itanium dioxide, also known as titanium(IV) oxide or titania /taɪˈteɪniə/, is the naturally

occurring oxide of titanium, chemical formula TiO

2. When used as a pigment, it is called titanium white, Pigment White 6 (PW6), or CI 77891.

Generally, it is sourced from ilmenite, rutile, and anatase. It has a wide range of

applications, including paint, sunscreen, and food coloring. When used as a food
coloring, it has E number E171. World production in 2014 exceeded 9 million tonnes.[4][5][6] It
has been estimated that titanium dioxide is used in two-thirds of all pigments, and
pigments based on the oxide have been valued at $13.2 billion. [7]

Occurrence[edit]
Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as the minerals rutile and anatase. Additionally two high-
pressure forms are known minerals: a monoclinic baddeleyite-like form known as akaogiite, and
the other is an orthorhombic α-PbO2-like form known as brookite, both of which can be found at
the Ries crater in Bavaria.[8][9][10] It is mainly sourced from ilmenite ore. This is the most widespread
form of titanium dioxide-bearing ore around the world. Rutile is the next most abundant and
contains around 98% titanium dioxide in the ore. The metastable anatase and brookite phases
convert irreversibly to the equilibrium rutile phase upon heating above temperatures in the range
600–800 °C (1,110–1,470 °F).[11]
Titanium dioxide has eight modifications – in addition to rutile, anatase, akaogiite, and brookite,
three metastable phases can be produced synthetically (monoclinic, tetragonal, and
orthorombic), and five high-pressure forms (α-PbO2-like, baddeleyite-like, cotunnite-like,
orthorhombic OI, and cubic phases) also exist:
The cotunnite-type phase was claimed by L. Dubrovinsky and co-authors to be the hardest
known oxide with the Vickers hardness of 38 GPa and the bulk modulus of 431 GPa (i.e. close to
diamond's value of 446 GPa) at atmospheric pressure.[19] However, later studies came to different
conclusions with much lower values for both the hardness (7–20 GPa, which makes it softer than
common oxides like corundum Al2O3 and rutile TiO2)[20] and bulk modulus (~300 GPa).[21][22]
The oxides are commercially important ores of titanium. The metal is also be mined from
other ores such as ilmenite or leucoxene, or one of the purest forms, rutile beach sand. Star
sapphires and rubies get their asterism from rutile impurities present.[23]
Titanium dioxide (B) is found as a mineral in magmatic rocks and hydrothermal veins, as well as
weathering rims on perovskite. TiO2 also forms lamellae in other minerals.[24]
Molten titanium dioxide has a local structure in which each Ti is coordinated to, on average,
about 5 oxygen atoms.[25] This is distinct from the crystalline forms in which Ti coordinates to 6
oxygen atoms.

Applications[edit]
The most important application areas are paints and varnishes as well as paper and plastics,
which account for about 80% of the world's titanium dioxide consumption. Other pigment
applications such as printing inks, fibers, rubber, cosmetic products, and food account for
another 8%. The rest is used in other applications, for instance the production of technical pure
titanium, glass and glass ceramics, electrical ceramics, metal patinas, catalysts, electric
conductors, and chemical intermediates.[34]

Pigment[edit]
First mass-produced in 1916,[35] titanium dioxide is the most widely used white pigment because
of its brightness and very high refractive index, in which it is surpassed only by a few other
materials (see list of indices of refraction). Titanium dioxide crystal size is ideally around 220 nm
(measured by electron microscope) to optimize the maximum reflection of visible light. The
optical properties of the finished pigment are highly sensitive to purity. As little as a few parts per
million (ppm) of certain metals (Cr, V, Cu, Fe, Nb) can disturb the crystal lattice so much that the
effect can be detected in quality control. [36] Approximately 4.6 million tons of pigmentary TiO2 are
used annually worldwide, and this number is expected to increase as use continues to rise. [37]
TiO2 is also an effective opacifier in powder form, where it is employed as a pigment to provide
whiteness and opacity to products such
as paints, coatings, plastics, papers, inks, foods, medicines (i.e. pills and tablets), and
most toothpastes. In paint, it is often referred to offhandedly as "brilliant white", "the perfect
white", "the whitest white", or other similar terms. Opacity is improved by optimal sizing of the
titanium dioxide particles.
TiO2 has been flagged as possibly carcinogenic. In 2019, it was present in two thirds of
toothpastes on the French market. Bruno Le Maire, a minister in the Edouard
Philippe government, promised in March 2019 to remove it from that and other alimentary uses.[38]

Thin films[edit]
When deposited as a thin film, its refractive index and colour make it an excellent reflective
optical coating for dielectric mirrors; it is also used in generating decorative thin films such as
found in "mystic fire topaz".
Some grades of modified titanium based pigments as used in sparkly paints, plastics, finishes
and cosmetics - these are man-made pigments whose particles have two or more layers of
various oxides – often titanium dioxide, iron oxide or alumina – in order to have
glittering, iridescent and or pearlescent effects similar to crushed mica or guanine-based
products. In addition to these effects a limited colour change is possible in certain formulations
depending on how and at which angle the finished product is illuminated and the thickness of the
oxide layer in the pigment particle; one or more colours appear by reflection while the other tones
appear due to interference of the transparent titanium dioxide layers.[39] In some products, the
layer of titanium dioxide is grown in conjunction with iron oxide by calcination of titanium salts
(sulfates, chlorates) around 800 °C[40] One example of a pearlescent pigment is Iriodin, based on
mica coated with titanium dioxide or iron (III) oxide. [41]
The iridescent effect in these titanium oxide particles is unlike the opaque effect obtained with
usual ground titanium oxide pigment obtained by mining, in which case only a certain diameter of
the particle is considered and the effect is due only to scattering.

Sunscreen and UV blocking pigments[edit]

In cosmetic and skin care products, titanium dioxide is used as a pigment, sunscreen and
a thickener. As a sunscreen, ultrafine TiO2 is used, which is notable in that combined
with ultrafine zinc oxide, it is considered to be an effective sunscreen that is less harmful to coral
reefs than sunscreens that include chemicals such as oxybenzone and octinoxate.
Nanosized titanium dioxide is found in the majority of physical sunscreens because of its strong
UV light absorbing capabilities and its resistance to discolouration under ultraviolet light. This
advantage enhances its stability and ability to protect the skin from ultraviolet light. Nano-scaled
(particle size of 20–40 nm)[42] titanium dioxide particles are primarily used in sunscreen lotion
because they scatter visible light much less than titanium dioxide pigments, and can give UV
protection.[37] Sunscreens designed for infants or people with sensitive skin are often based on
titanium dioxide and/or zinc oxide, as these mineral UV blockers are believed to cause less skin
irritation than other UV absorbing chemicals. Nano-TiO2 blocks both UV-A and UV-B radiation,
which is used in sunscreens and other cosmetic products. It is safe to use and it is better to
environment than organic UV-absorbers.[43]
TiO
2 is used extensively in plastics and other applications as a white pigment or an opacifier and for

its UV resistant properties where the powder disperses light – unlike organic UV absorbers – and
reduces UV damage, due mostly to the particle's high refractive index. [44]
Other uses of titanium dioxide[edit]
In ceramic glazes, titanium dioxide acts as an opacifier and seeds crystal formation.
It is used as a tattoo pigment and in styptic pencils. Titanium dioxide is produced in varying
particle sizes, oil and water dispersible, and in certain grades for the cosmetic industry.

Research[edit]
Photocatalyst[edit]
Nanosized titanium dioxide, particularly in the anatase form, exhibits photocatalytic activity under
ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. This photoactivity is reportedly most pronounced at the {001} planes
of anatase,[45][46] although the {101} planes are thermodynamically more stable and thus more
prominent in most synthesised and natural anatase, [47] as evident by the often observed
tetragonal dipyramidal growth habit. Interfaces between rutile and anatase are further considered
to improve photocatalytic activity by facilitating charge carrier separation and as a result, biphasic
titanium dioxide is often considered to possess enhanced functionality as a photocatalyst. [48] It
has been reported that titanium dioxide, when doped with nitrogen ions or doped with metal
oxide like tungsten trioxide, exhibits excitation also under visible light. [49] The strong oxidative
potential of the positive holes oxidizes water to create hydroxyl radicals. It can also oxidize
oxygen or organic materials directly. Hence, in addition to its use as a pigment, titanium dioxide
can be added to paints, cements, windows, tiles, or other products for its sterilizing, deodorizing,
and anti-fouling properties, and is used as a hydrolysis catalyst. It is also used in dye-sensitized
solar cells, which are a type of chemical solar cell (also known as a Graetzel cell).
The photocatalytic properties of nanosized titanium dioxide were discovered by Akira
Fujishima in 1967[50] and published in 1972.[51] The process on the surface of the titanium dioxide
was called the Honda-Fujishima effect (ja:本多-藤嶋効果).[50] Titanium dioxide, in thin
film and nanoparticle form has potential for use in energy production: as a photocatalyst, it can
break water into hydrogen and oxygen. With the hydrogen collected, it could be used as a fuel.
The efficiency of this process can be greatly improved by doping the oxide with carbon. [52] Further
efficiency and durability has been obtained by introducing disorder to the lattice structure of the
surface layer of titanium dioxide nanocrystals, permitting infrared absorption. [53] Visible-light-active
nanosized anatase and rutile has been developed for photocatalytic applications. [54][55]
In 1995 Fujishima and his group discovered the superhydrophilicity phenomenon for titanium
dioxide coated glass exposed to sun light.[50] This resulted in the development of self-cleaning
glass and anti-fogging coatings.
Nanosized TiO2 incorporated into outdoor building materials, such as paving stones in noxer
blocks[56] or paints, can substantially reduce concentrations of airborne pollutants such as volatile
organic compounds and nitrogen oxides.[57] A cement that uses titanium dioxide as a
photocatalytic component, produced by Italcementi Group, was included in Time Magazine's Top
50 Inventions of 2008.[58]
Attempts have been made to photocatalytically mineralize pollutants (to convert into CO 2 and
H2O) in waste water.[59] TiO2 offers great potential as an industrial technology for detoxification
or remediation of wastewater due to several factors:[60]

1. The process uses natural oxygen and sunlight and thus occurs under ambient conditions;
it is wavelength selective and is accelerated by UV light.
2. The photocatalyst is inexpensive, readily available, non-toxic, chemically and
mechanically stable, and has a high turnover.
3. The formation of photocyclized intermediate products, unlike direct photolysis techniques,
is avoided.
4. Oxidation of the substrates to CO2 is complete.
5. TiO2 can be supported as thin films on suitable reactor substrates, which can be readily
separated from treated water.[61]
The photocatalytic destruction of organic matter is also exploited in photocatalytic antimicrobial
coatings,[62] which are typically thin films applied to furniture in hospitals and other surfaces
susceptible to be contaminated with bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
Hydroxyl radical formation[edit]
Although nanosized anatase TiO2 does not absorb visible light, it does strongly absorb ultraviolet
(UV) radiation (hv), leading to the formation of hydroxyl radicals. [63] This occurs when photo-
induced valence bond holes (h+vb) are trapped at the surface of TiO2 leading to the formation of
trapped holes (h+tr) that cannot oxidize water.[64]
TiO2 + hv → e− + h+vb
h+vb → h+tr
O2 + e− → O2•−
O2•− + O2•−+ 2 H+ → H2O2 + O2
O2•− + h+vb → O2
O2•− + h+tr → O2
 OH− + h+vb → HO•
e− + h+tr → recombination