv 5.14
2
This work done becomes the kinetic energy of the body. So, the kinetic energy of

1 2
a body of mass m moving with velocity v is W  mv
2

Calculus method.
If dW is the small work done in giving an infinitesimally small displacement ds
to the body, then
dW  F.ds
Here, F is the applied force. Suppose the force and the displacement have the same
direction, then,

dW  F.ds  Fds cos 0 5.15

Let m be the mass of the body and a its acceleration. Then F  ma and

dv
dW   ma  ds  m ds
dt

106
 ds
dW  m dv  mvdv 5.16
dt
Let W be the total work done in increasing the velocity from zero to v. Then,
v v v
 v2 
dW   mvdv  m  vdv  m  
0 0  2 0

 v2  1
W  m   0   mv 2 5.17
 2  2
This work done becomes the kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of a body is one
half the product of the mass of the body and the square of its speed. It is directly
proportional to the (i) mass m of the body and (ii) square of the velocity v of the
moving body
.
The velocity v may be acquired by the body in any manner. The kinetic energy of
a group of particles or bodies is the algebraic sum of the kinetic energies of the
individual particles. Consider a system consisting of n particles of masses
m1 , m2 ,......mn . Let v1 , v2 ,.......vn be their respective velocities. Then the total

kinetic energy Ek of the system is given by

1 1 1
Ek  m1 v12  m2 v 22  ..............  mn v n2 5.18
2 2 2
If m is measured in kg and v in ms 1 , then the kinetic energy is measured in
joule. It may be noted that the units of kinetic energy are the same as those of
work. In fact, this is true of all forms of energy since they are interconvertible.

107
Work-Energy Theorem
We know that dW  mvdv . If W is the work done in increasing the velocity from

v  0  to v , then

v v v
 v2 
dW   mvdv  m  vdv  m  
0 0  2 0

 v 2 02  1 1
W  m     mv 2  mo 2 5.19
 2 2 2 2

So, the work done on a body by a resultant force is equal to the increase or change
in the kinetic energy of the body. This is called the Work-Energy Theorem or
Work-Energy Principle.

Discussion of Work-Energy Theorem

(i) If there is no change in the speed of a particle, there is no change in
kinetic energy. So, work done by the resultant force is zero.

Example 5.12. When a particle moves with constant speed in a circle, there is no
change in the kinetic energy of the particle. So, according to the work-energy
principle, the work done by the centripetal force is zero.

(ii) If the kinetic energy of the body decreases, then the work done on the
body is negative. In this case, force and displacement are oppositely
directed i.e. the force opposes the motion of the body.
(iii) In the above discussion, it has been assumed that the work done by the
force is effective only in changing the kinetic energy of the body .

108
 However, it should be clearly noted that the work done on a body may
be stored in the body as potential energy.

Potential Energy
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position in a force field or by
its configuration.
Potential energy is also known as mutual energy or energy of configuration. The
energy of a system can be altered by the application of a force.
Basically there are three types of potential energy. They are
(i) gravitational potential energy
(ii) elastic potential energy
(iii) Electrostatic potential energy.

Examples of bodies possessing potential energy due to position

(i) water stored in a reservoir
(ii) lifted weight
(iii) object hanging in space

Examples of bodies possessing potential energy due to configuration

(i) The coiled spring of a watch or a door lock.
(ii) A stretched bow or an elastic material
(iii) Compressed or elongated spring.

109
Gravitational potential energy near the surface of earth
As we go higher above the surface of the earth, the value of acceleration due to
gravity decreases. But for those heights which are very small as compared to the
radius of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity g and hence the weight mg of a
body can be regarded as constant
Consider a body of mass m lying on the surface of the earth at a place where the
value of acceleration due to gravity is g . The weight mg of the body acts
vertically downwards. In order to lift the body, a force mg is required to be
applied in the upward direction. Let h be the height through which the body is
lifted. Work done W is given as
W  mg  h
This work done is stored in the body as gravitational energy. Therefore
gravitational potential energy is mgh . Strictly speaking, mgh is the gravitational
potential energy of earth-body system. The height h can be taken from any level.
The chosen level has to be fixed and considered as a reference level. The potential
energy at the reference level is understood to be zero.

Reference level
mg (Earth’s surface)

Figure 5.9 A body of mass m lying on the surface of the Earth has
110 gravitational potential energy stored in it.
 The potential energy at a point depends upon the reference level. However the
difference of potential energies between two points is independent of reference
level.

Conversion of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy

When a body falls from a certain height, its kinetic energy begins to increase.
The gain in kinetic energy is at the expense of the gravitational potential
energy. But the total mechanical energy remains conserved.

Consider a freely falling body of mass m to be at a position A. Let h be the height

of the body above the reference level which is close to the ground.

h B

vb
h-x

C
Reference level
vc
Figure 5.10 A body falling freely from a height h above a
reference level
111
At the position A
Kinetic energy of the body is zero (the body is stationary)
Potential energy of the body is mgh
Total energy of the body is mgh

At position B
Let the body be at the position B at any instant after having fallen through a
distance x. Potential energy of the body at B is
mg  h  x 

If vb is the velocity of the body at B, then from Newton’s third equation of motion

vb2  0 2  2 gx  vb2  2 gx

Kinetic energy of the body becomes

1 2 1
mvb  m  2 gx  mgx 5.20
2 2

The total energy of the body becomes

mg  h  x   mgx  mgh 5.21

At position C
When the body is at position C (just before impact with the ground), its height h
above the ground may be regarded as zero. The potential energy of the body at C
is zero.
If v c is the velocity with which the body just touches the ground, then

112
 vc2  0 2  2 gh  vb2  2 gh

The kinetic energy of the body then is

1 2 1
mvc  m  2 gh  mgh 5.22
2 2

Total energy of the body becomes mgh .

From the above deductions it is clear that the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of a freely falling body is constant at all stages of its motion. As the
body falls, its potential energy decreases while its kinetic energy increases.
However, the total mechanical energy is conserved.

Example 5.13. A ball of mass 1.5kg is thrown vertically upwards from the ground
with an initial velocity of 100ms-1. Calculate (a) the potential energy at a point A,
50m above the ground. (b) the kinetic energy at the point A. [assume g = 10ms-2]

Solution
Mass of ball,m = 1.5kg, initial velocity, u = 100ms-1, height above ground, h
= 50m.
(a) PE = mgh = 1.5 x 10 x 50 = 750 J
(b) To calculate the KE we have to first find the velocity of the ball at point A.
From Newton’s second equation of motion,
v2 = u2 + 2gh, but g = -10ms-2 (motion against gravity)
= 1002 + [2 x (-10) x 50] = 9000ms-1
1 1
KE  mv 2  x1.5 x9000  6750 J
2 2

113
Transformation of energy in vibrating simple pendulum
The conversion of energy from one form to another is called transformation of
energy. In the Figure 5.11 a vibrating simple pendulum is shown. O is the point of
suspension. When the centre of gravity of the bob is vertically below the point of
suspension, the position of the pendulum is called the rest position or mean

position or equilibrium position. Suppose the bob is displaced to the position E1 ,

and then released from this position, the pendulum will start vibrating between the

two extreme positions E1 and E2 .

E2 E1

Figure 5.11 A vibrating simple pendulum

When the bob moves from the mean position to the extreme position E1 , its centre
of gravity is raised vertically through a height h .

114
The potential energy of the body at the extreme position is mgh , where m is the
mass of the bob and g is the value of the acceleration due to gravity at the place
where the pendulum is suspended.
As the pendulum moves from the extreme position to the mean position, its
potential energy goes on decreasing while the kinetic energy goes on increasing.
However, the sum of the two energies is constant. At the mean position, the
whole of the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. If v be the velocity
of the bob at the mean position, then the Kinetic energy at the mean position is
1 2
mv
2
Applying the law of conservation of energy,

1 2
mgh  mv or v 2  2 gh 5.23
2

Practical application of conversion of gravitational potential energy into

kinetic energy.
The conversion of gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy has many
practical applications. The most important application is ‘hydroelectric power
generation’. A large amount of water is stored in dams which are built at high
levels. The water stored in the dam possesses a very large amount of gravitational
potential energy. When this water is made to run in the pipes, the gravitational
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Now the fast-moving water is
employed to run the turbines of the electric generators. This produces electrical
energy.

115
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
We consider the power of an agent doing work if the time taken to complete a
given amount of work is important to us.
The average power P delivered by any working device is given by

workdone W
P  5.24
time t
W is the work done in time t.

But W  F.S and velocity, v  S t

W F.S S
P   F.  F.v 5.25
t t t

From the definition of dot product, we can write

P  F.v  Fv cos  5.26
where  is the angle between F and v .
If both F and v are in the same direction, then   0 and
P  F.v  Fv cos 0  Fv 5.27
Instantaneous Power, P is the power of a working device at any instant.
Suppose a machine does an infinitesimally small amount of work dW in an
infinitesimally small time dt , then
dW F.ds ds
P   F.  F.v 5.28
dt dt dt
Therefore power of a working machine at any instant is equal to the dot product of
the applied force and the velocity at that instant.

116
The unit of power is joule per second ( J / s ) or watts ( W ).The power of a
machine is said to be one watt if it does one joule of work in one second.

Example 5.14. Find the work done in moving an object along a straight line from
(3, 2, -1) to (2, -1, 4) in a force field given by F = 4i – 3j +2k. Calculate the power
dissipated if it took 4s to move the object to its final position.

Solution
Work done = (Force field) . (Displacement vector)
= (4i – 3j +2k.) . [(2i – j + 4k) – (3i +2j – k)]
= (4i – 3j +2k.) . (-i – 3j + 5k)
= -4 + 9 + 10 = 15J
workdone 15
Power    3.75W
time taken 4

Exercise 5

30. A particle moving in the x-y plane undergoes a displacement d=(2.0 i

+3.0 j )m as a resultant force F=(5.0 i +3.0 j )N acts on the particle.
Calculate the workdone by F. (Ans: W=19J )

o
31. Calculate the workdone by a 2.0N force (directed at a 30 angle to the
vertical) to move a 500gram box a horizontal distance of 400cm across a
rough floor at a constant speed of 0.5ms-1. (Ans: W=4.0J )

32. How much work is done by an applied force to lift a15N block 3.0m
vertically at a constant speed? (Ans: 45J )

117
 33. A cart is loaded with a brick and pulled at constant speed along an
inclined plane to the height of a seat-top. If the mass of the loaded cart is
3.0kg and the height of the seat-top is 0.45m, then what is the potential
energy of the loaded cart at the height of the seat-top? (Ans: 13.2J )

34. A 900kg compact car moving at 60mi/hr has approximately 320000J of

kinetic energy. Estimate its new energy if it is moving at 30mi/hr.

(Ans: 80000J )

35. A platform diver had a kinetic energy of 1200J just prior to hitting the
surface of the water. If the diver has a mass of 40kg, what is her speed?
(Ans: 24.5ms-1 )

36. An escalator is used to move 20 passengers every minute from the first
floor of a department store to the second. The second floor is located
5.20m above the first floor. The average passenger’s mass is 54.9kg.
Determine the power requirement of the escalator in order to move this
number of passengers in this amount of time. (Ans: 933watts )

37. What is the power output of a cyclist moving at a steady speed of 5.0ms -1
along a level road against a resistance of 20N? (Ans: 1.0  102W )

38. A 15kg ball is thrown at a velocity of 20km/hr to a 60kg person who is

at rest on ice. The person catches the ball and subsequently slides with
the ball across the ice. Determine the velocity of the person and the ball
after the collision. (Ans: V=1.1ms-1 )

118
39. A 1kg ball moving at 12ms-1 collides head-on with a 2kg ball moving in
the opposite direction at 24ms-1. find the velocity of each after impact if:
(a) e=2/3 (b)the balls stick together.

(Ans: [a] V1= -28ms-1; V2= -4ms-1, [b] V= -12ms-1 )

119
 CHAPTER SIX

ELASTICITY

When an external force acts on a body which is not free to move, the molecules of
the body are shifted to new positions. This change results in the deformation of
the body because its size and shape changes. The applied force which caused
changes in the body is referred to as a deforming force. Some materials become
permanently deformed even when the deforming force has been removed. There
are certain materials which tend to recover their size and shape after the
deforming force has been removed. Such materials are called elastic materials
because the molecules tend to regain their original positions. Whenever a
deforming force is applied to an elastic body, an internal force or a restoring force
is set up in the body which acts in opposite direction to the deforming force.

Elasticity is the property of a material by virtue of which it regains its original

length, volume and shape after the deforming forces have been removed.

Stress

Stress is a measure of the strength of a force that is causing a deformation.

Stress is defined as the deforming force acting per unit area of a body. Its SI unit
is Nm-2.
Deforming Force
Stress  6.1
Cross sectional Area

120
(a) Tensile stress
In tensile stress the deforming force stretches the body in one direction. This
causes the body to increase in length. This is also known as longitudinal stress.
Consider a long wire fixed to a rigid support at one end as shown in Figure 6.1.
Let a deforming force F be applied normally outwards at the free end.

l l

Figure 6.1

Let us also assume that the wire extends a length l in the direction of the force.

Deforming Force
Then, Tensile stress  6.2
Cross sectional Area

(b) Compressional stress

It is the restoring force developed per unit cross sectional area of a body when the
body is compressed. The deforming force causes the length of the body to
decrease.

(c) Tangential or shearing stress

When the deforming force acts tangentially over an area of a body, it causes the
body to get sheared through an angle  . Such a deformation results from a
tangential stress.

121
(d) Hydrostatic or Bulk stress
In this type of stress, the deforming force acts uniformly and equally from all
sides of the body’s surface. Bulk stress causes the entire body’s size to decrease.

Strain
It is the fractional deformation resulting from a stress. This means that any type of
stress has a corresponding strain. Strain has no SI unit.

(a) Tensile or longitudinal strain

When the deforming force produces a change in length, then the strain becomes
the extension per unit length. Suppose that a wire of length l is stretched to a new
length l  l under stress. Then,

change in length l
Tensile strain   6.3
original length l

Therefore, within the elastic limit, tensile strain can be defined as the ratio of the
change in length to the original length.

(b) Shear strain

If the deforming force produces a change in the shape of a body, then the strain is
measured by the angle through which a line originally perpendicular to the fixed
plane is turned. Within the elastic limit, shear strain is measured by the ratio of the
relative displacement of one plane to its distance from the fixed plane.
So, shear strain can be defined as the relative displacement between two parallel
planes which are a unit distance apart.

122
(c) Bulk strain
When the deforming force produces a change in volume, then the strain becomes
the bulk strain. Suppose a body of volume V is compressed to a new volume
V  V under stress. Then,

change in volume V
Bulk strain   6.4
original volume V

Therefore, within the elastic limit, bulk strain can be defined as the ratio of the
change in volume to the original volume.

PLASTICITY
Plasticity is the property of a body remaining deformed even after the deforming
force has been removed.
Plastic bodies do not show any tendency to recover their original shape and size
when the force acting on them is removed. Forces exerted on plastic materials
cause dislocation in their crystal lattices. If a metal is deformed beyond its elastic
limit, it exhibits plastic behavior.

Hooke’s law
The law states that the extension is proportional to the force or tension in a wire if
the proportional limit is not exceeded.
Let us consider a wire supported at a fixed point as shown in Figure 6.2. When a
load is placed on the wire, it extends and the extension e is read as change in
length. Figure 6.3 shows a typical Stress –Strain graph if the thin wire is loaded
with increasing weights. From the graph, within region OA, the wire obeys
Hooke’s law. However a further increase in load increases the tension in the wire
123
until a point is reached where the proportionality limit is exceeded i.e., the wire
cannot return to its initial state or position when it is off-loaded. This is the yield
point which is indicated by kinks in the wire. A further increase in the load causes
plastic deformation where the wire stretches and increases in length permanently
and becomes thinner. Finally the wire breaks after reaching the breaking point
with more loads on the wire. The break is due to the inability of the tension in the
wire to support the applied load on the wire. The tensile stress in the wire is the
force per unit area. Tensile strain is extension per unit length. The modulus of
elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the material. From the graph, three
important mechanical properties can be obtained. (i) yield strength
(ii) tensile strength (iii) modulus of elasticity.

Tensile y S
stress
L OA= proportional limit
A L = elastic limit
B Thin wire
y = yield point
S = tensile strength
B = wire breaks
Oy= elastic deformation
yS= plastic deformation

0 Tensile strain
Figure 6.3 A typical Stress verses Strain graph

Loads

Figure 6.2

124
Young’s Modulus of elasticity
From Hooke’s law, within the elastic limit stress is proportional to strain.
That is, Force F  extension e .

F  ke 6.5

Dividing both sides of Equation 6.5 by the area A

F k
 e
A A
but the area A  l  l
F ke

A l l
F k e
stress  ,  constant , K , strain 
A l l
Therefore, stress  K  strain
Stress
Constant K  6.6
Strain
K is a constant known as Modulus of Elasticity.
If the change is an increase in length, then K becomes Young Modulus of
Elasticity denoted by Y .
Therefore, Young’s Modulus of Elasticity is defined as
Tensile Stress
Y  6.7
Tensile Strain
Mathematically,
F l F l
Y    6.8
A l A l
Note that Young’s Modulus applies to only solids.

125
Example 6.1. A prismatic bar with square cross section (20mm x 20mm) and
length L= 3.0m is subjected to an axial tensile force of 50kN. The measured
elongation of the bar is L= 1.5mm. Calculate the tensile stress and strain in the
bar. Hence find the Young’s modulus of the prismatic bar.

Solution

50kN

20mm
3.0m

Force 50kN
Tensile stress    125MPa
cross sectional Area (20 x 20)mm 2

elongation 1.5 x10 3 m

Tensile strain    5.0 x10  4
original length 3.0m

Tensile stress 125MPa

Young ' s modulus    25MPa
Tensile strain 5.0 x10  4

Shear Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity

If the deforming force produces a change in the shape of the body, then from
Equation 6.6, the constant K becomes Shear Modulus of Elasticity, which is
denoted by G .
Therefore Equation 6.6 becomes,
Shear Stress
G 6.9
Shear Strain
Let us consider a rectangular block with the front vertical face labeled QRST as
shown in Figure 6.4a. If a tangential force F is applied on the upper parts, say ST,
of the block, a reaction force will also be set up at the bottom face, QR. These two

126
tangential forces will cause the shape of the block to change but the volume will
be unaltered.

T T’ S S’
F
x
y

F
Q (a) R
(b)
Figure 6.4 Shear deformation of a rectangular
block by a tangential force
As you go up from the bottom each layer slides past the neighbor by the same
margin making the block to suffer a tangential shear.

Therefore, the shear stress is given by the tangential force per unit area as F A .

Also, the corresponding shear strain is given by the tangent of the angle of shear

as tan   x y where  is the angular displacement from the initial position.

Shear Stress F x F y
G     6.10
Shear Strain A y A x

So, the Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of the shear
stress to the shear strain.
Note that Shear Modulus applies to solids and liquids.

127
Bulk Modulus

Bulk Modulus applies to a change in volume of a body if a deforming force acts

uniformly over the surface of the body. Suppose we apply a force normally and
uniformly over an area of a sphere of volume V such that the volume decreases by
V . In this case there will be no change in shape of the sphere. Such a uniform
pressure acting normally to the entire surface of the body is termed Hydrostatic
pressure.

P V

Figure 6.5 A uniform pressure acting normally

to the entire surface of the body

Considering the volume change, the constant K in Equation 6.6 becomes the Bulk
Modulus of elasticity.
Therefore, Bulk Modulus of elasticity is,
Bulk Stress
K . 6.11
Bulk Strain
The pressure applied to compress the body is called the Bulk Stress which is given

by P  F A .

128
The corresponding fractional change in volume is called the Bulk strain and it is

 V 
given by    . The negative sign denotes the decrease in volume.
 V 

Bulk Stress F V F V P
K      6.12
Bulk Strain A V A V V
V
So, the Bulk Modulus is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric
strain.
Note that the Bulk Modulus applies to all phases of matter.

Exercise 6

40. A metal wire 75cm long and 0.13cm in diameter stretches 0.035cm when
a load of 8.0kg is hung on its end. Find the stress, the strain, and the
Young’s modulus (Y) for the material of the wire.
(Ans: stress=5.91  107Pa; strain=4.67  10-4; y=127GPa )

41. A solid cylindrical steel column is 4.0m long and 9.0cm in diameter.
What will be its decrease in length when carrying a load of 80,000kg?
Y=1.9  1011Pa (Ans: Δ L=2.6mm )

42. A 60Kg woman stands on a light, cubical box that is 5cm on each edge.
The box sits on the floor. What pressure does the box exerts on the
floor? (Ans: P=240kPa )

43. An iron rod 4m long and 0.5cm2 in cross section stretches 1mm when a
mass of 225kg is hung from its lower end. Compute Young’s modulus
for the iron. (Ans: 176GPa )

129
 44. Find the density and specific gravity of ethyl alcohol if 63.3g occupies
80.0mL. (Ans: 791kgm-3; 0.791)

45. A load of 50kg is applied to the lower end of a steel rod 80cm long and
0.60cm in diameter. How much will the rod stretch? Y=190GPa for
steel. (Ans: 73μm )

46. Compute the volume change of a solid copper cube, 40mm on each
edge, when subjected to a pressure of 20MPa. The bulk modulus for
copper is 125GPa. (Ans:
-10mm3 )

10. The compressibility of water is 5  10-10m2/N. find the decrease I volume

of 100mL of water when subjected to a pressure of 15MPa.

(Ans: 0.75mL)

11 A body of mass 2kg is attached to the end of a vertical wire of length 2m

and diameter 0.64mm and the extension is 0.60mm. Calculate (a) tensile
stress (b) tensile strain (c) Young Modulus (E) [Take g = 9.8ms-2]

12. A vertical wire is suspended from one end . a weight of 20N is attached to
the other end to stretch the wire. If the weight extends the wire by 1mm,
calculate the energy gained by the wire.

13. If a force of 100N stretches a string by 0.1cm, find (a) the elastic constant
(b) the work done in stretching the string 0.3cm if the elastic limit is not
exceeded.

130
 14. A uniform steel wire has cross sectional area 3mm2 and length 10m. A
mass of 10kg is attached at one end. If the Young Modulus (E) of the
steel is 10-2Nm-2, calculate the extension produced. [Take g = 9.8ms-2]
CHAPTER SEVEN

FLUIDS

States of Matter
Macroscopic matter is usually classified into three states or phases: solids, liquids,
and gases. Solids tend to hold their shapes. Unlike solids, liquids and gases do not
hold their shapes. A liquid flows and takes the shape of its container and a gas
expands to fill its container. We can think of liquids as incompressible, that is, as
having a fixed volume that is impossible to change. The shape of the liquid can be
changed by pouring it from a container of one shape into a container of a different
shape, but the volume of the liquid is the same.
Liquids and gases are both called fluids. Fluid atoms or molecules can move
around fairly freely and that contributes to the range of shared properties. They
are easily deformed by external forces. Before considering their behavior at rest
(or whether moving) certain basic properties need to be defined. This chapter
deals mainly with these properties that are common to both liquids and gases. The
atoms or molecules in a fluid do not have fixed positions, so a fluid does not have
a definite shape. Thus there are still difficulties in defining what a fluid is or is
not. Even diamond can be made to flow like soft wax at a high enough pressure
(>1.7x1011Pa). It is easier to define a fluid as an aggregate of atoms that do not
significantly resist shearing.

Liquids

131
In most liquids, the atoms or molecules are almost as closely packed as those in
the solid phase of the same material. The intermolecular forces in a liquid are
almost as strong as those in solids, but the molecules are not locked in fixed
positions as they are in solids. In liquids the molecules tend to move to and fro
(vibrate) about a certain equilibrium position. That is why the volume of the liquid
can remain nearly constant while the shape is easily changed. Water is one of the
exceptions: in cold water, the molecules in the liquid phase are actually more
closely packed than those in the solid phase (ice).

Gases
Gases, on the other hand, cannot be characterized by a definite volume or by a
definite shape. A gas expands to fill its container and can easily be compressed.
Hence Gases are much more compressible than liquids. The molecules in a gas
are very far apart compared to the molecules in liquids and solids. The molecules
are almost free of interactions with each other except when they collide. As with
many branches in physics there is the study of
1. Statics of fluids (known as Hydrostatics)
2. Dynamics of fluids (known as Hydrodynamics).

Hydrostatics
A static fluid does not flow; it is everywhere at rest. In the study of fluid statics
(hydrostatics), we also assume that any solid object in contact with the fluid
whether a vessel containing the fluid or an object submerged in the fluid is at rest.
The atoms or molecules in a static fluid are not themselves static but are
continuously moving.

132
Density
A fluid exerts a pressure on all bodies immersed in it. For a fluid at rest the
difference in pressure between two points in it depends only upon the density of
the fluid and the difference in depth between the two points. We define density ρ
as
mass
density 
volume
m
 ,
V
m  V 7.1
The SI unit of density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3). Density is the
measure of compactness of a substance; the greater the density, the more matter or
mass per unit given volume.

Relative Density
Relative density (or Specific Gravity) of a material or substance is the ratio of its
density to that of water and is therefore a pure number.
Relative density = density of material/density of water

Pressure in fluids: Liquids

When the concept of hydrostatic fluid was introduced above, the weight of the
fluid was neglected and the pressure was assumed to be the same everywhere. We
can generalize the definition of pressure and define pressure at any point as the
ratio of the uniform perpendicular force exerted on a small area dA as
F dF
p  ,
A dA

133
 dF  pdA 7.2

F
Figure 7.1

If the force acts at an angle θ to the surface and the pressure is the same at all
points of a finite plane of surface area A (see Figure 7.1), then Equation 7.2
reduces to the following
F F cos
p   ,
A A
 F cos   pA 7.3
It is well observed however, that atmospheric pressure is greater at sea level than
at mountain altitudes and that the pressure in a lake or the ocean increases with
depth. Since a liquid is nearly incompressible, its density does not change
significantly with increasing depth. Therefore, the increase in pressure is caused
solely by the increase in depth. So let’s try and find how pressure in a fluid varies
with depth by considering a rectangular column of water as shown in Figure 7.2

134
The force acting on the bottom of the container below the column is equal to the

m
weight of the fluid making the column: F  w  mg , since the density   , the
V
mass of the column is equal to the density times the volume; that is m  V (here
the fluid is considered to be incompressible, so ρ is constant).

w   ( Ah) g
A
A

h h

m
m
g
g
Figure 7.2
Volume of column = weight of column x base area of column
 V  hA .
We can therefore write
F  w  mg  Vg  ghA 7.4

From Equation 7.3 with p  F

A , the pressure at the depth h due to the weight of
the water column is
p  gh 7.5
where, using SI units, p is the hydrostatic pressure (in Pascal), ρ is the water
density (in kilograms per cubic meter), g is gravitational acceleration (in meters

135
per second squared), h is the height of fluid column (in meters). The above
equation holds for incompressible fluids. The pressure is the same everywhere on
a horizontal plane at a depth h (with ρ and g constant). The derivation of Equation
7.5 did not take into account the constant pressure being applied at the open end
of the vessel. This factor adds to the pressure at the depth h to give a total pressure
of
p  p 0  gh  p a  gh 7.6
where p 0 or p a is most often the atmospheric pressure for open end containers.
p0  p a  1atm  1.01325  10 5 kPa  1.01325  10 5 N / m 2 7.7
The 1atm unit is a unit called a standard atmosphere and this exerts a pressure
equivalent to a column of mercury 76 cm high at sea level when the temperature is
0°C. So we can state any pressure in atmospheric units.

We can further find the general relation between pressure p at any point in a fluid
of density ρ in a gravitational field and at an elevation of the point y (this point
can either be in terms of altitude or depth).

(p+dp)A

dy
thickness,
dy
pA
y
ρ dw

136
y=0
Figure 7.3 Open vessel containing fluid of density ρ.
Consider the volume element of a thin slab of fluid as shown in Figure 7.3. The
thickness of the slab is dy and the area of the surfaces on which the perpendicular
forces act is A. If ρ is the density of the fluid, the mass of the volume element dw
is gAdy . The force exerted on the element by the surrounding fluid is
everywhere perpendicular to its surface. By symmetry, the resultant of the
horizontal forces on its vertical sides is zero. The upward force on its lower face is

pA, and the downward force on its upper surface is  p  dp  A . Since the volume
element is in equilibrium,
F y  0 and

pA  ( p  dp ) A  gAdy  0 7.8
Therefore
dp
  g 7.9
dy

Since ρ and g are both positive quantities, it follows that if the change dy is
positive (elevation is increased) it is accompanied by a negative change dp
(decrease in pressure).

Pressure in Fluids: Gases

The variations in pressure of a gas are more complicated. For example, since air
has such a low density compared to a liquid, a change in its pressure is only
measurable between points that have a great height difference. The air pressure in
a typical room is the same everywhere, but it is noticeably lower at the top of a

137
mountain than at sea level. Because air is a gas, it is compressible. Its density
decreases with increasing altitude. Thus changes in air pressure depend upon both
the variations in the density of air and changes in the altitude at which it is
measured. These two factors combine to reduce the air pressure at an altitude of
5,500 m (18,000 ft) to one half its value at sea level. Atmospheric (air) pressure at
sea level will support a column of mercury that is about 76 cm (30 in.) high. The
exact height varies with the weather.
If p1 and p2 are the pressures corresponding to pressure values at the elevations y1
and y2 above some reference point respectively (shown in Figure 7.4), then
p 2  p1   g ( y 2  y1 ) 7.10

p2  pa 2

y 2  y1  h
h
1
p1
y1

y0
Figure 7.4

Measuring Pressure
There are other units for pressure apart from the Pascal and the Atmosphere.
Weather services report atmospheric pressure in bars or millibars. Television

138
weather reports and some Laboratory barometers measure pressure in inches of
mercury. Blood pressure is also measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and
this is also called Torr. The question on some minds now is how pressure (which
is force per unit area) can be equal to distance (mm). We will gain more insight
into the use of distance to represent pressure when we study the mercury
manometer.
Units of pressure:
1atm  101.3kPa  1.013bar  14.7 Ib / in 2  760.0mmHg  760.0torr  29.9inHg

Note that Ib/in2 is pounds per square inch.

Manometer

A mercury manometer is made up of a vertical U-shaped tube, containing some

mercury, with one side typically open to the atmosphere and the other connected
to a vessel containing a gas whose pressure we want to measure. Figure 7.5 shows
a manometer connected to a vessel. Before the vessel containing a gas of pressure
p was connected to the U-shaped tube, both sides were open to the atmosphere
resulting in the mercury levels being the same. If the gas is at a higher pressure
than the atmosphere, the gas will push the mercury down on the left hand side and
forces the mercury up on the right hand side. The pressure at the bottom of the
column B is p1  gy1  p  gy1 , whilst that at the bottom of the right hand
column (at B1 at same level as B) is p 2  gy 2  p a  gy 2 , where ρ is the density
of the manometric liquid and since these pressures must be equal we have
p1  gy1  p 2  gy 2 and
p1  p 2  g ( y 2  y1 )  gh 7.11

139
where h   y2  y1 

Given p1  p, p 2  p a we can write

p  p a  gh 7.12

Gas with
pressure p

p2  pa
C

h  y 2  y1

y2
B
B’
p1  p

y1

Figure 7.5 A mercury manometer

The pressure p is called absolute pressure, whilst the difference is called the gauge
pressure (this is what most gauges measure). Thus the gauge pressure is directly
proportional to the difference in height of the liquid column. This difference in
mercury levels is commonly reported in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).

140
Barometer

p2  0

h
y2
p1  p a

y1

Figure 7 .6 A Barometer

Any instrument that measures air pressure is called a barometer. The first
measurement of atmospheric pressure began with a simple experiment performed
by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. In his experiment, a tube, sealed at one end, was
immersed in a container of mercury (Figure 7.6 ). Atmospheric pressure then
forces the mercury up into the tube to a level that was considerably higher than the
mercury in the container. It was determined from this experiment that the pressure
of the atmosphere is approximately 76 centimeters (so the tube should be of
length greater than 76cm). We will also notice that the height of the mercury
varies with changes in outside weather conditions.

141
Pascal's law
Due to an ability to resist deformation, fluids exert pressure normal to any
contacting surface. In addition, when the fluid is at rest (static) that pressure is
isotropic, i.e. it acts with equal magnitude in all directions. This characteristic
allows fluids to transmit force through the length of pipes or a tube, i.e., a force
applied to a fluid in a pipe is transmitted, via the fluid, to the other end of the pipe.
If the force is unequal, the fluid will move in the direction of the resulting force.
This concept was first formulated, in a slightly extended form, by the French
mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal and would later be known as
Pascal's law. This law has many important applications in hydraulics. It states
that:
‘The pressure in a fluid in equilibrium is the same everywhere if the effect of
gravity can be neglected.’
In other words: in a static connected fluid, pressure is the same at points at the
same depth. We should be able to find the pressure as a function of depth in an
incompressible fluid. Pressure acts in all directions, normal to any surface
immersed in the fluid. Pascal’s principle can also be experienced also on the basis
of the operation of a hydraulic lever.
In the hydraulic lever operation, a force F1 is directed downward on the left-
hand piston, whose surface area is A1. An incompressible liquid in the device
produces an upward force of magnitude F2 on the right hand piston, whose surface
area is A2. To keep the system in equilibrium, there must be a downward force of
magnitude F0 on the output piston from an external load. The force F1 applied

142
on the left and the downward force F0 from the load on the right produces a
change Δp in the pressure of the fluid and that is given by
F1 F2
p  
A1 A2

A2
 F2  F1 7.13
A1

F1 F2

d2
A1 A2

d1

F0

Figure 7.7 A hydraulic lever

Equation 7.13 shows that the output Force F2 on the load must be greater than the
input force F1 if A2 > A1 as in the case of Figure 7.7. If the input piston is
moved downwards a distance d1, the output piston moves upwards a distance d2,
such that the same volume V of the incompressible liquid is displaced at both
pistons. Then
V  A1 d 1  A2 d 2 7.14
which we can write as

143
 A1
d 2  d1 7.15
A2

This shows that, if A2 > A1 (as in Figure 7.7), the output piston moves a smaller
distance than the input piston (  d1  d 2 ). From Equations 7.13 and 7.15 we write
the output work as
A2 A
W  F2 d 2  ( F1 )(d 1 1 )  F1 d 1 7.16
A1 A2

Equation 7.16 shows that the work done W on the input piston by the applied
force is equal to the work done W by the output piston in lifting the load placed on
it.
Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle
If a body is immersed in a fluid it seems to have less weight than when immersed
in air. This phenomenon is buoyancy. When a body’s average density is less than
that of the fluid it floats or partially submerges at the free upper surface of the
fluid. If the body is fully submerged and it is at rest with the entire fluid then all
the forces on it cancel out or their sum is zero.

Fb

Fg  m f g

Figure 7.8 The buoyant force Fb acts

upwards and the weight downwards.

144
The forces acting on such a body (shown in Figure 7.8) are the net upward
buoyant force Fb which equals the weight m f g of the displaced liquid, where m f
is the mass of fluid displaced by the submerged body.
Fb  m f g 7.17
In other words
‘When a body is fully or partially submerged in a fluid, a buoyant force, F b from
the surrounding fluid acts on the body. The force is directed upward and has a
magnitude equal to the weight mg of the fluid that has been displaced by the
body’
The above statement is known as Archimedes principle.

Hydrodynamics
Fluid dynamics (or hydrodynamics) is the study of moving fluids. One difference
between moving fluids and static fluids is that a moving fluid does exert a force
parallel to any surface over or past which it flows. Since the fluid moving exerts a
force on the surface over which it is moving, by Newton’s 3rd law of motion the
surface will also exert an equal but opposite force to the moving fluid. The
opposing force is called the viscous force which opposes the flow of the fluid.

Viscosity
All real fluids in nature have an internal resistance to flow therefore an external
force must act on a viscous fluid to keep it flowing. The force must be exerted to
cause one layer of fluid to slide past another, or cause one surface to slide past
another if there is a layer of fluid between the surfaces. Both gases and liquids
145
exhibit viscosity although liquids are more viscous than gases. The simplest flow
of a viscous fluid is the flow between two parallel plates as shown in Figure 7.9.
v d d c c

a b
F
Figure 7.9 Laminar flow of a viscous fluid.

The bottom plate is stationary whilst the top plate moves with constant speed v. It
would be found that the fluid in contact with each has the same speed as that
surface thus at the top the fluid has speed of v whilst the fluid at the bottom is at
rest. The speeds of the middle layers of fluid increase uniformly from one surface
to the other. The flow of this type is called laminar flow. The layers of fluid slide
over each other and as a consequence of this motion, a parcel of the fluid that has
shape abcd will moments later have the shape abc d  and thus become more
distorted as the motion continues. This implies that the fluid is in a continuous
state of increasing shear strain. In order for the motion to be maintained, a
constant force must be exerted to the right of the moving upper surface plate and
indirectly to the upper surface fluid. This force tends to drag the layers of the fluid
and the lower surface plate to the right. Therefore an equal but opposite force
must be exerted on the lower surface plate to make it stationary. The force is
labeled F in Figure 7.9 and if A is the surface area of the plates then the ratio
F / A is the shear stress exerted on the fluid. When shear stress is applied to a

146
solid a displacement occurs such as dd  in Figure 7.9. The shear strain is defined
as the ratio of this displacement to the transverse dimension, l and within elastic
limits the shear stress is proportional to the shear strain. With the fluid on the
other hand, the shear strain increases without limit so long as the stress is applied
and the stress is found by experiment not to depend on the shear strain but on its
rate of change. The strain in Figure 7.9 (at the moment the parcel of fluid has the
shape abc d  ) is dd  ad or dd  l . Since l is constant, the rate of change of
strain equals 1 l times the rate of change of dd  . But the rate of change of dd 
is simply the rate of change of point d  , i.e. the speed v of the moving plate. Thus
v
Rate of change of shear strain = .
l
The rate of change of shear strain is sometimes referred to simply as the strain
rate. The coefficient of viscosity of the fluid (or in other words viscosity η) is
defined as the ratio of the shear stress F / A to the rate of change of shear strain.
shear stress F A
η=  7.18
rate of change of shear strain v l

or
v
F  A 7.19
l
Viscosities of gases at ordinary pressures and temperatures are much smaller than
those of common liquids. Viscosities of all fluids are markedly dependent on
temperature, increasing for gases and decreasing for liquids as the temperature is
increased. An important consideration in the design of lubricating oils is to reduce
as much as possible the temperature variation of viscosity.

147
Viscous drag
When an object moves through a fluid, the fluid exerts a drag force on it. When
the relative velocity between the object and the fluid is low enough for the flow
around the object to be laminar, the drag force derives from viscosity and is called
viscous drag. The viscous drag force is proportional to the speed of the object. For
larger relative speeds, the flow becomes turbulent and the drag force is
proportional to the square of the object's speed.

Figure 7.10

The viscous drag force depends also on the shape and size of the object. For a
spherical object, the viscous drag force is given by Stokes's law, F  6vr ,
where r is the radius of the sphere,  is the viscosity of the fluid, and v is the
speed of the object with respect to the fluid. An object's terminal velocity is the
velocity that produces just the right drag force so that the net force is zero. An
object falling at its terminal velocity has zero acceleration, so it continues moving
at that constant velocity. Using Stokes's law, we can find the terminal velocity of a
spherical object falling through a fluid. When the object moves at terminal
velocity, the net force acting on it is zero. If the object sinks, the terminal velocity
is downward and the viscous drag force acts upward to oppose the motion. For an

148
object, such as a helium balloon in air or an air bubble in oil, that rises rather than
sinks, the terminal velocity is upward and the drag force is downward.

Stokes law-Motion in a fluid

For a flowing fluid slowing past a stationary solid sphere as shown in Figure 10b,
when the sphere moves slowly instead of the fluid, the fluid flow patterns are to
that of a fluid moving past a stationary solid sphere. The layers of fluid in contact
with the moving sphere moves, creating a velocity gradient between this layer and
other layers of the fluid. Viscous forces are thereby brought into play and they
result in resistance experienced by the moving sphere. The viscous retarding force
F depends on (1) the viscosity η of the fluid (2) the velocity v and the radius r of
the solid sphere. Experiments first done by the English scientist Stokes gives the
retarding force on the sphere as
F  6vr 7.20
Equation 7.20 is known as Stokes law and holds only for steady motion in a fluid
of infinite extent (otherwise the walls and the bottom of the container will affect
the resisting force). In steady motion or flow, the velocity of the fluid at any point
is constant in time. Now let us consider a sphere falling vertically under its
weight in a viscous fluid as shown in Figure 7.11.
There are three forces acting on the sphere:
(i) its weight, W acting downwards
(ii) the upthrust, U (upward buoyant force due to the weight of fluid
displaced by the sphere) acting upwards and
(iii) F drag (derived from
the viscous U Stokes’ law). F
U

Fluid of 149
viscosity, η
W W
 Figure 7.11

F  W  U  F  ma 7.21
The resultant downward force equals W-U-F and causes the sphere to accelerate
until its velocity and viscous drag reach certain values such that when  is its
density, the mass is
4 4
m     r 3   r 3 7.22
3 3
and
F  W  U  F  0 7.23

so that the sphere then begins to fall with a constant velocity known as the
terminal velocity vt. Now we find expressions for W, U and F to substitute in
Equation 7.23. The weight W is given as
W  mass  m   acceleration( g ) 7.24

But mass of sphere  density of sphere  volume of sphere .

4 3 4
W  mg  r   g  r 3g 7.25
3 3
where σ is the density of the sphere. By Archemedes principle, the upthrust U is
given by
U   mass m of fluid displaced by sphere    acceleration g  7.26
But
mass of fluid displaced by sphere  density of fluid  volume of fluid displaced by sphere

4 4
 m     r3   r3 7 .27
3 3
150
Then the upthrust,
4 3
U  r g 7.28
3
where ρ is the density of the fluid. To find the drag force F, we apply Stokes’ Law
by assuming steady fluid flow when the sphere falls with the terminal velocity vt
F  6rvt 7.29

Hence
4 3 4
r g  r 3 g  6rvt  0 7.30
3 3
2r 2 (   ) g
 vt  7.31
9

Experiment to find the viscosity η of a fluid

In a laboratory experiment you are given metals of the same material but of
different radii r1 , r2 , r3 ,  etc and you’re asked to drop a long graduated
cylindrical tube containing a viscous fluid (e.g. glycerine) and then take
measurements of the times t1 , t 2 , t 3 ,  etc respectively of the descent of the balls
from a marked level on the cylinder. We then calculate for each radii
r1 , r2 , r3 ,  rn the corresponding terminal velocities

x x x x
v1  , v 2  , v3   , v n  , we then plot v against r2. The slope of the graph
t1 t2 t3 tn

is given by
v 2(   ) g
Slope   7.32
r 2 9
Making η (viscosity) the subject we have

151
 2(   ) g
 7.33
9  slope

With the density of the sphere, σ and density of the liquid ρ given (or calculated)
and g known we can then calculate the viscosity η of a given fluid. If the velocity
of the sphere in the liquid reaches a critical velocity vc, the flow breaks up and
form eddies as shown in Figure 7.4

Figure 7.12 If v (velocity of the sphere)  vc (critical velocity),

the flow breaks up and form eddies

At velocities greater than the critical velocity the drag increases rapidly and then
becomes approximately proportional to the square of the velocity which is given
by
C  Av 2
Drag  7.34
2
where A is the cross-sectional area of the body normal to its velocity v , ρ is the
fluid density and the drag coefficient C has a numerical value between 0 and 1.
From Stokes’ law we gather that the resistance is proportional to the velocity of
the sphere moving through the fluid. Note that for turbulent flow the resistance is
dependent on the density of the fluid but not the viscosity of the fluid. To reduce
drag and turbulence, bodies are streamlined (see Figure 7.12) by changing its

152
shape. The drag and resistance are then reduced at a particular speed because
steady flow replaces the turbulent flow. This modification to moving bodies in
fluid is called streamlining. Streamlining is particularly important in the design
of high-speed aircraft.

Poiseuilles Law
Viscosity makes analyzing fluid flow difficult. For example, when a fluid flows
through a pipe, there is frictional drag between the liquid and the walls and the
fluid velocity is greater toward the center of the pipe. This effect makes a
difference in the average flow rate Q (which we will derive later) of the fluid
which is given by
r 4 p
Q 7.35
8L

where Q  Av  V
t is the volume flow rate, Δp is the pressure difference
between the ends of the pipe, r and L are the inner radius and length of the pipe
respectively, and η is the viscosity of the fluid. Equation 7.35 is the Poiseuille’s
law. The SI unit of flow rate is cubic meters per second (m 3/s). The question is
why is there such a strong dependence on radius? The answer is: First of all, if
fluids are flowing through two different pipes at the same speed, the volume flow
rates are proportional to radius squared (flow rate = speed multiplied by cross-
sectional area). But, in viscous flow, the average flow speed is larger for wider
pipes, fluid farther away from the walls can flow faster. It turns out that the
average flow speed for a given pressure gradient is also proportional to radius
squared, giving the overall fourth power dependence on the pipe radius in

153
Poiseuille's law. The strong dependence of flow rate on radius is important in
blood flow.

Derivation of Poiseuille’s law

(a)

Fluid flow

p1r 2 p 2r 2

Viscous forces
L r

r
R

(b) (c)
Figure 7.13

Let us consider the variation of velocity of a fluid with radius for a cylindrical
pipe or tube with inner radius R . We can also consider the flow of a cylindrical
element of fluid coaxial with the pipe or tube of radius r and length L as shown in

Figure 7.13. The force on the left end of the inner tube is p1r 2 (Force = Pressure

x Area) and that on the right end p 2r 2 . The resultant force is thus

F  p1r 2  p 2r 2  ( p1  p 2 )r 2 7.36

154
Since the elemental volume does not accelerate, this force must balance the
viscous retarding force at the surface of the volume element. This means that
Equation 7.19 must be equal to Equation 7.36 but since the velocity does not vary
uniformly with distance from the center, we must replace v / L in this expression
by dv dr , where dv is the small change in velocity when we go from a distance
of r to r  dr from the axis. The area over which the viscous force acts is
A  2rL . Thus the viscous force is
dv
F   2rL 7.37
dr
Equating Equation 7.36 to Equation 7.37, the resultant force due to the pressure
on the ends is
dv
F   2rL  ( p1  p 2 )r 2 7.38
dr
Rearranging we have
dv ( p  p 2 )r
 1 7.39
dr 2L

The negative sign indicates that the viscous force acts in the direction opposite to
that of the pressure gradient force which is driving the fluid motion. This
translates that as r increases v decreases. The above equation also shows that
velocity changes rapidly as we go away from the center (or the axis where r  0 )
to the inner pipe or tube wall (where r  R ). Rearranging again we have
( p1  p 2 )
 dv  dr 7.40
2L

Integrating Equation 7.40 gives

155
 0
( p1  p 2 ) R
  dv 
2L r
rdr 7.41
v

and
( p1  p 2 ) 2
v (R  r 2 ) 7.42
4L

This means that the velocity decreases from a maximum value of

( p1  p 2 ) R 2 4L at the center or axis to zero at the wall. Thus the maximum
velocity is proportional to the square of the pipe or the tube radius and also
proportional to the pressure change per unit length ( p1  p 2 ) L , so that the total
flow rate must also be proportional to this quantity. Let us consider the thin-
walled element in Figure 7.13. The elemental volume of the fluid dV crossing the
ends of the element in a time dt is v dA dt where v is the velocity of the fluid at
the radius r and dA is the shaded area which equals 2πrdr. From Equation 7.42
we have
( p1  p 2 ) 2
dV  ( R  r 2 )2rdrdt 7.43
4L

The volume flowing across the entire cross-section is obtained by integrating over
all elements between r  0 and r  R
 ( p1  p 2 ) R 2
dV 
2L 
0
( R  r 2 )drdt 7.44

 R 4 p1  p 2
 dV  ( )dt 7.45
8  L

The total volume flow per unit time Q  dV dt is given by

dV R 4 p
Q  7.46
dt 8L

156
where Δp is the pressure difference ( p1  p 2 ) from Equation 7.45. The volume
flow rate is inversely proportional to viscosity (η), it is proportional to the
pressure gradient ( p L) along the pipe and it varies to the fourth power of the
radius R . If the radius is say halved, the flow rate is reduced by a factor of 16.

Reynolds Number
When the velocity of a fluid flowing in a tube exceeds a certain critical value
(which depends on the properties of the fluid and the diameter of the tube), the
nature of the flow becomes extremely complicated. Within a very thin layer
adjacent to the tube walls (which we call the boundary layer) the flow is still
laminar. The velocity of the fluid flow in the boundary layer is zero at the tube
walls and increases throughout the layer. The properties of this boundary layer are
necessary for understanding the transfer of heat to or from the moving fluid and in
determining the resistance to the flow of the fluid. Beyond the boundary layer the
flow or the motion of the fluid parcels are highly irregular. The random local
circular currents are called vortices and they develop within the fluid, with large
increase in the resistance to flow. The fluid flow of this type is called turbulent.
Experiments have shown that a combination of four factors determines whether a
flow through a pipe or a tube is laminar or turbulent. This combination of factors
is known as Reynolds number, N R and is defined as
vD
NR  7.47


where ρ is the density, v is the average forward velocity, η the viscosity of the
fluid and D is the diameter of the tube. The average velocity is defined as the
uniform velocity over the entire cross-section of the tube which would result in
the same volume rate of flow. The Reynolds number vD  is a dimensionless
157
quantity and it has the same numerical value in any constituent system of units.
The Reynolds number of a system forms the basis of the study of the behavior of
real systems through the use of small scale models. A common example is the
wind tunnel, in which one measures the aerodynamic forces on a scale model of
an aircraft wing. The forces on a full size wing are then deduced from the
measurements. Two systems are said to be dynamically similar if their Reynolds
numbers are the same. The letter D may defer, in general to any dimension of a
system, such as the span or chord of an aircraft wing. Thus the flow of fluid of
given density ρ and viscosity η, about half-scale model, is dynamically similar to
that around the full-size object if the velocity v is twice as great.

Fluid flow Types

Fluids in motion leads to Poiseuille’s Law and is exemplified in the types of fluid
flow. This leads to the treatment of turbulent effects of fluid and to the study of
Non-Newtonian fluids. In the study of fluid dynamics it is simple to classify fluid
flow in terms of the following properties of the fluid: (i) steady flow
(ii) irrotational flow (iii) non-viscous flow and (iv) incompressible flow. Fluid
flow can also be described as laminar, turbulent or a mixture of both.

Laminar flow
This is a flow pattern where all the particles in the fluid follow the same line of
flow. These lines of flow can be visualized as “sheets” and are known as
streamlines. In the case of a tube these streamlines are a set of concentric tubes,
the velocity of which increases the closer to the centre one measures.

158
Turbulent flow
When the fluid velocity at a given point changes, the flow is unsteady. Turbulence
is an extreme example of unsteady flow. In turbulent flow, swirling vortices or
little whirlpools of fluid appear. The vortices are not stationary but they move
with the fluid. The flow velocity at any point changes erratically and prediction of
the direction or speed of fluid flow under turbulent conditions is difficult.
Turbulent fluid flow can be classified accordingly as: (i) Compressible flow and
(ii) incompressible flow. A fluid flow is called compressible if the pressure
variations in the flow field are large enough to effect substantial changes in the
density of the fluid. Flows of liquids with pressure variations much smaller than
those required causing phase change (cavitation), or flows of gases involving
speeds much lower than the isentropic sound speed are termed incompressible.

Steady flow
Another simplification of fluid dynamic equations is to set all changes of fluid
properties with time to zero. This is called steady flow, and is applicable to a large
class of problems, such as lift and drags on a wing or flow through a pipe. Both
the Navier-Stokes equations and the Euler equations become simpler when their
steady forms are used. Whether a problem is steady or unsteady depends on the
frame of reference. For instance, the flow around a ship in a uniform channel is
steady from the point of view of the passengers on the ship (the Lagrangian
Reference Frame), but unsteady to an observer on the shore (the Eulerian
Reference Frame). Fluid dynamicists often transform problems to frames of
reference in which the flow is steady in order to simplify the problem. If a

159
problem is incompressible, irrotational, inviscid, and steady, it can be solved
using potential flow, governed by Laplace's equation.

Newtonian fluids
Fluids for which the equation F  6vr holds are called Newtonian fluids.
These Newtonian fluids are modeled by the coefficient of viscosity, which
depends on the specific fluid. However, some of the other materials, such as
suspensions (or dispersions), emulsions and some visco-elastic materials have
more complicated non-Newtonian stress-strain behaviours. These materials
include sticky liquids such as latex, honey, and lubricants.

Equation of Continuity
If there are no losses during the flow of a fluid within a uniform tube, the mass
flowing into the tube at a given time Δt must be equal to the mass flowing out of
the tube in the same time (this is in other words the conservation of mass). For
example in Figure 7.14, the mass (Δm) entering the tube during a short time (Δt) is
given by mass  density  volume

160
 m2
v2
A1
F2  p2 A2
ρ
v1

x2  v2 t
F1  p1 A1 Δm1
y2 A2
x1  v1t
y1

Figuer 7.14 An incompressible fluid flowing horizontally through a non-uniform tube

m1  1 V1  1 ( A1v1 t ) 7.48

where A1 is the cross-sectional area of the tube at the entrance and, in a time Δt, a
fluid particle moves a distance equal to x1  v1 t . Thus the volume of mass Δm1

entering the tube is V1  A1 x1  A1v1t

 m1  1V1  1 ( A1v1t ) 7.49

Similarly the mass leaving the tube in the same time interval is
m2   2 V2   2 ( A2 v 2 t ) 7.50
Since mass is conserved i.e. m1  m2 , equating Equations 7.48 and 7.50 give
1 A1v1   2 A2 v2 and
  Av  cons tan t 7.51

For an incompressible fluid, the density ρ is constant, so we have

161
A1v1  A2v2 and
 Av  constant 7.52
This is sometimes referred to as the flow rate equation. Note that the flow rate
equation shows that the fluid velocity is greater where the cross-sectional area of

A1
the tube is smaller. That is v 2  ( A2
)v1 and v2 is greater than v1 if A2 is less

than A1. This effect is evident in the common experience that the speed of water is
greater from a hose fitted with a nozzle than the same hose without a nozzle (See
Figure 7.15). (a)

(b)

Figure 7.15

The flow rate equation can be applied to the flow of blood in your body. Blood
flows from the heart into the aorta. It then makes a circuit through the circulatory
system passing through the arteries, arterioles (small arteries), capillaries, venules
(small veins) and back to the heart through the veins. High cholesterol in the
blood can cause the fatty deposits called plaque to deposit on the inside of the
arteries effectively causing the radius of the arteries to reduce. Having dealt with
flow patterns and factors effecting flow, we can now consider other effects that
flow produces. Using the continuity equation we will look at the Bernoulli
principle and how this gives rise to the Venturi and Coanda effects.

162
Bernoulli’s principle
Looking again at the ideal fluid flowing through a tube and considering the work
done by the forces F1 and F2, F1 does positive work i.e. the direction of the force
is the same as that of the fluid motion and F2 does negative work because the
direction of F2 is opposite to that of the fluid motion. The net work done on the
system by these forces is
W  F1 x1  F2 x 2  ( p1 A1 )(v1 t )  ( p 2 A2 )(v 2 t ) 7.53
The flow rate equation requires that ( A1v1  A2 v 2 ), so we write the work
equation as
W  A1v1 t ( p1  p 2 ) 7.54

Recall from the previous derivation of the equation of continuity that

m1  1 V1  1 ( A1v1 t ) and m1  m2 , so we write in general that
m
W  ( p1  p 2 ) 7.55


The total work done on the system by the external force F1 and F2 must be equal
to the change in the total mechanical energy. That is
W  E  K  U 7.56

Considering kinetic energy changes, K , of the elemental mass Δm we have

1
K  m(v2 2  v12 ) 7.57
2
The corresponding change in gravitational potential energy is given by
U  mg ( y2  y1 ) 7.58

163
Thus
1 2 2
W  m(v 2  v1 )  mg ( y 2  y1 ) 7.59
2
Then from Equation 7.56
m 1 2 2
( p1  p 2 )  m(v 2  v1 )  mg ( y 2  y1 ) 7.60
 2

Canceling Δm and rearranging gives the common form of Bernoulli’s equation.

1 2 1 2
p1  v1  gy1  p 2  v 2  gy 2 7.61
2 2
or
1
p v  gy  cons tan t 7.62
2
Bernoulli’s equation, Equation 7.61, can be summed up as a mathematical
representation for the universal law for the conservation of energy for a non-
compressible, non-viscous fluid undergoing laminar flow. The sum of the
pressure, kinetic and potential energies per unit volume remains a constant at all
points along the line of flow.
Note that, the terms in Bernoulli’s equation are work or energy per unit volume (

J W  work 
W  Fx  ( pA)x  pV and     . Similarly we
m ) so that
3
V  volume 

1 mv 2 mgy  energy 
have   m 1 2  energy  gy   .
V , then 2 v  V   volume  and
2
V  volume 
 
From Equations 7.61 and 7.62, if we alter the energy of one portion of the system,
it has an effect on the rest of the system. So if the kinetic energy rises, the
potential energy and pressure must fall. When we apply the Bernoulli principle in

164
practice we can ignore the portion due to gravity to make analysis a little simpler.

Bernoulli’s Effects
The equations of hydrostatics are special cases of Bernoulli’s equations in which
velocity is held at zero. There are a number of phenomena and applications which
concern Bernoulli’s equation and this includes (i) Venturi effect/meter (ii) The
Torricelli effect (iii) the Coanda effect (iv) the mechanisms involved in the use of
the Pitot and Prandtl tubes (v) the lift of an aircraft wing, etc. We will discuss only
the Venturi and the Coanda effects in this text.

The Venturi effect/meter

High pressure Low pressure High pressure

Low speed Low speed

High speed

A C

at A A2 at B
A1
Figure 7.16

Consider the tube with a narrowing at point B in Figure 7.16. If there are no leaks,
the volume of fluid at point A is the same as at point C. Consequently the
narrowing at point B means that the fluid has to speed up in order to fulfill this
continuity. As an analogy, imagine you are sitting in a boat and it starts to gain
water. You have a cup and your boating partner has a bucket. In order to remove

165
the same quantity of water you have to move quicker, which is analogous to you
being the flow at point B. In so doing you have to work harder and so expend
more energy. We take a look again at Equation 7.62. This means that point B has
an increase in velocity compared with point A or C, so the pressure falls at point
A. This is a consequence of Bernoulli's principle. The pressure drop induced by
the increase in velocity of a fluid passing through a narrow column is used by
chimneys and smoke stacks to draw exhaust from fire places and mud ovens.

The Coanda effect

This effect was named after a Romanian aircraft designer Henri Coanda, after an
aircraft he designed went up in flames as a consequence of this effect. Essentially
any fluid coming into contact with a curved surface will cling to this surface and
alter its direction of flow. You can illustrate this yourself by running a thin stream
of water from a tap, and bringing the curved surface of a spoon to touch it. The
water follows the surface of the spoon. It does so because the solid stationary
surface of the spoon slows the layer in immediate contact. This has a drag effect
on the other layers, in effect pulling them into the line of the curved surface.

Surface tension
Numerous effects of liquids reveal that liquid surfaces behave like a stretched
elastic skin i.e. it is in a state of tension. For example, a steel needle which has a
density far higher than that of water when placed gently on water will float. The
question is what kind of force acts counter to the weight of the needle to help it
float. This effect is known as surface tension. Small droplets are nearly spherical
as seen as water drops from the tap; a sphere has the minimum surface area for a

166
given volume. This tendency of surfaces of liquids to shrink and form a drop of
minimum area can be defined by the concept of surface tension.

Effects of surface tension

Surface tension results in the following phenomenon or physical effects:
(a) Liquid surfaces
The surface of a liquid must always be at right angles to the resultant forces acting
to the surface, otherwise there will be a component of this force that acts parallel
to the liquid surface and will cause motion. Normally a liquid surface is
horizontal, that means the surface will be at right angles to the force of gravity,
but where it comes into contact with the container or a solid it is usually curved.

(b) Capillary action

When liquids are constrained in vessels whose dimensions are small, compared to
the relevant length scales, surface tension effects become important leading to the
formation of a meniscus through capillary action.

water
mercury
(a) (b)

Figure 7.17 (a) Water rises (b) Mercury depresses in capillary tube

167
When a glass capillary tube of a small bore is dipped in water (as shown in Figure
7.17a), the water rises in the tube, but if the tube is immersed in mercury (as
shown in Figure 7.17b), the mercury is depressed

(c) Drops
Without surface tension, drops would not be able to form. The dimensions and
stability of drops are determined by surface tension. A liquid emerging from the
tip of an eye drop is not continuous but a succession of drops.

(d) Bubbles

In an underwater air bubble, the surface tension of the water surface tries to
contract the bubble while the pressure of the enclosed air pushes outward on the
surface. In equilibrium, the air pressure inside the bubble must be larger than the
water pressure outside so that the net outward force due to pressure balances the
inward force due to surface tension.

(e) Needle Floating on water

A sewing needle, if placed carefully on a water surface rests there without sinking
even though the material used to make the needle (steel) has density about ten
thread
times that of water

The above observed phenomena ((a) to (e)) due to surface tension indicates that
the surface of a liquid can be considered to be in a state of tension or stress such
that for any line lying in or bounding the surface. The material on either side of
the line exerts a pull on the on other side. This pull is planar and is perpendicular
wire ring

168 (a) (b)

Figure 7.18 Wire ring with a flexible loop of thread, dipped in a soap
solution (a) before (b) after puncturing the film inside the loop.
to the line. Figure 7.18 shows a flexible wire ring which a loop of thread has
attached to it. When the wire loop is dipped in a soap solution and removed, the
loop is surrounded by and is bounding a film of soap solution. The film of soap
solution in the middle of the wire loop is then punctured.

thread

wire ring

(a) (b)
Figure 7.18 wire ring with a flexible loop of thread, dipped in a soap solution
(a) before (b) after puncturing the film inside the loop.

After puncturing the film of soap solution in the loop of thread, the thread spreads
out into a circular shape as shown in Figure 7.18b, as if the surfaces of the liquid
were pulling radially outward on it (as shown by the direction arrows in Figure
7.18b). We can presume the same forces were present and acting before the film
was punctured, but since there was a film of soap solution on both sides of the
thread we say that the resultant force exerted by the film on every portion of the
thread was zero.

169
Experiment demonstrating effects of surface tension

slider
2l

w1

w2

(a) (b)

Figure 7.19 shows a simple apparatus which demonstrates the effects of surface
tension (a) wire with a slider (b) a converted form of (a)

The apparatus for this experiment is made up of a piece of wire which is bent into
a U-shape and a second piece of wire used as a slider (as shown in Figure 7.19a).
When the whole apparatus is dipped into a soap solution and removed, the slider
(if its weight w1 is not too great) is quickly pulled to the top of the U-shape. It may
be held stationary or in equilibrium by adding a second weight w2. Amazingly the
same net force F  w1  w2 will hold the slider stationary at any position,
regardless of the surface area of the liquid film, provided the liquid film remains
at a constant temperature. In other words, the force does not increase as the
surface is stretched further. This is very different from the behavior of a sheet of

170
rubber (or elastic materials in general), for which the net force would be greater as
the sheet is stretched. Even though a soap film is very thin, its thickness is still
very large compared with the sizes of the molecules making up the soap solution.
Thus we consider the soap film to be made mainly of bulk liquid, bounded by two
surface layers a few molecules thick. When the slider in Figure 7.19a is pulled
down and the surface area increased molecules formerly in the main body of the
liquid move into the surface layers. That is, these layers are stretched as a rubber
sheet would be stretched; this is by virtue of the fact that more of the surface is
created by molecules moving from the bulk liquid. Let l be the length of the wire
slider. Since the film has two surfaces, the total length along which the surface
force acts on the slider is 2l. The surface tension γ in the film is defined as the
ratio of the surface force (which is perpendicular to the length) to the length along
which the force acts. Thus with our apparatus we define surface tension
mathematically as:
F
  7.63
2l
The SI units of surface tension are Newton per meter (Nm -1). The cgs unit is the
dyne per unit centimeter (dyn cm-1) and the conversion is done to SI units by the
following:

1N  m 1  1000dyn  cm 1 7.64

A converted form of this apparatus (shown in Figure 7.19b) which consists of a

circular wire of circumference l is lifted from a body of the liquid of which we
want to determine its surface tension. There is an additional force which is needed
to balance the surface forces 2 l due to the two surface films on each side. This
force can be measured by either a stretch of a delicate spring or by the twist of a
171
torsion wire. The surface tension is then calculated using Equation 7.43. Surface
tension usually decreases as temperature increases.

Exercise 7

47. The area of a piston of a force pump is 8cm 2. What force must be
applied to the piston to raise oil (ρ= 0.78g/cm3) to a height of 6.0m?
Assume the upper end of the oil is open to the atmosphere. (Ans: 37N )

48. A metal cube, 2.0cm on each side, has a density of 6600kgm-3. Find its
apparent mass when it is totally submerged in water. (Ans: 44.8g )

49. A solid wooden cube, 30cm on each edge can be totally submerged in
water if it is pushed downward with a force of 54N. What is the density
of the wood? (Ans: 800kgm-3 )

50. Downward forces of 45N and 15N respectively are required to keep a
plastic block totally immersed in water and in oil. If the volume of the
block is 8000cm3, find the density of oil. (Ans: 620kgm-3 )

51. A cube of wood floating in water supports a 200g mass resting on the
center of its top face. When the mass is removed, the cube rises 2cm.
Determine the volume of the cube. (Ans: 1000cm3 )

52. Oil flows through a 4cm (internal diameter) pipe at an average velocity
of 2.5ms-1. Find the flow in m3s-1 and cm3s-1. (Ans: 3.14  10-3 m3s-1 =
3140 cm3s-1 )

172
53. How much work does the piston in a hydraulic system do during one
2cm stroke if the end area of the piston is 0.75cm 2 and the pressure in the
hydraulic fluid is 50kPa? (Ans: 75mJ )

54. Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe of varying cross section.
At one place the pressure is 130kPa and the speed is 0.60ms -1. Determine
the pressure at another place in the same pipe where the speed is 9.0ms -1.
(Ans: 90kPa )

55. Fuel oil of density 820kgm-3 flows through a venturi meter having a
throat diameter of 4cm and an entrance diameter of 8cm. The pressure
drop between entrance and throat is 16cm of mercury. Find the flow.
The density of mercury is 13600Kgm-3. (Ans:9.3  10-3 m3s-1 )

56. Find the maximum amount of water that can flow through a 3cm
(internal diameter) pipe per minute without turbulence. Take the
Reynolds number for nonturbulent flow to be 2000. For water, η=1.0 
10-3 Pa.s (Ans: 0.00283m3 )

173
 CHAPTER EIGHT
KINETIC THEORY AND THERMODYNAMICS

Atoms and molecules

A great number of the ancient Greek philosophers perceived that all substances
were composed of tiny particles or atoms and it was not until the nineteenth
century that this idea developed into a useful theory for explaining some of the
chemical and physical properties of matter. In 1808, the English chemist, John
Dalton, produced experimental evidence to demonstrate that chemical compounds
consist of molecules which are groups of atoms of various elements united in the
same simple numerical proportion. A substance which cannot be split into simpler
substances is an element while an atom is the smallest portion of an element
which can take part in a chemical change.

Atomic mass unit

The unified atomic mass unit (u), or Dalton (Da), is a small unit of mass used to
express atomic and molecular masses. It is defined to be one twelfth of the mass
of an unbound atom of the carbon-12 nuclide, at rest and in its ground state. Now
the number of molecules in 1 mole of carbon is 6.02 1023 , the Avogadro constant,

and since carbon is monatomic, there are 6.02 1023 atoms of carbon. These have
a mass of 12g.

Therefore mass of 1 atom of carbon

12 12
= g kg = 12u
6.02 10 23
6.02 1026
174
 12
1u  kg
12  6.02 1026

= 1.66 1027 kg

The symbol amu for atomic mass unit can sometimes still be found, particularly
in older works. Atomic masses are often written without any unit and then the
atomic mass unit is implied. In biochemistry and molecular biology literature
(particularly in reference to proteins), the term "dalton" is used, with the symbol
Da. Because proteins are large molecules, they are typically referred to in
kilodaltons, or "kDa", with one kilodalton being equal to 1000 daltons. The
unified atomic mass unit, or dalton, is not an SI unit of mass, although it is
accepted for use with SI under either name.

The unit is convenient because one hydrogen atom has a mass of approximately 1
u, and more generally an atom or molecule that contains n protons and neutrons
will have a mass approximately equal to nu . (The reason is that a carbon-12 atom
contains 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons, with the protons and neutrons
having about the same mass and the electron mass being negligible in
comparison.) This is an approximation, since it does not account for the mass
contained in the binding energy of an atom's nucleus; this binding energy mass is
not a fixed fraction of an atom's total mass. The differences which result from
nuclear binding are generally less than 0.01 u , however. Chemical element
masses, as expressed in u, would therefore all be close to whole number values
(within 2% and usually within 1%) were it not for the fact that atomic weights of
chemical elements are averaged values of the various stable isotope masses in the

175
abundances with which they naturally occur. [For example, chlorine has an atomic
weight of 35.45 u because it is composed of 76% Cl-35 (34.96 u ) and 24% Cl-37
(36.97 u )].

Another reason the unit is used is that it is experimentally much easier and more
precise to compare masses of atoms and molecules (determine relative masses)
than to measure their absolute masses. Masses are compared with a mass
spectrometer.

Avogadro's number (NA) and the mole are defined so that one mole of a substance
with atomic or molecular mass 1 u will have a mass of precisely 1 gram. For
example, the molecular mass of water is 18.01508 u , and this means that one
mole of water has a mass of 18.01508 grams, or conversely that 1 gram of water

contains N A  3.3428  1022 molecules.

18.01508

History

The chemist John Dalton was the first to suggest the mass of one atom of
hydrogen as the atomic mass unit. Francis Aston, inventor of the mass

spectrometer, later used 116 of the mass of one atom of oxygen-16 as his unit.

Before 1961, the physical atomic mass unit was defined as 116 of the mass of one

atom of oxygen-16, while the chemical atomic mass unit was defined as 116 of

the average mass of an oxygen atom (taking the natural abundance of the different

176
oxygen isotopes into account). Both units are slightly smaller than the unified
atomic mass unit, which was adopted by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Physics in 1960 and by the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry in 1961.

Mass spectrometry looking at isotope ratios is most often used by archaeologists

to determine the ages of old man-made objects based upon the isotopic
proportions of carbon. Having the atomic mass unit based upon oxygen added
needless error; now that it is based upon an isotope of carbon this is obviated.
(Mass spectrometry is used in many other fields, such as forensic science, but in
these fields the goal is usually identification of specific molecules, not comparison
of isotope ratios)

Avogadro's number

Avogadro's number, also called Avogadro's constant (NA), named after

Amedeo Avogadro, in German scientific literature also known as Loschmidt
number, is formally defined to be the number of carbon-12 atoms in 12 grams
(0.012 kg) of unbound carbon-12 in its rest-energy electronic state. The current

best estimate of this number is (6.0221415  0.0000010) 1023 .

A mole is defined in the SI as Avogadro's number of particles of any kind of

substance (atoms, ions, molecules, or formula units). In the SI, this unit is
abbreviated mol. The mole is widely used as a macroscopic unit of amount of
substance.

177
History

Avogadro's number is named after the early nineteenth century Italian scientist
Amedeo Avogadro. It appears that Jean Baptiste Perrin was the first to name it.
Perrin called it "Avogadro's constant" and it is still sometimes known by that
name. The numerical value was first estimated by Johann Josef Loschmidt in
1865 using the kinetic gas theory. In German-speaking countries, the number may
still be referred to as Loschmidt's number. Unfortunately, in a few cases (mainly
in the older literature) Loschmidt's number refers to the number of atoms (or
molecules) in a cubic centimeter, a usage now ridiculed.

In the nineteenth century physicists measured the mass of one atom of hydrogen

to be about 1
6.023 1023 grams; they were trying to evaluate how many
molecules of an ideal gas would fit in 1 cubic centimeter at standard conditions
for temperature and pressure (STP), which is related to Avogadro's number via the
ideal gas law. Before 1960, there were conflicting definitions based on 16 grams
of oxygen: physicists generally used oxygen-16 while chemists generally used the
"naturally occurring" isotope ratio. Switching to 12 grams of carbon-12 ended this
dispute.

Application

Avogadro's number can be applied to any substance. It corresponds to the number

of atoms or molecules needed to make up a mass equal to the substance's atomic

178
or molecular mass, in grams. For example, the atomic mass of iron is 55.847 u , so
Avogadro's number of iron atoms (i.e. one mole of iron atoms) has a mass of
55.847g. Conversely, 55.847g of iron contains Avogadro's number of iron atoms.
Thus Avogadro's number NA corresponds to the conversion factor between grams
(g) and atomic mass units:

Chemical significance of Avogadro's number

The definition of Avogadro's number depends on the definition of the kilogram.

The latter is based on arbitrary convention, namely the mass of a particular
"standard" cylinder of metal in France. This means that the particular value of
Avogadro's number is the result of convention; there is no physical reason for it.
For this reason, Avogadro's number is not considered a fundamental constant in
the strictest sense. However, for practical purposes, Avogadro's number is
regarded as a chemical constant.

Avogadro's number can be regarded as a conversion factor between the

microscopic mass system (atomic mass units or Daltons) and the kilogram system.
The microscopic mass system is based on the mass of carbon-12, while the
kilogram system is currently based on the mass of a particular "standard" cylinder
of metal in France. So naturally there's no simple conversion factor between the
two. However, if a method were developed to count atoms, it would be possible to
redefine the kilogram in a way that did not depend on an arbitrary cylinder of
metal. The number of atoms picked would presumably be equal or close to the

179
latest accepted value of Avogadro's number. In that case, the kilogram would be
redefined as 83.33 x the mass of Avogadro's number of carbon-12 atoms (i.e.
83.33 x 12 g = 1 kg).

Additional physical relations

Because of its role as a scaling factor, Avogadro's number provides the link
between a number of useful physical constants when moving between an atomic
mass scale and a kilogram scale. For example, it provides the relationship
between:

 the universal gas constant R and the Boltzmann constant k B : R  k B N A

 the Faraday constant F and the elementary charge e : F  eN A

In the 19th century physicists measured the mass of one atom of hydrogen to be
about 6.02214199×10-23 grams. The gram was originally defined to be the mass of
a cubic centimeter of pure water at standard temperature and pressure. As
experiments became more accurate, it was found that water was contaminated
with variable amounts of heavy water, which made it undesirable to maintain a
standard with hydrogen having one atomic mass unit. Carbon was found to have a
more constant isotopic composition, and it was also possible to separate pure

carbon-12. Therefore, the atomic mass unit was changed to 112 the mass of an

atom of carbon-12. Hence 12 grams of carbon-12 has about 6.0221415×10 23

atoms.

180
Numerical value

At present it is not technologically feasible to count the exact number of atoms in

12 g of carbon-12, so the precise value of Avogadro's number is unknown. The
2002 CODATA (Committee on Data for Science and Technology)
recommended value for Avogadro's number is

A number of methods can be used to measure Avogadro's number. One modern

method is to calculate Avogadro's number from the density of a crystal, the
relative atomic mass, and the unit cell length determined from x-ray
crystallography. Very accurate values of these quantities for silicon have been
measured at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and used
to obtain the value of Avogadro's number.

Connection to masses of protons and neutrons

A carbon-12 atom consists of 6 protons and 6 neutrons (which have

approximately the same mass) and 6 electrons (whose mass is negligible as a first

approximation, being about 11840 of the mass of the proton). One could therefore

think that NA is the number of protons or neutrons that have a mass of 1 gram.
While this is approximately correct, the mass of a free proton is 1.00727 amu, so a
mole of protons would actually have a mass of 1.00727 g. Similarly, a mole of
181
neutrons has a mass of 1.00866 g. Clearly, 6 moles of protons combined with six
moles of neutrons would have a mass greater than 12 g. So it would appear that
one mole of carbon-12 atoms, which should consist of 6 moles each of protons,
neutrons, and electrons would have a mass greater than 12 g. The discrepancy or
mass defect (as it is known) is related to the equivalence of matter and energy
discovered by Albert Einstein as part of the theory of special relativity. When an
atom is formed, the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are bound together by the
strong nuclear force. This binding results in the formation of a low energy state
and is accompanied by a large release of energy. Since energy is equivalent to
mass (which means that all energy has mass), the released energy has mass and
carries away the loss in the mass of the nucleus relative to that of the separated
protons and neutrons (note that mass is conserved in this process just as energy
is). Thus, protons and neutrons in the nucleus have masses that are less (about 0.7
percent less) than those of free protons and neutrons. The precise amount of mass
loss is related to the binding energy of the nucleus and varies depending on the
type of atom.

One may therefore say that NA is approximately the number of nuclear neutrons or
protons (nucleons) that have a mass of 1 gram. This is approximate because the
precise mass of a nuclear proton or neutron depends on the composition of the
nucleus, as explained above. For example, iron nucleons will have a significantly
lower mass than those in hydrogen or plutonium.

Avogadro's number in life

182
Avogadro's number may also yield practical reasonings in real life. For example,
the fact that a known number of atoms are in a given amount of a substance is one
reason for scientific criticism of homeopathy, in which medicinal substances are
often diluted to the extent that a single molecule appears in only one dose amongst
the hundreds or thousands prepared, as a simple calculation involving Avogadro's
number will reveal.

Another common sense application shows that without determining the actual
weight of a substance, a good rule of thumb to use is that a cubic centimeter of
solid matter contains about 1024 atoms.

Molecular mass

The molecular mass (abbreviated Mr) of a substance, formerly also called

molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the mass of one molecule of that

substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 112 the mass of one

atom of carbon-12). Due to this relativity, the molecular mass of a substance is

commonly referred to as the relative molecular mass, and abbreviated to Mr.

CONVERSION FACTOR of molecular mass to molar mass


molar mass = molecular mass  6.022 10
23

The molecular mass can be calculated as the sum of the atomic masses of all the
atoms of any one molecule. The molecular mass can also be measured directly
using mass spectrometry. In mass spectrometry, the molecular mass of a small

183
molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass, that is, the mass of the
most common isotope of each element. The masses used to compute the
monoisotopic molecular mass are found on a table of isotopic masses and are not
the same as found on a typical periodic table. The average molecular mass is
often used for larger molecules since molecules with many atoms are unlikely to
be composed exclusively of the most abundant isotope of each element. This
average mass can be calculated using the elemental mass numbers on a typical
periodic table, since there is likely to be a statistical distribution of atoms
representing the isotopes throughout the molecule.

The molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 mol (the SI unit for the basis SI
quantity amount of substance, having the symbol n). This has numerical value of
the molecular mass multiplied by Avogadro's constant 6.022 1023 , and the SI unit

is kg mol , but usually also found as stated in g mol .

Example:
The atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.00784 u and that of oxygen is 15.9994 u
;

therefore, the molecular mass of water with formula H 2O is (2 × 1.00784 u ) +

15.9994 u = 18.01508 u . Therefore, one mole of water has a mass of 18.0151
grams. However, the exact mass of hydrogen-1 (the most common isotope) is
1.00783, and the exact mass of oxygen-16 (the most common isotope) is 15.9949,
so the mass of the most common single molecule of water is 18.0105 u .

184
Molecular mass or molar mass are used in stoichiometry calculations.

Since molecules are created by chemical reactions, not nuclear reactions, a

molecule's molecular mass exactly equals the sum of the atomic masses of its
constituent atoms.

The gram-molecular weight is the molecular weight of a chemical compound

expressed in grams. Thus the molecular weight of calcium carbonate is 100
therefore the gram-molecular weight is 100 g. The Gram Molecular Weight is
frequently used, particularly for calculating the concentration of solutions. Thus a
molar solution will contain the gram molecular weight of a chemical dissolved to
produce one litre of solution.

Temperature Scales

The temperature of a substance is a number which expresses its degree of hotness

on some chosen scale. Thus, the temperature of a bucketful of warm water is
lower than that of a hot electric lamp filament; the water contains a much larger
quantity of internal energy than the filament. Temperature is measured by means
of a thermometer, of which a number of different types are available, but each
makes use of a particular thermometric property of a particular thermometric
substance. Some depend on the expansion of a liquid when heated; others on the
expansion of a compound strip of two metals. In order to establish a temperature
scale it is necessary to make use of fixed points: A fixed point is the single
temperature at which it can confidently be expected that a particular physical

185
event (e.g. the melting of ice under specific conditions) always takes place. Three
such points are defined below.

The upper fixed point or steam point is the temperature of steam from water
boiling under standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg .

The lower fixed point or ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice.

The triple point of water is that unique temperature at which pure ice, pure
water and water vapor can exist together in equilibrium.

The triple point is particularly useful, since there is only

100oC
one pressure at which all three phases (solid, liquid and gas)

can be in equilibrium with each other.

The difference in temperature between the two fixed points Fundamental

Interval
is called the fundamental interval Figure 8.1. This is

divided into 100 equal degrees,

the ice point being called 0 0C and the steam point 100 0C. 0oC

This subdivision of the interval was suggested by a Swedish

astronomer named Celsius, and is now called the Celsius scale.

Figure 8.1 A thermometer
The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K). An interval of

one Kelvin is defined as being 1 273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of

water as measured on the thermodynamic scale of temperature. The triple point of

186
water is the fixed point of the scale and is assigned the value of 273.16 K. On this
basis absolute zero is 0 K, the ice point is 273.15 K, and the steam point is

373.15 K.

To see the relationship between the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale, define

  T  273.15 8.1

where,   temperature in 0C, and T  temperature in K.

It follows from the equation that a temperature change of 1K is exactly equal to a

temperature change of 1 0C.

Absolute zero

Charles’s law shows that, if we plot the volume V of a given mass of any gas at
constant pressure against its temperature, a straight line graph results as shown in
Figure 8.2.

V
A

Vo

-273 0 θoC

Figure 8.2 Absolute zero

187
If this line is produced backwards, it will meet the temperature axis at -273 0C.
This temperature is called the absolute temperature.

It is the lowest possible temperature where nothing could be colder and no heat
energy (or kinetic energy) remains in a substance. Absolute zero is the point at
which molecules stop and they have no movement, retaining only quantum
mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion.

By international agreement, absolute zero is defined as precisely…

 0 K on the Kelvin scale, which is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature

scale, and
 –273.15 °C on the Celsius scale.

Absolute zero is also precisely equivalent to…

 0 °R on the Rankine scale (also a thermodynamic temperature scale), and

 –459.67 °F on the Fahrenheit scale.

While scientists cannot fully achieve a state of “zero” heat energy in a substance,
they have made great advancements in achieving temperatures ever closer to
absolute zero (where matter exhibits odd quantum effects). In 1994, the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) achieved a record cold temperature
of 700 nK (billionths of a kelvin). In 2003, researchers at Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT) eclipsed this with a new record of 450 pK (0.45 nK).

Absolute Temperature Scales

188
As mentioned, absolute or thermodynamic temperature is conventionally
measured in kelvins (Celsius-size degrees), and increasingly rarely in the Rankine
scale (Fahrenheit-size degrees). Absolute temperature is uniquely determined up
to a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the "degree", so the ratios

T
of two absolute temperatures, 1 T , are the same in all scales. The most
2

transparent definition comes from the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

over energies, or from the quantum analogs: Fermi-Dirac statistics (particles of
half-integer spin) and Bose-Einstein statistics (particles of integer spin), all of
which give the relative numbers of particles as (decreasing) exponential functions
of energy over kT.

Kinetic theory

This is an attempt to explain the experimentally observed properties of gases by

considering the motion of the molecules (atoms) of which they are composed. A
number of assumptions are made.

i. The molecules of a particular gas are identical.

ii. Collisions between the molecules and with the container are perfectly
elastic.

iii. The molecules exert no forces on each other except during impacts and
the effect of gravity is ignored so that:

(a) between collisions the molecules move in straight lines at constant

speed, and
189
 (b) the motion is random.

iv. The size of the molecules is negligible compared to their separation.

v. The laws of Newtonian mechanics apply.

Pressure exerted by a gas

Consider a cube-shaped box, each side of length L, filled with molecules of an

ideal gas. A molecule of ideal gas is like a bouncy rubber ball; whenever it is
involved in a collision with a wall of the box, it rebounds with the same kinetic
energy it had before hitting the wall. Similarly, if ideal gas molecules collide, the
collisions are elastic, so no kinetic energy is lost.

Now consider one of these ideal gas molecules in this box, with a mass m and
velocity c at any instant and this will have components of u, v, w respectively in
the direction of the three perpendicular axes Ox, Oy, Oz as shown in Figure 8.3. If
this molecule bounces off one of the walls perpendicular to the x-direction, the y
z are unaffected, and the x-component
and z components of the molecule's velocity
of velocity reverses. The molecule maintains the same speed, because the collsion
is elastic. How much force, on average, does it exert on the wall?
L

L
w c
L X
v m u

190
y x
Figure 8.3 calculation of gas pressure
To answer this we just have to think about momentum, and impulse. Momentum
is a vector, so if the particle reverses its x-component of momentum there is a net
change in momentum. Just before impact, the momentum of the molecule due to
u is mu . After impact, the momentum is mu , since the momentum reverses.

Thus

Momentum change on impact  mu    mu   2mu

If we're dealing with the average force, the time interval is just the time between
collisions, which is the time it takes for the molecule to make a round trip in the
box and come back to hit the same wall. This time simply depends on the distance
travelled in the x-direction 2L , and the x-component of velocity; the time between

collisions with that wall is 2L u . This is the time for one impact. The number of

1 u
impacts per second t on a given face  2 L  2 L .
u

Therefore, momentum change per second  t  one momentum change

u mu 2
  2mu 
2L L
191
 mu 2
 force on X  8. 2
L

This is the magnitude of the average force exerted by the wall on the molecule, as
well as the magnitude of the average force exerted by the molecule on the wall;
the forces are equal and opposite.

force mu 2 mu 2
 pressure on X    8.3
area L  L2 L3

This is just the average pressure exerted on one wall by one molecule selected at
random. To find the total pressure, we need to include all the other molecules,
which travel at a wide range of speeds.

Let us now take into account the N molecules in the cube. Each has a different
velocity and hence a component of different magnitude in the direction Ox . Let

these be represented by u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., u N , it follows from Equation 8.3 that the total
pressure on X, p , is given by

mu12 mu2 2 mu N 2
p   ... 
L3 L3 L3

m 2

L3 
u1  u2 2  ...  u N 2  8.4

Now, let u 2 represent the average of all the squares of the components in the Ox
direction, i.e.

192
 u12  u2 2  ...  u N 2
u2 
N

Nu 2  u12  u2 2  ...  u N 2 8.5

From Equation 8.5, we have

Nmu 2
p 8.6
L3

Consider now how this average x-component velocity compares to the average
velocity. For any molecule, the velocity can be found from its components using
the Pythagorean Theorem in three dimensions:

c 2  u 2  v 2  w2 8.7

so that the mean square c 2 is given by

c 2  u 2  v 2  w2 . 8.8

With a large number of molecules of varying speed in random motion, the mean
square of the component speed in any one of the three axes is the same.

 c 2  v 2  w2 8.9

So that

c2
u 
2
8.10
3

193
Hence, from Equation 8.6,

Nmc 2
p 8.11
3L3

The number of molecules per unit volume, n  N L3 . Thus

nmc 2
p 8.12
3

nm is the product of the number of molecules per unit volume and the mass of one
molecule and is therefore the total mass of the gas per unit volume which is its
density 

c 2
p 8.13
3

Relationship between Molecular Kinetic energy and Temperature

On the basis of the kinetic theory of gases and using Equation 8.13,

c 2
p 8.13
3

For any volume V of gas,

Vc 2
pV  8.14
3

194
Therefore,

1
pV  Mc 2 8.15
3

where M is the mass of volume V of gas.

Equation 8.15 may be rewritten as

2 1 
pV  N  mc 2  8.16
3 2 

where

N  the total number of molecules in volume V, and

m  the mass of one molecule.

The ideal gas equation for n moles of a gas of volume V and pressure p is

pV  nRT 8.17

where

R  the universal molar gas constant, and

T  the temperature in Kelvin.

195
Thus the predictions of the kinetic theory of gases are in agreement with idealized
experimental observation if

2 1 
N  mc 2   nRT 8.18
3 2 

1 3 nR
i.e. mc 2  T and
2 2 N

1 3 R
mc 2  T 8.19
2 2 NA

N
since is the number of molecules per mole, i.e. N A , the Avogadro constant.
n

R
Since R and N A are universal constants, so also is and it is called the
NA

Boltzmann’s constant, k (  1.38 1023 JK 1 ) and is the gas constant per molecule.
The left-hand term of Equation 8.19 is the translational kinetic energy of a single
molecule, and therefore

Average translational kinetic energy of a molecule is given as

3 3 R
kT  T 8.20
2 2 NA

196
A further assumption to those already mentioned is that the average translational

3
kinetic energy of a molecule is equal to kT . This is a reasonable assumption,
2
since putting heat into a gas increases its temperature and must also increase the
kinetic energy of its molecules because there is no other way that the energy can
be absorbed.

Example 8.1.A tank used for filling helium balloons has a volume of 0.300 m3
and contains 2.00 mol of helium gas at 20.0 0C.Assuming that the helium behaves
like an ideal gas, (a) what is the total translational kinetic energy of the molecules
of the gas? (b) What is the average kinetic energy per molecule?

Solution

(a)
3 3
Etrans  nRT   2.00mol   8.37 J / mol.K   293K 
2 2
Etrans  7.30  10 J
3

(b)
1 3 3
2 2 2

mv 2  k BT  1.38 1023 J / K   293K 
= 6.07 1021 J

Example 8.2. Helium gas occupies a volume of 0.04 m 3 at a pressure of 2 x 10 5

Pa (Nm-2) and temperature 300 K.
Calculate (i) the mass of helium, (ii) the r.m.s speed of its molecules, (iii) the
r.m.s speed at 432 K when the gas is heated at constant pressure to this

197
temperature, (iv) the r.m.s speed of hydrogen molecules at 432 K. (Relative
molecular mass of helium and hydrogen = 4 and 2 respectively, R = 8.3 Jmol-1K-1)

Solution

(i) Mass
PV  nRT
For n mols, PV 2 105  0.04
n   3.2
RT 8.3  300

Hence mass of helium  3.2  4 g  12.8 g

(ii) r.m.s speed

Pressure P = 2 x 105 Pa

mass 12.8 103 kg

Density     0.32kgm 3
volume 0.04m3

1 1

So rms speed   3P    3  2 10   1369ms 1

2 5 2

    0.32 

(iii) Temperature 432 K

Since rms speed is proportional to T , the new value cr at 432 K is given by

198
 1
cr  432  2
   1.2
1369  300 

1
So cr  1.2 1369  1643ms

(iv) Hydrogen
One mole of hydrogen has a mass of 2 g and one mole of helium has a mass of 4
g. So ration of molar masses = 2 : 4 = 1 : 2.
1
But rms speed at a given temperature is proportional to , where M is the
M
molar mass. So at 432 K,
Rms speed of hydrogen molecules = 2 1643

Mean Free Path

In physics and kinetic theory, the mean free path of a particle, such as a
molecule, is the average distance the particle travels between collisions with other
particles.The mean free path or average distance between collisions for a gas
molecule may be estimated from kinetic theory. If the molecules have diameter d ,
then the effective cross-section for collision can be modeled by

Figure 8.4

199
using a circle of diameter 2d to represent a molecule's effective collision area
while treating the "target" molecules as point masses. In time t, the circle would
sweep out the volume shown in Figure 8.4 and the number of collisions can be
estimated from the number of gas molecules that were in that volume.

Figure 8.5

The mean free path could then be taken as the length of the path divided by the
number of collisions.

The problem with this expression is that the average molecular velocity v is used,
but the target molecules are also moving. The frequency of collisions depends
upon the average relative velocity of the randomly moving molecules.

200
Refinement of Mean Free Path

The intuitive development of the mean free path expression suffers from a
significant flaw - it assumes that the "target" molecules are at rest when in fact
they have a high average velocity. What is needed is the average relative velocity,
and the calculation of that velocity from the molecular speed distribution yields
the result

which revises the expression for the effective volume swept out in time t

The resulting mean free path is

1
 8.21
2 d 2 nV

The number of molecules per unit volume can be determined from Avogadro's
number and the ideal gas law, leading to

201
 8.22

Examples

A classic application of mean free path is to estimate the size of atoms or

molecules. Another important application is in estimating the resistivity of a
material from the mean free path of its electrons.

For example, for sound waves in an enclosure, the mean free path is the average
distance the wave travels between reflections off the enclosure's walls.

Heat Energy

In everyday life we sometimes loosely refer to the “heat energy in a body”,

instead of using the term “internal energy”.

In physics, heat is defined as the energy which is transferred from one place to
another owing to a temperature difference between them. When you heat a

202
substance, you are transferring energy into it by placing it in contact with
surroundings that have a higher temperature. This is the case, when a bucket of
cold water is put on a stove burner - the burner is at a higher temperature than the
water, and so the water gains energy.

Thermal Conductivity

A substance is in a steady state when the temperatures at all points in it do not

change with time. Consider a thin disc of some material of cross sectional area A
and thickness  x as shown Figure 8.6. Suppose that the hotter face is maintained
at a temperature  and that the other face is maintained at    . Suppose also

that the rate of heat flow from the hotter face to the colder face is  Q  t .

Area A dx
Area A dx

dQ/dt
dQ/dt

q (q-dq)
q
Figure 8.6 thermal conductivity (q-dq )
Figure 8.6 Thermal conductivity
Experiment shows that if there are no heat losses from the sides and steady state
conditions prevail, then

203
Q 
A .
t x

With the introduction of a constant of proportionality  this can be written as

Q 
  A 8.23
t x

which in the limit as  x  0 becomes

dQ d
  A 8.24
dt dx

where dQ dt is the rate of flow of heat from the hotter face to the colder face and

is at right angles to the faces (unit = W).

d is called the temperature gradient across the section concerned

dx

(unit = Km-1)

 is a constant whose value depends on the material of the disc. It is called the
coefficient of thermal conductivity of the material (unit = Wm-1K-1).

Notes:

i. When heat is flowing in the positive direction of x as in Figure 8.6 the

temperature gradient is negative, and therefore the presence of the minus sign in
Equation 8.24 makes  a positive constant.

204
ii. It is the existence of the temperature gradient which causes the heat to flow. If
it were not for the fact that the two faces are being maintained at their respective
temperatures, the effect of the heat flow would be to destroy the temperature
gradient by warming the cooler regions.

iii. Equation 8.24 is used to define . Thus:

The coefficient of thermal conductivity, , of a material is the rate of flow of

heat per unit area per unit temperature gradient when the heat flow is at right
angles to the faces of a parallel-sided slab of the material under steady state
conditions.

Suppose that a long, uniform rod of length L is thermally insulated so that energy
cannot escape by heat from its surface except at the ends. One end is in thermal

contact with an energy reservoir at temperature T1 , and the other end is in thermal
contact with a reservoir at temperature T 2 > T1. When a steady state has been
reached, the temperature at each point along the rod is constant in time. In this
case if we assume that  is not a function of temperature, the temperature gradient
is the same everywhere along the rod and is

d T2  T1
 8.25
dt L

Thus the rate of energy transfer through the rod is

dQ  T T 
A 2 1 8.26
dt L

205
Substances that are good thermal conductors have large thermal conductivity
values, whereas good thermal insulators have low conductivity values.

Example 8.3. Calculate the quantity of heat conducted through 2 m2 of a brick

wall 12 cm thick in 1 hour if the temperature on one side is 8 0C and on the other
side is 28 0C. (Thermal conductivity of brick = 0.13 Wm-1K-1).

Solution
28  8
Temperature gradient = 2
Km 1 and t = 3600 s
12  10
 Q  kAt  temperature gradient
28  8
 0.13  2  3600  J
12  102
 156000 J

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

When energy is added to a substance and no work is done, the temperature of the
substance usually rises except when the substance undergoes a change of state.
The quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass of a
substance by some amount varies from one substance to another.

As an example, the quantity of energy needed to raise the temperature of one 1 kg

of water by 1 0C is 4186 J, but the quantity of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of copper by 1 0C is only 387 J.

206
The heat capacity C of an object is the proportionality constant between an
amount of heat and the change in temperature that this heat produces, i.e., it is
defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that object by
1 0C. Thus

Q  C  T f  Ti   C T 8.27

In which Tf and Ti are the final and initial temperatures of the object and ΔT is the
temperature change.

Two objects made of the same material will have heat capacities proportional to
their masses. We therefore define a “heat capacity per unit mass” or specific heat
c that refers to a unit mass of the material of which the object is made. Then

Q  cmT 8.28

Specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a substance is

to the addition of energy. The greater a material’s specific heat, the more energy
must be added to a given mass of the material to cause a particular temperature
change. The energy required to raise the temperature of 0.5 kg of water by 3 0C is

 0.5kg   4186 J  
kg. oC 3 oC  6.28  103 J . When the temperature increases, Q

and T are both taken to be positive and energy flows into the system. When the
temperature decreases, Q and T are both negative, and energy flows out of the
system.

207
Adiabatic Processes

An adiabatic process is one that occurs so rapidly or occurs in a system that is so

well insulated that no transfer of heat occurs between the system and the
environment. If a gas is compressed (or expanded) very rapidly, very little energy
is transferred out of (or into) the system by heat, and so the process is nearly
adiabatic. The very slow expansion of a gas that is thermally insulated from its
surroundings is also an example of an adiabatic process.

Consider an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic expansion. At any time during the
process, assume that the gas is in an equilibrium state, so that the equation of state
PV  nRT is valid.

The pressure and volume at any time during an adiabatic process are related by
the expression

PV   k 8.29

which is a constant

Cp
where   Cv is assumed to be constant during the process. Thus all three
variables in the ideal gas law - P, V, and T - change during an adiabatic process.

C p and Cv are the specific heat capacities at constant pressure and constant

volume respectively.

208
If we wish to introduce the temperature, T , into an adiabatic change, then for one
mole of gas,

PV  RT 8.30

and

PV   k 8.31

Now P  RT V , then

RT 
.V  k 8.32
V

So that RTV  1  k . But R is a constant.

T .V  1  constant 8.33

Example 8.4 An ideal gas at 17 0C has a pressure of 1.0x105 Pa, and is

compressed (i) isothermally, (ii) adiabatically until its volume is halved, in each
case reversibly. Calculate in each case the final pressure and temperature of the
gas, assuming γ = 1.4.

Solution

(i) Isothermally, PV = constant

209
 V
P  1.0 105  V
2
 P  2.0 105 Pa
The temperature is constant at 17 0C.

(ii) Adiabatically, PVγ = constant, and γ = 1.4.

1.4
V 
 P     1.0 105  V 1.4
2
 P  1.0 105  21.4  2.6 105 Pa

But since TV  1  constant,

0.4
V 
T      273  17   V 0.4
2
T  290  20.4  383K
 Temperature is 110 0C.

Example 8.5. A quantity of oxygen is compressed isothermally until its pressure

is doubled. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically until its original volume is
restored. Find the final pressure in terms of the initial pressure assuming for
oxygen γ = 1.4.

Solution
Let P0, V0 = the original pressure and volume of the oxygen.
Since PV = constant for an isothermal change,
V0
 new volume = when new pressure is 2P0
2
If the gas expands adiabatically to its volume V0, when the pressure is P, then

210
 1.4
V 
P V 0
1.4
 2 P0   0 
 2
1.4
1
 P  2 P0     0.8 P0
2

Example 8.6. Air at 20.0 0C in the cylinder of a diesel engine is compressed from
an initial pressure of 1.00 atm and volume of 800.0 cm 3 to a volume of 60.0 cm 3.
Assume that air behaves as an ideal gas with γ = 1.4 and that the compression is
adiabatic. Find the final pressure and temperature of the air.

Solution
We know that
 1.40
V   800.0cm3 
Pf  Pi  i    1.00atm   3 
 Vf   60.0cm 
 
Pf  37.6atm

But PV = RT is valid during any process and since no gas escapes from the
cylinder
PV PV
i i
 f f
Ti Tf
Pf V f  37.6atm   60.0cm3 
Tf  Ti   293K 
PV
i i  1.00atm   800.0cm3 
T  826 0C  553 0C

Example 8.7.A tank used for filling helium balloons has a volume of 0.300 m 3
and contains 2.00 mol of helium gas at 20.0 0C.Assuming that the helium behaves
211
like an ideal gas, (a) what is the total translational kinetic energy of the molecules
of the gas? (b) What is the average kinetic energy per molecule?

Solution
(a)
3 3
Etrans  nRT   2.00mol   8.37 J / mol.K   293K 
2 2
Etrans  7.30  10 J
3

(b)
1 3 3
2 2 2

mv 2  k BT  1.38 1023 J / K   293K  = 6.07 1021 J

The First law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is a generalization of the law of conservation of

energy that encompasses changes in internal energy. It is a universally valid law
that can be applied to many processes and provides a connection between the
microscopic and macroscopic worlds. Suppose that a system undergoes a change
from an initial state to a final state, both the work W done and the heat Q
exchanged depend on the nature of the process. Experimentally, however, we find
that the quantity Q  W is the same for all processes. This quantity depends only
on the initial and final states and does not depend at all on how the system gets
from one state to the other. All other combinations of Q and W , including Q or
W alone, Q  W , and Q  2W , are path dependent; only the quantity Q  W is
not.

212
The quantity Q  W must represent a change in some intrinsic property of the

system. We call this property the internal energy Eint and write

Eint  Eint, f  Eint,i

Eint  Q  W 8.34

Equation 8.34 is the first law of thermodynamics. If the thermodynamic system

undergoes only a differential change, we can write the first law as

dEint   Q   W 8.35

The internal energy Eint of a system tends to increase if energy is added via heat Q
and tends to decrease if energy is lost via work W done by the system.

In the statement of the first law of thermodynamics above, it is assumed that there
are no changes in the kinetic energy or the potential energy of the system as a
whole; that is K  U  0 . The first law equation is an energy equation
specifying that the only type of energy that changes in the system is the internal

energy Eint . We consider some special cases.

First, consider an isolated system – that is, one that does not interact with its
surroundings. In this case no energy transfer by heat takes place and the value of
the work done by the system is zero and hence the internal energy remains

constant. That is, because Q  W  0 , it follows that Eint  0 , and thus

213
Eint , f  Eint ,i . It is concluded that the internal energy Eint of an isolated system

remains constant.

Second, consider the case of a system (one not isolated from its surroundings) that
is taken through a cyclic process – that is, a process that starts and ends at the
same state. In this case the change in the internal energy must again be zero, and
therefore the energy Q added to the system must equal the work W done by the
system during the cycle. That is, in a cyclic process,

Eint  0 8.36

and

Q W 8.37

If the value of the work done by the system during some process is zero, then the

change in internal energy Eint equals the energy transfer Q into or out of the
system:

Eint  Q 8.38

The work done on a system is always the negative of the work done by a system.
If energy enters the system, then Q is positive and the internal energy increases.
For a gas, we can associate this increase in internal energy with an increase in the
kinetic energy of the molecules. Conversely, if no energy transfer occurs during

214
some process but work is done by the system, then the change in internal energy
equals the negative value of the work done by the system:

Eint  W 8.39

As an example, if a gas is compressed by a moving piston in an insulated cylinder,

no energy is transferred by heat and the work done by the gas is negative; thus the
internal energy increases because kinetic energy is transferred from the moving
piston to the gas molecules.

Work done by a system

Consider some gas, at a pressure p, in a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in

Figure 8.7. If the piston has an area A , the force on it is

F  pA 8.40

F
gas

l
Figure 8.7
215
If the piston is allowed to move outwards a distance l , the gas will expand, and
its pressure will fall. But by making the distance very short, we can make the fall
in pressure so small that we may consider the pressure constant. The force F is
then constant, and the work done is

W  F l  pAl 8.41

The product Al is the increase in volume, V , of the gas, so that

W  pV 8.42

The product of pressure and volume, in general, therefore represents work. If the
pressure p is in Nm-2, and the area A is in m2, the force F is in Newton. Also if
the movement l is in metre, the work F l is in Newton x metre or joule (J). The
increase of volume, V , is in m3. Thus the product of pressure in Nm-2, and
volume in m3, represents work in joule. Therefore,

Work done = pressure x volume change 8.43

So if the volume of a gas at constant pressure of 105 Nm-2 expands by 0.01 m3,
then

work done = 105 x 0.01 = 1000 J.

Exercise 8

216
8.1 The pressure of helium gas in a tube is 0.200mmHg. If the temperature
of the gas is 20oC, what is the density of the gas? (use M HC = 4kg/kmol)
(Ans: 4.4  10-5 Pa )

8.2 At what temperature will the molecules of an ideal gas have twice the
rms velocity they have at 20 oC? (Ans: 1170K )

8.3 In certain region of outer space there are an average of only five
molecules per cm3. The temperature there is about 3K. What is the
average pressure of this very dilute gas? (Ans:2  10-16 Pa )

8.4 The rms velocity of nitrogen molecules in the air at S.T.P is about
490ms-1. Find their mean free path and the average time between
collisions. The radius of a nitrogen molecule can be taken to be

2  10-10m. (Ans: 5.2  10-8m ; 1.1  10-1 0s )

8.5 The mean free path of a gas molecule (radius =2.5  10-10m) in an ideal
gas at 500oC when the pressure is 7  10-6mmHg? (Ans: 10m)

8.6 A 2.0Kg metal block (c=0.137cal/g oC) is heated from 15 oC to 90 oC. By

how much does its internal energy change? (Ans: 86kJ)

8.7 If a certain mass of water falls a distance of 854m and all the is effective
in heating the water, what will be the temperature rise of the water?
(Ans: 2.00 oC)

8.8 How many joules of heat per hour are produced in a motor that is 75
percent efficient and requires 0.25hp to run it? (Ans: 168kJ)
217
 8.9 How much external work is done by an ideal gas in expanding from a
volume of 3 liters to a volume of 30 liters against a constant pressure of
2atm? (Ans: 5.45kJ)

8.10 As an ideal gas is compressed isothermally, the compressing agent

does 36J of work. How much heat flows from the gas during the
compression process? (Ans: 8.6cal)

218