guidelines

system

section 11

fluid systems guidelines

section 11a - roles and responsibilities

section 11b - water base drilling fluids

section 11c - non aqueous fluids

section 11d - completion fluids

 section 11a

roles and responsibilities

 roles and responsibilities
roles and responsibilities – mud engineers
The drilling fluids engineer is the Scomi Oiltools representative and therefore responsible for the
day-to-day operations at the wellsite.

The lead / senior drilling fluids engineer and the second / junior engineer are responsible for the
daily running of the mud and all activities associated with the operation, including but not limited
to: fluid testing, logistics, inventory control and communication with the drill crew, the mud loggers,
other members of the mud team and primarily the operators drilling representative.

The drilling fluids engineers are responsible for all mixing and maintenance of the drilling fluid, at
the wellsite, as per the drilling fluids programme and amendments. They will also suggest changes to
the operators drilling supervisor as conditions dictate preferably including discussion with the
Scomi Oiltools operations manager / co-ordinator beforehand when possible.

The drilling fluids engineers will comply with all of the operators and rig contractor’s HSE plans, and
carry out their specific HSE drilling fluid responsibilities.

The roles and responsibilities for the drilling fluid engineers may vary depending on the particular
job and operator, e.g. onshore / offshore, drilling with WBM / OBM / SBM, deepwater, ERD, HPHT etc.,
and in many cases the following list will be considerably more expansive and detailed than shown
here:-

Role Responsibility
HSE 3 Attend operators / contractors safety meetings and advise on all matters pertaining
to Scomi Oiltools HS&E and products. The requirement for drilling fluids engineers is
to not only attend but to contribute to safety meetings onsite, including giving
presentations on the fluids and chemicals being used.
3 Give toolbox / pre tour talks on chemical safety.
3 Take part in risk assessments relevant to fluids in particular for first use of new
systems e.g. SBM/OBM etc.,
3 Ensure correct and updated safety posters are in place in the mud and sack rooms
or mixing areas for land rigs.
3 Ensure MSDS are up to date and easy to locate.
3 Use rig specific HSE observation system e.g. STOP.
Daily 3 Maintain safe & tidy mud laboratory.
3 Be familiar with all aspects of the drilling unit and it’s equipment including
Mud limitations and bottlenecks that may impact the efficiency of the drilling fluid
Maintenance service.
and 3 Ensure that all drilling fluid systems are correctly formulated to fully meet the
Performance company’s fluid specifications prior to displacement into the well.
3 Ensure that clear written instructions are provided to all relevant rig crew working
in the pit room, mixing area, shaker house and rig floor to cover all planned fluid
transfers, chemical additions and solids control equipment utilisation.
3 Ensure that mud logging and drilling personnel are informed of all transfers or
changes of pit utilisation.
3 Ensure that all drilling fluid properties are maintained, as specified in the drilling
fluid programme.
3 Perform all necessary API mud checks for mud report – minimum 3 times daily while
drilling. Mud test results that deviate sharply from established mud property trends
must be re-run before treatments commence to reverse apparent negative trends.


 Section

11a roles and responsibilities

Role Responsibility
3 Run pilot tests as required to diagnose drilling fluid problems, identify their solutions
and/or optimise chemical treatment levels.
3 Calibrate, maintain and monitor certification of mud testing equipment.
3 Closely monitor the condition, i.e. shape, size and integrity, and volume of cuttings at
the shale shakers to assess the adequacy of:-
3 Formation inhibition (water based mud)
3 Salinity levels (synthetic based mud)
3 Hole stability (mud weight)
3 Hole cleaning efficiency
3 Reconcile circulating volumes on a continuous basis in particular with OBM / SBM.
3 Optimise solids control equipment performance to minimise the build up of low
gravity solids and therefore maintain plastic viscosity values as low as possible.
3 Select and monitor shaker screen sizes and usage. Order new screens.
3 Closely monitor, control and minimise surface drilling fluid losses.
3 Ensure that the rig crews monitor and record pit volumes, density and marsh
funnel viscosity as required, i.e. minimum 30 minute intervals during drilling /
circulating operations.
3 7-day sample rota:-collect a 1-litre mud sample every day and store this sample for
7 days. This can be done by having seven 1-litre bottles, one for each day. When all
7 bottles are full, the bottle from day one shall be emptied and filled with a sample
from the present day. The mud sample has to match a mud check, preferably the last
mud check for the day. (You have to notify the laboratory which mud check this is on
the daily report, if you have to send the samples t o the lab.).
3 Carry out mud pit management, including; identifying fluid interfaces, spacers, pills,
cement and divert.
3 Prepare pit management plans for upcoming operations e.g. intervals displacements,
spotting pills / LCM, well clean up etc.
Daily 3 Call operations manager / co-ordinator.
3 Attend operators morning meeting as required.
Meetings / 3 Attend operators / contractors safety meetings / per tour safety meetings, advise on
Calls all matters pertaining to Scomi Oiltools HS&E and products.
3 Report unscheduled events in operators specific system, attend meeting if required.
Daily 3 Prepare and distribute drilling fluids report.
Reporting 3 Complete all sections of the daily mud report.
3 If drilling fluid properties are out of specification a comment should be put on the
daily drilling fluid report explaining the reason for the nonconformity and the plan
for bringing the properties back into specification.
3 If the well conditions or other operational circumstances dictate the properties to
be out of specification this should also be stated as a comment on the report.
3 All mud treatments should be commented on in the daily report.
3 Update all end of well reports / graphs for fluid trends, volumes, inventory, discharge
etc.
3 Update end of well written report.
3 Update volume reports, transport loss, concentration sheets and other contract
specific reports for signatures by Scomi Oiltools and operator.
3 Write handover to night / second engineer to be completed thoroughly.
3 Maintain discharge / environmental reports.
3 Update shaker screen usage sheet.
End of Hitch 3 Compile end of hitch report.
Paperwork 3 Complete timesheet / service voucher signed by engineer and operator.
End of 3 Complete – and send to town - all end of well reports / graphs for fluid trends volumes,
Section inventory, discharge etc. as required for the well.
Reporting


Role Responsibility
End of Well 3 Complete all aspects of end of well report with emphasis on performance
reporting measures achievement, lessons learned and conclusions / recommendations for
future wells.
3 Update rig information manual / rig drilling fluids audit / rig induction manual.
Logistics 3 Order chemicals / bulk (drill water if applicable) in a timely manner.
3 Order laboratory chemicals and equipment.
3 Advise on the loading / unloading of bulk fluids & chemical containers.
3 Advise rig crews to ensure cargo is securely fastened e.g. cargo nets in containers.
3 Chemicals and fluids are to be ordered and accounted for in units according to
contract.
3 Ensure that all materials received at the rig site and handled for shipment to
shore or land warehouse are correctly stored, handled and used according to
guidelines given in quality plans and materials safety data sheets. Maintain a rig
site chemical and container inventory sheet including; chemical name, container
number, amount and location of items. Update on a regular basis for information
purposes.
3 Perform QA / QC checks on received dry bulk and liquid muds / brines as specified
by the operator.
3 Take samples for and send to office as requested for QA / QC testing.
3 Update chemical inventory and container list – offshore.
3 With any backload of chemicals, mud, laboratory equipment, copies of the
Backload manifest to be sent. Ensure that bulk barite stocks are maintained above
government / company’s minimum stipulated levels.
3 Ensure that pipe freeing agents are available and accessible for immediate
displacement.
3 Ensure that stock levels of lost circulation materials are maintained above minimum
specified levels.
3 Ensure that all materials and equipment orders for the next hole section or
operation are carefully prepared in advance.
3 Order and maintain an adequate inventory for supplies of PC, testing equipment
and testing chemicals.
End of job 3 Last engineer on rig due to down-manning etc., to prepare full chemical, liquid
and or mud, and equipment inventory. This sheet must be signed by drilling supervisor
Demanning and sent to the office.


 section 11b

water base drilling fluids

section 11b Scomi Oiltools

spud muds 2
hydro-foil 5
hydro-foil gen 1 9
hypr-Foil S8 12
HyPR-Drill 22
salt polymer 25
opta-flo 27
rheo-plex 34
dispersed and calcium muds 37
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

water base drilling fluids

spud muds
This system consists of water which has been viscosified with DRILL-GEL (Bentonite) or guar gum.
This system is normally used to spud a well and to drill top hole sections, often being pumped as
sweeps when drilling blind. The basic system has little inhibitive characteristics and as it is usually
used where the primary concern is hole cleaning, there is little or zero need for inhibition or fluid loss
control.

When drilling top hole sections, the operational practice may require displacing the hole to a
weighted spud mud before running casing. This displacement mud may be engineered to fulfil more
specific requirements and will be addressed in well specific planning.

Benefits of the DRILL-GEL Spud Mud System

ƒ Fluid has high carrying capacity
ƒ Simple to formulate
ƒ Highly flexible can be converted into different systems
ƒ Low costs
ƒ Simple to use
ƒ Environmentally benign

Limitations of the DRILL-GEL Spud Mud System

ƒ May have logistical restrictions on fresh water availability in remote locations
ƒ Requires time to mix
ƒ In complex spuds, logistics are difficult
ƒ Requires high quality water, with low chlorides and low hardness
ƒ Easily contaminated

Formulation
An example of a basic Spud Mud formulation is shown in Table 1.

PRODUCT Function CONCENTRATION

drill water Base Fluid +0.95 bbl/bbl / 0.95 (m3/ m3)
soda ash Total Hardness Reducer To Ca++ <100 mg/l
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier 20 - 30 lb/bbl ( 57 – 85 kg/m3)
caustic soda pH modifier To pH 9+
PROPERTY TYPICAL VALUE UNITS
Mud Weight 8.8 lb/gal
PV 20 cP
YP 20 - 60 lbs / 100 ft2
6 RPM 10 + dial reading
Gel 11/20 lbs / 100 ft2
API No control ml / 30 min

Table 1 – Indicative DRILL-GEL spud mud formulation


The normal method is to prehydrate DRILL-GEL (PHB) at concentrations of 35 - 40 lb/bbl (100 – 114
kg/m3) in drill (fresh) water, allowing the gel to hydrate as long as operationally possible. The fluid is
then diluted to give a final bentonite concentration of + 20 lb/bbl (57 kg/ m3) with water.

To maximise the yield of the DRILL-GEL high quality water is recommended throughout, however,
due to logistical / operational restraints the initial prehydration should be performed in high quality
drill water then diluted with seawater or lower quality water e.g. brackish water.

To optimise the hydration, 6 – 8 hours minimum is required for the DRILL-GEL to fully yield.

While the basic formulation detailed in Table 1 is very simple, operational needs may dictate the
addition of other products to ensurethe integrity of the hole and the security of the operations.
Typical contingency / supplementary products and reasons for addition to the basic bentonite system
are detailed in Table 2.
Chemical Function Operational Concentration Concentration
lb/bbl kg/m3
HYDRO-PAC Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 2.85 – 14.15
Filtration filtration control in
displacement mud
and sweeps
CMC Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 2.85 – 14.15
Filtration filtration control in
displacement mud
and sweeps
HYDRO-STARCH Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 2.85 – 14.15
Filtration filtration control in
displacement mud
and sweeps
Isothiazolin Biocide Prevention of
microbiological
action 500 -1000 ppm
DRILL-BAR Barite To build spud mud As required
and displacement
mud where density
is greater than 8.8
lb/gal (1.05 SG)

Table 2 –Supplementary Products

Engineering Guidelines
The primary concern while drilling and casing the top hole is to ensure that it is performed safely,
quickly because the integrity of the hole may be time dependant, and economically.

When drilling with a spud mud the major concern is to ensure there is always sufficient volume
available to complete the operation. Thus a high level emphasis should be placed on ensuring
the availability of bentonite, drill water and other required chemicals. As there may also be requirements
for displacement and cementing fluids as well as the spud mud, a pit management is a major
consideration during the planning and execution of the operations.


 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Offshore
On an offshore rig the normal approach is to drill riserless, with no returns to surface. The rig pumps
are used to continuously pump seawater down hole. The bentonite is then pumped as sweeps to
clean the hole. These sweeps are pumped according to operational needs, usually at every connection
and every 30 ft (9 m). The volume of these sweeps vary according to needs of the operation but are normally
in the range of 50 - 100 bbl (8 - 16 m3), depending on hole size, pump capability and rate of penetration.

At the end of the section the hole is normally swept with a large spud mud pill, generally 100 - 200 bbl,
to ensure that the hole is clean. In order to ensure the integrity of the hole during the casing and
cementing, operations the hole is then displaced to a fluid which may be weighted, may contain
some filtration control polymers, fine LCM and or inhibitors such as KCl. An excess volume, usually
50% over the gauge hole volume, is pumped to ensure that the hole is full.

Onshore
The approach is normally to circulate water from the water pit, taking returns to the cellar pit and
recirculating. Sweeps can then be pumped to ensure the hole is cleaned.

Once the conductor (the top hole casing string) is set, normally ± 50 - 100 ft (15 - 30 m), the spud mud can be
circulated from the pits taking returns via the flow line and through the solids control equipment.

Mixing Spud Mud

ƒ Treat out the hardness of the water with soda ash. Ensure hardness value is less than 200 mg/l
ƒ Mix in the required DRILL-GEL
ƒ Leave gel to hydrate for as long as possible
ƒ Cut back the prehydrated bentonite with the required volume of water
ƒ Added the required caustic soda

As mentioned above displacement fluids for top holes may be, diluted spud mud, neat PHB or spud
mud / PHB containing polymers, lost circulation materials and may also be weighted. This will be
mixed as described above with the addition of the required products.

Cementing
Bentonite spud mud is sensitive to cement contamination. The effect of cement is to flocculate
the bentonite, increase the pH. If the fluid is to be salvaged to drill another section, pre-treatment
with sodium bicarbonate should be considered and at the end of the cement job, the contamination
treated out by use of SAPP and /or dumping and diluting.

If salvaging the fluid is not required, it is suggested that the fluid is kept to drill out the rat hole and
the shoe, provided this is operationally feasible. This will prevent the contamination of more expensive
fluids by the cement.

Alternative Spud System – GUAR GUM

The logistical limitations to the use of DRILL-GEL sweeps may require the use of an alternative
system particularly in the offshore environment. The most common and economically effective
alternative is guar gum which can be mixed directly with seawater. The concentration of guar gum is
normally in the range 3.0 - 5.0 lb/bbl (8.6 - 14.25 kg/m3).

PRODUCT Function
sea water Required
citric acid Only if necessary to reduce the pH <8.0
guar gum 4.0 lb/bbl (11.4 kg/m3)
HYDRO-CIDE Only if fluid is to be stored more than 24 hours.


Recommended Mixing Procedure:
1. Ensure the chosen pit is clean and free of any hydroxyl bearing fluid e.g. lime, caustic soda or
biocide. Guar Gum will not hydrate in the presence of hydroxyl ions. pH <8.0 is recommended.
If necessary treat the mixing water with citric acid to lower the pH prior to mixing the guar gum.
2. Fill the pit to the required level with sea water.
3. Mix guar gum slowly through the hopper to avoid “Fish Eyes” and then circulate through the
shearing unit. Do not over shear as this will eventually degrade the polymer chain and result in
lowering the viscosity.
4. Add biocide if the guar gum slurry is to be left for more than 24 hours. This should only be added
after the guar gum has been completely dispersed and hydrated.

It should be noted that although guar gum sweeps have high viscosity, they have little gel structure
giving minimal suspension characteristics. They should be used as ‘sweeps’ only.

hydro-foil
HYDRO-FOIL is a KCl / PHPA low solids, non dispersed drilling fluid system that is used primarily to
drill moderately reactive shales. It can be used effectively at temperatures up to 275 (135 - 149 ˚C) 300 ˚F.

The primary shale inhibition mechanisms in the HYDRO-FOIL system are:

1. The cation exchange of potassium ions with the clay to reduce hydration and swelling in conjunction
with;
2. HYDRO-CAP XP a partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide (PHPA) which adheres to the surface of the
drilled cuttings, encapsulating them, and also coats the well bore reducing the hydration of clays in
the formation.

Potassium chloride is the primary source of the potassium ions in the HYDRO-FOIL system. However
due to restriction on the use of chloride ions, in some areas, the potassium Ion may also be supplied by:-

ƒ potassium sulphate ƒ potassium formate

ƒ potassium carbonate ƒ potassium acetate

The HYDRO-FOIL system can be used in any salinity from freshwater to near NaCl saturation,
although in the higher salt content systems increased polymer concentrations will be required as
the polymer does not fully uncoil and hydrate.

When using a HYDRO-FOIL system formulated with potassium carbonate a third mechanism of
inhibition is speculated. The calcium ions in the interstitial (pore) fluids will cause the carbonate ions
in the filtrate to precipitate, plugging the pore throats and reducing the pore pressure transmission
effect.

Benefits of the HYDRO-FOIL system include:

ƒ Effective inhibition
ƒ Environmentally acceptable in most areas
ƒ Highly lubricious fluid
ƒ Simple to use
ƒ Readily upgradeable to more advanced systems such as HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1


 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Formulation
An example of a HYDRO-FOIL formulation and mud properties is shown in Table 3.

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
drill water Base Fluid 0.85 bbl/bbl 0.85 m3/ m3
Salt (KCl) Water activity and density + 30 85.5
caustic soda / pH modifier To pH 9.0
potassium hydroxide
HYDRO-ZAN / Viscosifier 0.75 -1.0 2.1 – 2.85
HYDRO-ZAN RD
HYDRO-CAP XP PHPA 1 – 1.5 2.85 – 4.3
HYDRO-PAC Filtration Control 1 - 3 2.85 – 8.55
HYDRO-STAR Filtration Control 4 - 8 11.4 – 22.8
CMS, HT or NF)
DRILL-BAR Weight material As required As required

Table 3 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL formulation

Mud Weight 9.7 lb/gal

PV 20 cP
YP 30 lb / 100 ft2
6 RPM 11 dial reading
Gel 7 / 10 / 12 lb / 100 ft2
API <5 ml / 30 min
HTHP (@ Bottom Hole Temp °F) <12 ml / 30 min
Table 4 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL properties

In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used to optimise the system for
specific use as detailed in Table 5.

Chemical Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
OX-SCAV Oxygen scavenger to extend usage 120 ppm 120 ppm
in high temperature and salinity
sodium chloride To increase inhibition and To 110 To 313.5
to drill in salt environment
HYDRO-CAP SC Low molecular weight PHPA 1 -1.5 2.85 – 4.3
HYDRO-CAP RD Readily dispersible -- high- 1 -1.5 2.85 – 4.3
molecular weight PHPA
HYDRO-CAP L Liquid PHPA 3+ 8.55 +
Isothiazolin Biocide 500 -1000 ppm 500 – 1000 ppm
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier. Used in initial make up 5 14.25
HYDRO-THIN Deflocculant 0.5 - 1 1.4 – 2.85
HYDRO-PLAST / High temperature 2-8 5.7 – 22.8
HYDRO-PLAST PLUS filtration controller
HyPR-DRL ROP Enhancer 0.5 - 5% 0.5 - 5%

Table 5 –Supplementary products for HYDRO-FOIL System

Engineering Guidelines
Maintain a minimum of 1 – 1.2 lb/bbl (2.85 - 3.4 kg/m3)of excess PHPA in the system as determined by a
materials balance calculation..


The HYDRO-CAP concentration in the system will deplete while drilling as the PHPA encapsulates
the cuttings and coats the wellbore. The HYDRO-CAP concentration must be maintained by regular
treatments, ideally in the form of HYDRO-CAP rich pre-mixes containing 1.5- 2.0 (4.3 – 5.7 kg/m3) lb/bbl.

The PHPA concentration may be measured using the test described in Section 3 of this Handbook,
Mud Testing Procedures.

Field experience has determined that as a general rule the PHPA depletes at a rate of 2 – 8 lb/bbl (5.7
– 22.8 kg/m3) of cuttings removed depending on the reactivity of the formation:-

Typical Depletion Factors

Highly reactive shales 6 - 8 lb/bbl (17.1 – 22.8 kg/m3)

Moderately reactive shales 4 - 6 lb/bbl (11.4 - 17.1 kg/m3)
Low reactivity shales 2 - 4 lb/bbl (5.7 – 11.4 kg/m3)

Actual depletion factors should be determined on a formation by formation and field by field basis e.g.:-

Drilled 100m of 12 ¼” Hole (capacity 0.4783 bbl/m) - moderately reactive shale

Depletion factor = 5 lb/bbl (14.3 kg/m3)

Total depletion = 100 x .4783 * 5 = 239 lbs (108 kg) of PHPA

Required to add to maintain > 1 lb/bbl excess = 5 x 25 kg sacks (275 lbs (124 kg).

NB. Liquid PHPA, HYDRO-CAP L, is 35% active PHPA, therefore, 14 x 25 kg pails of liquid PHPA would
be required to maintain the 1 lb/bbl (2.85 kg/m3) excess

Mixing HYDRO-FOIL
While mixing the HYDRO-FOIL system the shearing of the fluid has to be maximised. It is recommended
that a shearing unit be used and that shearing is maximised by circulating through the gun lines.
However once the polymers are mixed it is recommended that high pressure shearing is stopped, as
the long chain encapsulating polymer will be physically degraded.

ƒ Treat out the hardness with soda ash. Ensure hardness value is less than 200 mg/l.
ƒ Blend the brine (KCl, NaCl or alternative).
ƒ Add the HYDRO-CAP XP polymer. If possible use the SHOTGUN method (described below).
ƒ Add the remaining polymers. Care must be taken so as not to mix these so fast that fish eyes will form.
ƒ Add the required amounts of bridging material.
ƒ Add the pH modifiers.
ƒ Weight up the system.
ƒ Just prior to circulating, add the polymer extenders if required.

A limitation with a PHPA system is the difficulty of mixing the dry polymer since, if the polymer is
mixed too quickly into the fluid it will very easily form fish eyes. Alternative mixing solutions include:-

ƒ Have the polymer solubilised into the brine and shipped from town for offshore locations.

ƒ Have a stock of HYDRO-FOIL. Note however that this is 35 % active.

ƒ Reduce the pH of the brine with citric acid to 6. Then mix in the polymer. Raise the pH to 8 with caustic
after all the polymers is mixed in.

ƒ If the initial viscosity is too high and there are mixing limitations, mix only half of the required PHPA
in the initial mix and add the remainder after displacement while drilling. It is recommended in
order to ensure that the minimum excess is maintained that initial concentrations of HYDRO-CAP
are in the range of 1.2 – 1.5 lb/bbl.


 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

5. Mix the PHPA by the SHOTGUN method.

ƒ Have the total volume to be treated in one pit and an empty pity pit ready
ƒ Have all the sacks of HYDRO-CAP XP by the hopper.
ƒ Transfer the volume from the pit to be treated to the empty pit.
ƒ Add the sacked HYDRO-CAP XP via the hopper to the transfer stream approximately 1 sack
every 1 minute. Ensure that the hopper does not become blocked.

In some cases the product specified for particular application might be HYDRO-CAP SC a low
molecular weight, short chain, PHPA or HYDRO-CAP RD a PHPA treated to make it easier to mix and
disperse. In both cases mixing will be easier as initial fluid viscosities from these products will be
reduced.

Hardness
It is recommended that the hardness level is minimised. Prior to mixing the system treat out hardness
with soda ash. The efficiency of the polymers is improved when the calcium concentration is less than
200 mg/l.

Fluid Loss Control

Maintain filtrate as per requirements by the use of HYDRO-PAC, HYDRO-STAR CMS and or HYDRO-
STAR NF. The type of HYDRO-PAC (R or LV) will be decided by the operational requirements. Ideally
it is recommended that HYDRO-PAC LV is used in the initial formulation as this has minimal impact
on the rheology compared with the use of HYDRO-PAC R.

Rheology
While the HYDRO-CAP XP will add considerable initial rheology to the mud this will eventually
shear thin with circulation and temperature. Xanthan Gum, HYDRO-ZAN or HYDRO-ZAN RD, is
recommended to achieve the desired rheological properties as this product delivers improved low
end rheology and shear thinning characteristics. The shear thinning rheology from HYDRO-ZAN is
preferred to the rheology achieved with the use of products such as HYDRO-PAC R.

pH
This should be maintained at 8.5 – 9.5. High pH will result in hydrolysing of the polymer, at pH above
10.0 hydrolysis of the PHPA will start resulting in the release of ammonia gas (NH3) which is very evident
on the rig even at low concentrations. In the event that the system is over treated, treat immediately
with citric acid to reduce to the specified level. To prevent pH hot spots, pH modifiers should be pre-
solubilised before addition to the system.

Due to the hydrolysis of the PHPA at high pH it is not recommended to drill cement with the HYDRO-
FOIL system unless it is unavoidable. If cement has to be drilled then the mud should be pre-treated
with using a low molecular weight polyacrylate thinner such as HYDRO-THIN. Subsequent treatment
with additional HYDRO-CAP XP and other products should be made as required to achieve
specifications.

Density
Density is provided by DRILL-BAR and or calcium carbonate. If higher densities or flatter rheological
profiles are required, the HYDRO-FOIL system can be formulated with HyPR-BAR, fine grind barite,
or HAEMATITE.

Temperature Limitation and Treatment

The HYDRO-FOIL system is effective in a range of temperatures from 275 – 300 ˚F (135 - 149 ˚C), thermal
stability being dependent on the type and concentration of salt in the formulation and the use of
oxygen scavengers. Fluid loss, in particular the HPHT, can be controlled with the addition of HYDRO-
THERM Amps/Co-polymers.


Cementing
HYDRO-FOIL is particularly sensitive to cement contamination. Cement contamination increases the
calcium ion content and the pH of a fluid which has the effect of hydrolysing the PHPA polymers, thus
increasing filter loss and reducing rheology.

ƒ When cementing it is recommended a large sacrificial spacer is used to protect the fluid system.
ƒ When cementing a liner ensure that all the excess cement and spacer is reverse circulated out of hole.
ƒ If possible on the first circulation after a conventional cement job is over it is recommended that an
attempt is made to isolate any preflush and excess cement.
ƒ Prior to a cement job consideration needs to be made whether to pre-treat the system to deal
with bicarbonate to treat out possible contamination. However be aware of the possibility of over
treatment.
ƒ To prevent the contamination of the HYDRO-FOIL system it is recommended that the old fluid, which
will be displaced from the hole, is used to drill out the cement and shoe.

It is worth noting that although the high pH from cement contamination will degrade the HYDRO-
CAP polymer the residue will contain some acrylate polymer which has significant encapsulating
properties. It may therefore be possible to isolate the contaminated fluid, treat out the cement
contamination then reuse as a base fluid.

hydro-foil gen 1
HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 is a KCl / PHPA system which has been enhanced by increasing the inhibition
of the fluid with the inclusion of cloud point glycol(s).

Mechanism of Shale Stabilisation

The 2 methods of shale inhibition from the HYDRO-FOIL system, potassium and PHPA encapsulation
are enhanced by the clouding effect of the glycol which prevents pore pressure transmission. The
stabilisation mechanisms combine synergistically to provide inhibition close to that of non aqueous
fluids.

At a specific temperature (cloud point) a water soluble glycol starts to change from soluble to
insoluble, forming a thermally activated emulsion (TAME). As the temperature increases the glycol
starts to come out of solution and the liquid begins clouding. Eventually the single phase liquid
separates into two separate phases.

A B

Figure 1 Visualisation of Glycol Behaviour as a Function of Temperature

A: Glycol and water together – at ambient temperature the glycol is 100% water soluble
B: Solution is heated until the glycol reaches ‘cloud point’ and becomes insoluble.

Cloud point is a function of the following variables:

ƒ Salinity of the solution ƒ Molecular weight and type
ƒ Type of electrolyte ƒ Concentration of the glycol


 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Figure 2. Cloud Points for Various Glycols in KCl

Research has concluded that the glycol is associated by hydrogen bonding to the reactive sites of
clays. During this adsorption process, water is displaced and ordered structures of glycols are
formed. There is little depletion of the glycol from the fluid when drilling, the glycol returning to
solution as the cutting moves up the wellbore and the fluid temperature drops below the cloud
point. This supports the theory that the bonding between the clay and the glycol is transitory, and
there is some mechanism for association and disassociation due to changes in the environment.

It can be concluded that the shale inhibition and formation protection will be achieved by one or
both of the following mechanisms:

ƒ The glycol displaces water from adsorption sites on the clay minerals present in shales, especially in
the presence of potassium Ions.
ƒ Blocking the formation pores, preventing further ingress of invasive fluids by clouding out
preventing pore pressure transmission.

The HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 is compatible with and used with the same range of salts as the HYDRO-FOIL
system.

Benefits of the HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 system include

ƒ Effective inhibition ƒ Extension of polymeric efficiency at

ƒ Environmentally acceptable in most areas high temperatures
ƒ High lubricity fluid ƒ Enhance drill solid tolerance
ƒ Ease of mixing and maintenance ƒ Enhanced solids control efficiency
ƒ Low dilution rates ƒ Some protection against corrosion by
ƒ Drilling depleted sands where differential acid gasses
sticking is a potential problem ƒ High flexibility
ƒ Increase protection against stuck pipe ƒ Possibility of recycling the fluid
ƒ Minimisation of bit and BHA balling ƒ Simple to use

In order to cover the range of operational conditions Scomi Oiltools has developed a family of inhibitive
clouding glycols:-
PPRODUCT Application
CIRRUS CPG Low to medium temperature applications
STRATUS CPG Medium temperature applications
CUMULUS CPG Moderate to high salinity brines or higher temperatures
NIMBUS CPG Saturated salt systems

Table 6. Scomi Oiltools Glycol Product Range

10
Glycol and Salt Selection
The quantity and type of glycol used will depend both on the quantity and type of salt in the system as
well as on the temperature range over which the product is required to cloud out.

Normal glycol operational concentrations are in the range 0.5% to 5%.

Note although normal formulation usually contains only one type of glycol, the glycols are all
compatible and the use of a blend of two or more glycols, e.g. CIRRUS and STRATUS, is possible, should
this be required to fulfil operational needs.

Formulation
An example of a HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 formulation and mud properties is shown in Table 7.

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
drill water Base Fluid 0.85 bbl/bbl 0.85m3/m3
salt Water activity and density 5 - 109 14.25 - 310
caustic soda / potassium pH modifier To pH 9.0
hydroxide
HYDRO-CAP XP PHPA 0.75 – 1.5 2.14 – 4.28
HYDRO-ZAN / Viscosifier 0.75 – 1.0 2.14 – 2.85
HYDRO-ZAN RD
HYDRO-PAC Filtration Control 1-2 2.85 – 5.7
HYDRO-STAR (CMS, HT,NF) Filtration Control 4-8 11.4 – 22.8
CUMULUS CPG / NIMBUS GLYCOL 0.5 - 5% by volume
CPG / CIRRUS CPG
DRILL-BAR Barite As required
Property Typical Value Units
Mud Weight 8.4 - 18.8 lb/gal
PV ALAP cP
YP 30 lbs/100 ft2
6 RPM 8 - 20 dial reading
Gel 7 / 10 / 12 lbs/100 ft2
API <5 ml/30 min
HTHP (@ Bottom Hole <12 ml/30 min
Temp° F)

Table 7 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 formulation

In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used to optimise the system for
specific use as detailed in Table 4 –Supplementary products for HYDRO-FOIL System

Engineering Guidelines
The HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 system is engineered in the same manner as the HYDRO-FOIL system
described in the previous section with the exception of the addition of the glycol.

Glycol Concentration

The glycol concentration is measured using the method described in Section 3 of this Handbook, Mud
Testing Procedures.

11
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Closely monitor the concentration, replacing lost product as required. Field evidence shows that the
rate of depletion is quite low as the product returns to solution with reduced wellbore temperature.

If 2 glycols are used during a section closely follow the mud program instructions on the relative
concentration of each product with depth.

hydro-foil s8
HYDRO-FOIL S8 is a salt/polymer system which has been enhanced by increasing the inhibition of the
system with the inclusion in the formulation of 5 -15% of sodium silicate, HYDRO-SIL S, or potassium
silicate, HYDRO-SIL K, The silicate is used to enhance inhibition and mechanical wellbore stability
particularly in highly fractured and unconsolidated formations. HYDRO-FOIL S8 can be used effectively
with temperatures to 250 ˚F (125 ˚C).

FEATURES AND BENEFITS

ƒ Effective shale inhibition. ƒ

Treated cuttings with potential to be used as
ƒ Environmentally acceptable in most areas. fertiliser.
ƒ Ease of mixing and maintenance. ƒ
Low corrosion rates.
ƒ Increase protection against stuck pipe. ƒ
Cheaper than glycol systems although
ƒ Minimisation of bit and BHA balling. maintenance additions are expected to be
ƒ Enhanced solids control efficiency. higher so this cost advantage can be eroded
ƒ Some protection against corrosion by acid gasses. if the rig has poor solids control.
ƒ Simple to use. ƒ
Good environmental properties for offshore
ƒ Potential to seal micro-fractured shales. applications.

LIMITATIONS

The principal advantage of the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system is that it is a very inhibitive water base
system. The main application for silicate fluids is the replacement of oil and synthetic fluids in difficult
drilling applications e.g. wells containing reactive claystones. Silicate fluids exhibit a very high degree
of shale inhibition exceeding that of glycol fluids, however, they have a number of limitations which
must be considered in fluid selection.

ƒ Not highly lubricous when compared to ƒ

High plastic viscosities, low tolerance of drill
Bentonite mud. solids.
ƒ High pH system. ƒ
Incompatible with ester based and natural oil
ƒ High dilution rates may be required making type lubricants.
logistics challenging. ƒ
Temperature limited to 250 ˚F (125 ˚C)
ƒ
Density limited to 15 lb/bbl (1.80 SG)
MECHANISM OF SHALE STABILISATION

The primary shale inhibition mechanisms in the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system are:

ƒ The prevention of pore pressure transmission by the precipitation of soluble silicates in the pore
spaces.
ƒ The cation exchange of ions, most commonly potassium, with the clay to reduce hydration and
swelling in conjunction with;
ƒ The use of cloud point glycols such as CIRRUS or CUMULUS CPG which also minimise the pore
pressure transmission.

12
As the soluble silicate laden filtrate comes into contact with or penetrates the low pH formation,
typically close to neutral at 7.0, the pH of the mud filtrate drops. The drop from pH 12 combined
with a reaction with divalent cations such as Mg++ and Ca++ present in the interstitial formation
water results in the formation of a silica gel which precipitates in the pore spaces forming a semi
permeable membrane blocking further penetration by the drilling fluid. This reaction is essentially
irreversible and can rapidly deplete the silicate concentration. Sea water will reduce the effective
silicate concentration by approximately 4 lb/bbl (11.4 kg/m3). Surface adsorption onto minerals and
oxides will also deplete silicate levels.

The gel and the precipitate will quickly form an impenetrable layer which prevents further fluid
invasion thus retarding the transmission of pressure from the hydrostatic mud column to the rock
matrix. The wellbore and the shale are effectively “pressure isolated” and Pore Pressure Transmission
is minimised. This latter phenomenon is critical in tectonically stressed and fractured shales, which
require sufficient over balance mud pressure to support the bore hole from collapsing.

The presence of solutes such as Potassium Acetate / Sulphate / Carbonate is synergetic and will
balance the mud and the shale activities to reduce the net flow of ions into the shale. The presence of K+
is useful as it will exchange for Ca ++ and Mg++ making these ions available to form precipitates.

Sealing of micro-fractured shales by silicates

It should be noted that oil and synthetic based fluids cannot stabilise micro-fractured shales, as their
filtrates are restricted from entering or invading the shales due to capillary threshold pressures, which
are significant for intact shales with small pores. Soluble silicates however have the ability to fill small
cracks and seal them.

13
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Formulation
Two example formulations and properties of the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system are detailed in Table 8.

Product Function Concentration Concentration
lb/bbl kg/m3
drill water Base Fluid 0.74 0.74 m3/m3
salt (KCl) Water activity and density 30 85
soda ash Hardness Control <400 mg/l <400 mg/l
HYDRO-ZAN Viscosifier 0.75 - 1.0 2.1 – 2.85
HYDRO-PAC LV Filtration Controller 2.5 7.1
HYDRO-STAR (CMS ) Filtration Controller 2.0 5.7
HYDRO-SIL S / Shale Stabilisation 11 % v/v 11 % v/v
HYDRO-SIL K
OX-SCAV * Oxygen Scavenger 1.0 - 1.5 2.85 – 4.3
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 155 442
Table 8 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL S8 formulation

Property Units Typical Value

Mud Weight Lb/gal 12
PV cP 20 - 30
YP lbs/100 ft2 15 - 25
6 rpm dial reading 10
Gel lbs/100 ft2 6 / 11
API ml/30 min <6
pH 12 - 12.5
Table 9 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL S8 properties
*Note that an oxygen scavenger is included as part of the standard formulation. This is an integral part
of the system.

In addition to the basic products additional products can be used to optimise the system for specific use
as detailed in Table 9

PRODUCT Function CONCENTRATION

sodium chloride To increase inhibition and to Up to 110 lb/bbl
drill in Salt environment 441/ kg/m3
Isothiazolin Biocide 500-1000 ppm
HYDRO-LUBE SL Lubricity 0 – 3%
CUMULUS CPG, NIMBUS CPG, Cloud Point Glycol 0.5- 3%
CIRRUS CPG, STRATUS CPG
HyPR-DRL ROP Enhancer 0.5 - 5%
Table 10 – Supplementary products
Engineering Guidelines
The silicates used for drilling fluids are solutions of water soluble glasses primarily potassium
silicates. A key element in their use for inhibition is the molecular ratio between the silica and
the potassium. The activity of potassium silicates generally ranges from 35 – 50% with a density + 1.5 SG
(12.5 lb/gal).

While drilling the silicate concentration should ideally be maintained above 30 g/l SiO2 by frequent
testing and addition of HYDRO-SIL (S or K). The depletion of silicate will increase when drilling
reactive claystones. It is recommended that the initial fluid is made up to 50 g/l SiO2. It is also imperative
that that all premixes are mixed at this concentration.

14
The HYDRO-SIL (S or K) concentration in the system will deplete while drilling as the silicate interacts
with the cuttings and inhibits the wellbore. The concentration must be maintained by regular
treatments, ideally in the form of HYDRO-SIL (S or K) rich pre-mixes.

The state of the cuttings on the shakers is a good indication of the effectiveness of the system
inhibition, with the ideal cutting being firm and dry. Should the cuttings turn into “toothpaste”, this
a good indication that the silicate is depleting. The silicate concentration may be measured using the
test described in Section 3 of the Drilling Fluid Engineering Manual, WBM Mud Testing Procedures.

Mixing HYDRO-FOIL S8
ƒ Treat out the hardness with soda ash. Ensure hardness value is less than 100 mg/l.
ƒ Blend the brine KCl or NaCl.
ƒ Add the pH modifiers as required.
ƒ Add the required volume of HYDRO-SIL (S or K)
ƒ Add the polymers, HYDRO-ZAN, HYDRO-STAR CMS and HYDRO-PAC LV. Care must be taken so as
not to mix these too fast such that fish eyes will form.
ƒ Add the required amounts of any bridging material.
ƒ Weight up the system.
ƒ Just prior to circulating, add the oxygen scavenger.

Hardness
It is recommended that the hardness level is minimised. Prior to mixing the system treat out Mg ++
and Ca ++ with soda ash and caustic soda, both to improve the efficiency of the polymers and to
ensure that the silicate is not precipitated.

Fluid Loss Control

Maintain filtrate as per requirements by the use of OPTA-STAR PLUS and or HYDRO-PAC. The type
of HYDRO-PAC, R or LV will be decided by the operational requirements. Ideally it is recommended
that HYDRO-PAC LV is used in the initial formulation as this has minimal impact on the rheology
compared with the use of HYDRO-PAC R.

Use nitrogen cartridges in the filter press to avoid CO2 reacting with silicates in the mud sample.

Rheology
Xanthan Gum, HYDRO-ZAN or HYDRO-ZAN RD, is recommended to achieve the desired rheological
properties as this product delivers improved low end rheology and shear thinning characteristics.
The shear thinning rheology from HYDRO-ZAN is preferred to the rheology achieved with the use of
products such as HYDRO-PAC R.

pH and Silicate Concentration

It is imperative that the pH is maintained in the range specified i.e. above 11.5. The silicates are only
soluble above a pH of 10.4 and when divalent cations are absent.

This system is pH sensitive and lowering the pH will cause the silicates to begin precipitating thus
increasing the plastic viscosity. By maintain the concentration of the silicate, the pH will be maintained.
However if required the pH can be maintained by the use of KOH additions provided the silicate
concentration is at the required concentration.

pH should only be measured with an accurately calibrated meter.

Increase the silicate concentration before trips as silicate depletion has been recorded during lengthy
static periods possibly due to high BHT or CO2.

15
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Density
Density is provided with DRILL-BAR and or calcium carbonate.

Oxygen Scavenger
OX-SCAV should be maintained, at all times, at 1.0 - 2.0 lb/bbl (2.85 - 5.7 kg/m3)to stabilise rheology.

Temperature Limitation and Treatment

The HYDRO-FOIL S8 system is effective up to a temperatures of 250 ˚F(125 ˚C), thermal stability being
dependent on the type and concentration of salt in the formulation and the use of oxygen scavengers

Lubricity
A characteristic of this system is its relatively high co-efficient of friction. Maintaining a low drill
solids content will prevent increases in torque. However the high pH makes the system incompatible
with conventional lubricants based on esters and natural oils. Normal ester and fatty acid lubricants
hydrolyse in such environments and ‘grease out’. Specifically designed lubricants such as HYDRO-
LUBE SL can be used or HYDRO-LUBE SL PLUS a premium silicate lubricant for challenging directional
and ERD wells.

Glycols
The addition of cloud point glycols, such as CIRRUS or CUMULUS CPG, further enhances well bore
inhibition and lubricity as well as aiding in extending the thermal stability of the system to 250 ˚F
(125 ˚C).

CO2 Contamination:
The silicate concentration will be depleted by contamination with CO2 resulting in a fall in pH, an
increase in filter loss and gelation problems. Treat out any such contamination with KOH and soda ash
as well as maintain the pH and soluble silicates at the required level.

Reservoir Drilling
It must be highlighted that the silicate mechanism for inhibition will block pores in the reservoir
thus the use of HYDRO-FOIL S8 in the reservoir must be carefully considered. If the method for
completion involves the by passing of any potential damage by perforation then formation damage
is not an issue.

Drilling Practices
Good drilling practice must be followed at all times. As the silicate system is highly inhibitive cuttings
will not disperse into the system and must be removed from the wellbore. Pumping at maximum
flow rates, and back reaming on connections and trips is recommended especially in deviated wells.
Frequent wiper trips and pipe rotation should be used to ensure adequate hole cleaning is taking
place. Observe shakers closely for volume of returns and act immediately on any reduction in cuttings
volume.

Before POOH, circulate at least 1.5 x bottoms up to ensure that the hole has been thoroughly
cleaned.

Cementing
HYDRO-FOIL S8 is sensitive to cement contamination. Cement contamination increases the calcium
ion content which will cause the precipitation of the soluble silicates thus increasing filter loss,
increase gels, and rheology. It is not recommended to drill cement with the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system
unless it is unavoidable. If cement has to be drilled then the mud should be pre-treated using a low
molecular weight polyacrylate thinner such as HYDRO-THIN. Once the cement is drilled it will be
necessary to treat the system to rebuild the concentration of the silicate.

16
ƒ When cementing it is recommended that a large sacrificial spacer is used to protect the fluid system.
ƒ If possible on the first circulation after a conventional cement job is over it is recommended that an
attempt is made to isolate any pre-flush and excess cement.
ƒ Before a cement job, consideration needs to be made whether to pre-treat the system with bicarbonate
to treat out possible contamination, however, be aware of the possibility of over treatment.
ƒ To prevent the contamination of the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system it is recommended, when displacing to
this system, that the old fluid being displaced is used to drill out the cement and shoe.

Post HYDRO-FOIL S8
After the silicate system has been used ensure that the pits are effectively cleaned especially if
subsequent operations involve the use of prehydrated bentonite as the presence of silicate will prevent
the hydration of bentonite.

Solids Control Equipment

During displacements to HYDRO-FOIL S8 the shakers should be dressed with relatively coarse
screens to prevent polymer blinding of the screens and subsequent loss of fluid. The shakers should
be quickly dressed with finer screens as the fluid warms up and become fully sheared.

As previously mentioned this system is not solids tolerant. It is imperative that the drill solids are
maintained below 5%. This should be done by optimisation of the available solids control and the use
of dilution with pre-mixes.

Health and Safety

While soluble silicates are not classified as being dangerous or toxic they have a high alkalinity, pH
13.0 - 13.5, which means that they can be irritating to the skin and severely irritating to the eyes. Ensure
that rig crews are wearing the correct PPE as specified in the relevant MSDS for all chemicals handled.
At a minimum suitable gloves and eye/face protection should always be worn when handling soluble
silicates and silicate drilling fluids.

Avoid breathing mists.

HyPR-FOIL S8
The disposal of drilled cuttings, particularly in sensitive areas on land, poses significant environmental
burdens and very high costs for disposal and site remediation.

HyPR-FOIL S8 is a high performance silicate system engineered and patented, to provide a sodium
chloride free inhibitive drilling fluid for environmentally sensitive environments and cuttings treatment,
providing a recycling route for the cuttings thus minimising environmental impact, in particular, for
land based operations.

HyPR-FOIL S8 is a silicate system wherein sodium and chloride ions have been replaced with potassium
cations from carbonates, sulphates, acetates, nitrates and / or hydroxides. Potentially harmful leachates
can be ultimately removed by precipitation as insoluble calcium salts.

Intensive development has identified high performing polymers to be used in the system to deliver
excellent low end rheology and fluid loss.

The aim of the HyPR-FOIL S8 system development is to provide a low cost method of treating cuttings
and waste fluids producing a reusable material offers potentially significant savings, both financial and
environmental.

17
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

The treated cuttings and waste mud should yield soil material rich in potassium and nitrates which
enhance plant growth without the introduction of potentially harmful contaminants. Sodium and
chloride are excluded from the drilling fluids formation minimising their concentration in the drill
cuttings. The fertiliser rich “soil” can be sold or given away to farmers or used for beneficial fill.
Operators are presented with an opportunity for the reuse of drilling cuttings or disposed mud which
essentially eliminates long term disposal liability and cost.

Alternative sources of potassium are used in the system, potassium acetate, sulphate, formate and
carbonate which deliver similar inhibitive performance compared with KCl as shown in the following
graph.

SHALE RECOVERY COMPARING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SILICATE

DRILLING FLUID
100.00

99.00 98.26
98.92 98.99
98.76
98.00
SHALE RECOVERY (%)

97.00

96.00

95.00

94.00

93.00

92.00

91.00

90.00
SILIC-8L K2C03-D CH3C00K-F K2504-D

SILICATE SYSTEM

Figure 3 Shale recovery system performance

HyPR-FOIL S8 System Components:

OPTA-STAR PLUS
A premium grade starch product, OPTA-STAR PLUS is very effective at reducing the fluid loss and
providing a thin, tough and low permeability cake.

HYDRO-SIL K
Is a drilling fluid water based shale inhibitor. It is a solution of potassium silicate oligomers with a
molecular ratio of 3.3 and density of 1.5 SG (12.5 lb/gal).

Potassium Sulphate / Potassium Carbonate / Potassium Acetate

Alternative sources of potassium ions to the more commonly used potassium chloride. They are
principally used to formulate water based fluids where KCl cannot be used due to environmental
restrictions on the use of chloride ions.

HYDRO-ZAN
Xanthan gum used for increasing the rheological parameters in water-based drilling fluids. Small
quantities provide excellent viscosity for suspending weighting material for all water-based drilling
fluids systems. HYDRO-ZAN has the unique ability to produce a fluid that is highly shear-thinning and
develops a true gel structure.

HYDRO-PAC LV or HYDRO-STAR CMS

High quality polyanionic cellulose polymer or carboxymethyl starch (CMS), are water based filtration
controllers which do not produce the viscosity associated with regular grade Pac materials.

18
 OX-SCAV
A formulated sulphite-based chemical in liquid form used to scavenge oxygen. It reacts with and eliminates
dissolved oxygen as a possible source of corrosion in drilling mud systems. OX-SCAV can be used in all
freshwater and saltwater drilling fluids.

DRILL-BAR
Is a finely ground, low abrasion and high purity API barite with the chemical formula, BaSO4, used to
increase the density of all types of drilling fluids.

Potassium Hydroxide
KOH, is used primarily as a pH modifier and as an alternative to caustic soda. It acts as source of potassium
ions in a water based mud system.

TYPICAL FORMULATION

Product Unit Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
Drill-water bbl / litres 0.82 bbl 0.82 m3/m3
HYDRO-SIL K lb/bbl 38 108
Potassium Sulphate lb/bbl 35 100
Potassium Carbonate lb/bbl 2 5.7
HYDRO-ZAN lb/bbl 1.5 4.3
HYDRO-PAC LV or lb/bbl 2.5 7.1
HYDRO-STAR CMS
OPTA-STAR PLUS lb/bbl 6 17.1
OX-SCAV * lb/bbl 1 2.85
DRILL-BAR lb/bbl 42 120
Potassium Hydroxide lb/bbl If required If required
*Note that an oxygen scavenger is included as part of the standard formulation.

TYPICAL PROPERTIES AFTER HOT ROLLING AT 194 ˚F FOR 16 HOURS

Parameter Value
Mud Weight (lb/gal) 10.0
Rheology
600 RPM 75
300 RPM 54
200 RPM 44
100 RPM 29
6 RPM 12
3 RPM 10
PV (cP) 21
YP (lb/100 ft2) 33
Gel 10 sec (lb/100 ft2) 9
Gel 10 min (lb/100 ft2) 11
pH Mud 12.1
API Filtrate (cc/30min) 4.0
pH Filtrate 12.3

Engineering Guidelines
Silicate system guidelines are detailed in the previous section, HYDO-FOIL S8. The HyPR-FOIL S8 system
is run in the same fashion with the exception of the different salts and chemicals as detailed above.

19
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

HyPR-DRILL
high performance water base mud system
A large percentage of drilling problems and associated NPT are caused by unstable clay and shale
formations, > 40% in GOM. Rig time is lost in dealing with well bore instability problems which can result
in loss of the interval and costly sidetracks.

Non aqueous drilling fluids or “NAF” provide the most inhibitive environment for drilling reactive
shales and clays and deliver superior drilling and all round performance when compared with WBM.
NAF are expensive, and many locations require expensive treatment and disposal procedures for dealing
with cuttings and other drilling wastes as legislated by nearly all oil and gas producing countries

The Drilling Fluids industry has been constantly conducting research to develop more inhibitive
water based fluids with enhanced performance. The use of water based mud results in lower
environmental costs and potentially reduced drilling costs, but arguably the most significant
contribution is reduction of unending long term liabilities associated with NAF soaked cuttings piles,
liquid storage, disposal sites, and potential damage to water sources. In particular this ongoing
development of water based replacements for NAF has focused on High Performance Water Base Muds,
HPWBM

HyPR-DRILL is an advanced and cost effective drilling fluid system which provides an inhibitive
environment comparable to that of NAF for drilling reactive formations and maintaining wellbore
stability

PERFORMANCE

ƒ prevents hydration of chemically ƒ

maintains clean cutters at the bit face,
reactive formation maximizing penetration rate
ƒ controls dispersion of clays ƒ
drill cuttings remain firm and intact and are
ƒ provides anti-accretion properties, easier to remove with the primary solids
minimising balling of the BHA control equipment
ƒ
provides excellent lubricating properties
ADVANTAGE

ƒ stable well-bore ƒ
good cementation providing zonal isolation
ƒ low dilution rate ƒ
reduced drill solids content
ƒ increased ROP ƒ
reduced torque & drag
ƒ in-gauge hole ƒ
optimised drilling performance

HyPR-DRILL is specifically engineered to serve a broad range of high performance drilling fluid
applications both offshore and on land:-

1. A fresh water formulation for use in environments where low to zero chloride contents are required
e.g. for on land disposal of drilling wastes
2. An inhibitive salt formulation for all drilling applications e.g. potassium chloride / acetate / sulphate
etc.,
3. A high salt formulation, typically 20% NaCl, for deep water drilling to inhibit hydrate formation.

Water and ions from drilling fluids diffuse into clays and shale by either pressure difference or
osmotically due to electrolytic imbalance. This leads to hydration and swelling of the clay/shale matrix
which can destabilise the wellbore and allow clay cuttings to swell and disperse into the fluid system.

20
HyPR-DRILL inhibits hydration of the clays using a combination of a quaternary ammonium salt and
a low molecular weight encapsulating terpolymer. This superior reduction in shale hydration is
demonstrated in Figures 1, 2 and 3 which compare the linear expansion of shales exposed to the
HyPR-DRILL system with other fluid types including competitors HPWBM systems These figures clearly
show that only invert emulsion SBM reduced shale swelling to a greater degree.

LINEAR EXPANSION OF SHALE - HyPR-DRILL (FRESHWATER)

120
Bentonite SBM PHPA/GLYCOL
HYPR-DRILL Competitor A Competitor B
PERCENT EXPANSION

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 1000 2000 3000
TIME (minutes)

Figure 4. HyPR-DRILL fresh water formulation vs. other inhibitive drilling fluids.

LINEAR EXPANSION OF SHALE - HyPR-DRILL (6% KCI)

120

Bentonite SBM PHPA/GLYCOL HYPR-DRILL

100
PERCENT EXPANSION

80

60

40

20

0
0 1000 2000 3000
TIME
T (minutes)

Figure 5. HyPR-DRILL 6% KCl formulation vs. other inhibitive drilling fluids.

21
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

LINEAR EXPANSION OF SHALE - HyPR-DRILL (20% NaCI)

120
Bentonite SBM PHPA/GLYCOL

100 HYPR-DRILL Competitor A Competitor B

PERCENT EXPANSION 80

60

40

20

0
0 1000 2000 3000
TIME (minutes)

Figure 7. HyPR-DRILL 20% NaCl formulation vs. other inhibitive drilling fluids.

Stability tests consistently demonstrate shale recovery > 95 % with all HyPR-DRILL applications.

HyPR-DRILL PRODUCTS

The HyPR-DRILL system comprises several core components HyPR-HIB, HyPR-CAP, HyPR-DRL and
CUMULUS CPG in combination with a wide range of standard drilling fluid additives.

HyPR-DRILL should be formulated specifically for each application to ensure that the correct level
of inhibition is provided.

HyPR-HIB
A quaternary ammonium salt which prevents water absorption by shales, suppressing hydration of
shales and clays and restricting dispersion. Cuttings are transported by the inhibitive mud to the
primary solids control equipment firm and intact for efficient removal. Due to the high level of inhibition
the HyPR-DRILL dilution requirements are lower than conventional water base fluids which reduces
overall cost of drilling fluid and waste disposal. HyPR-HIB is a liquid which is completely soluble
in water and easy to mix. HyPR-HIB is used at a minimum concentration of 2% v/v. This can be increased
to 5% v/v depending on the formation reactivity. The minimum concentration of 2% is recommended
only to supplement other inhibitive cations.

HyPR-CAP
A very low molecular weight acrylamide terpolymer which encapsulates shale and clay cuttings as
they are formed, preventing water adsorption. Cuttings dispersion and build up of low gravity solids
in the system is reduced. These intact cuttings are more efficiently removed by the shale shakers.
HyPR-CAP is a granular powder used at of 1 – 4 lb/bbl (2.85 – 11.4 kg/m3). Concentration is dependent
upon the reactivity of the formations being drilled with maintenance treatment dependent on the
ROP. HyPR-CAP encapsulates cuttings and is continuously but slowly depleted from the system and
must be replaced. HyPR-CAP being an acrylamide terpolymer is susceptible to hydrolysation at
high pH. The system pH must be maintained below 9.5 and drilling of cement should be avoided. When
cement has to be drilled with the HyPR-DRILL pre-treat with citric acid and sodium bicarbonate of
soda and replace the HyPR-CAP with fresh product as soon as the pH of the system is within
specification.

22
HyPR-DRL
A proprietary blend of surfactants and other products which forms a tough lubricating film on the metal
preventing water wet drill cuttings from adhering to metal surfaces. PDC cutter fouling, bit balling and
cuttings accretion on the bottom hole assembly is prevented. HyPR-DRL is a liquid product used at 2
– 4% v/v. It is recommended that the product be added on a continuous basis so that fresh product is
constantly available at the bit and BHA to maximise the filming effect.

CUMULUS CPG
A cloud point glycol used for inhibiting clay and shale formations and is a key component of
Scomi Oiltools well known HYDRO-FOIL GEN1 system. The synergism of HyPR-HIB and HyPR-CAP
with CUMULUS CPG provides the HyPR-DRILL system with significantly enhanced inhibitive
characteristics. CUMULUS CPG ‘clouds out’ on the formation and cuttings, blocking diffusion of water
into the shale matrix effectively controlling swelling and dispersion. CUMULUS CPG provides increased
lubricating properties along with anti accretion character to the drilling fluid. It is used at a minimum
level of 3% by volume.

These four products form the core of the HyPR-DRILL system and. Only formulations containing these
four products with the specified minimum dosage, or higher, will be classed as a HyPR-DRILL system.

Other products

SODA ASH
Is used for treating out Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions from the make up water. Total hardness in the makeup
water should be below 400 mg/l.

CAUSTIC SODA,
Sodium hydroxide, is used to maintain the pH at a level of + 9.0. Ensure that pH is maintained below
a maximum of 9.5 to prevent hydrolysing of the acrylamide polymers

HYDRO-ZAN
Xanthan polymer, provides the required rheological properties for the fluid. Normal usage is in the
range of 1 - 2 lb/bbl, (2.8 – 5.6 kg/m3).

HYDRO-ZAN PLUS
Premium grade Xanthan polymer, provides the required rheological properties for the fluid. Normal
usage is in the range of 1 – 1.5 lb/bbl, (2.8 – 4.3 kg/m3).

HYDRO-STAR NF
Non-fermenting starch, fluid loss reducer is used at 4 - 6 lb/bbl (11 – 17 kg/m3).

OPTA-STAR PLUS
A premium grade starch product, OPTA-STAR PLUS is very effective in reducing the fluid loss and
providing a thin, tough and low permeability cake.

KCl
Or other potassium based salts, may be used to provide cation exchange capability for swelling
sodium based clays. KCl is mixed at 6 - 8% by weight but may be used at higher concentrations
as determined by planning requirements or as preferred by some operators. KCl should be measured
using an ion selective electrode or by the Perchlorate analytical method.

23
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

NaCl
Can be added at 20% to provide thermodynamic suppression of hydrate formation in deep water
drilling. KCl, CUMULUS CPG, and HyPR-HIB also provide a degree of hydrate suppression.

LCM usage with HyPR-DRILL system

There are no restrictions on the use of LCM.

HSE:
As with all chemicals always review the MSDS for safe handling procedures for each system
component. There are no specific HSE issues with the HyPR-DRILL system.

MIXING PROCEDURE for HyPR-DRILL system:

ƒ Clean tanks thoroughly.

ƒ Fill water to the appropriate level leaving sufficient margin for volume increase from adding chemicals.
Calculate the volume of chemicals required as per the formulation.
ƒ Add soda ash to reduce total hardness to below 400 mg/l.
ƒ Mix caustic soda to get a pH of 9.0.
ƒ Mix OPTA-STAR PLUS
ƒ Add HYDRO-ZAN / HYDRO-ZAN PLUS, and shear the fluid for some time to ensure that the
polymers yield. 75% of the required quantity of HYDRO-ZAN / HYDRO-ZAN PLUS may be added to
facilitate addition of the other products.
ƒ Mix HyPR-HIB.
ƒ Add HyPR-DRL
ƒ Treat with CUMULUS CPG.
ƒ Slowly pour in HyPR-CAP. The product should be added gradually to avoid formation of fish eyes
and the fluid should be well sheared.
ƒ Add KCl if required as per the formulation.
ƒ Mix NaCl if required as per the formulation.
ƒ Add barite to the required drilling fluid density.
ƒ Shear the system well to make it homogenous.
ƒ Add the balance of HYDRO-ZAN / HYDRO-ZAN PLUS.
ƒ Adjust pH to 9.0 with caustic soda if required

Typical HyPR-DRILL Formulation and Parameters with fresh water

FORMULATION for 1 bbl and 1 m3 of drilling fluid:

Additive Concentration
lb/bbl kg/m3
water 0.856 bbl/bbl 0.85 m3/m3
soda ash 0.2 .56
caustic soda 0.5 1.4
OPTA-STAR PLUS 4.0 11.2
HYDRO-ZAN PLUS 1.5 4.3

24
 Additive Concentration
HyPR-HIB 3% v/v 3% v/v
HyPR-DRL 3% v/v 3% v/v
HyPR-FOIL 3 3
CUMULUS CPG 3% v/v 3% v/v

PARAMETERS after hot rolling for 16 hours @ 200 ˚F/ 93 ˚C

Parameter Unit Value

Density lb/gal 10.0
SG 1.20
Fann-VG Meter 6 / 3 rpm °dial rotation 5/4
PV cP 16
Yield Point lb/100 ft2 23
Gel 10 sec lb/100 ft2 4
Gel 10 min lb/100 ft2 4
API Filtrate ml / 30 mins. 4
pH 9.5

salt polymer
System Description
Salt-based muds are muds containing varying amounts of predominantly sodium chloride ranging from
10,000 mg/l of NaCl up to saturation.

Salt muds maybe be classified as:

1. Saturated Salt Muds 315,000 mg/l

2. Saltwater Muds 25,000 – 315,000 mg/l
3. Brackish-Water Muds 10,000 – 25,000 mg/l

Saturated Salt Muds are primarily used to prevent excessive hole enlargement while drilling massive
salt beds. They can also be used to reduce dispersion and hydration of shales and clays.

Saltwater muds are often prepared from fresh water or bentonite-water muds. These muds
normally contain low solids concentrations, have low densities, have minimal chemical treatment,
and possess low viscosities and high fluid losses. Saltwater muds may be prepared intentionally
with salt to drill troublesome shale sections. They are used as an inhibitive mud to decrease dispersion
and viscosity build-up from drilled solids.

In many areas, because of economics or lack of sufficient fresh water, brackish water often is used as
the makeup water for drilling fluids. These muds generally are termed brackish-water if their salt content
is between 10,000 to 15,000 mg/l. They are usually found in inland bay areas or marshes.

The polymers and products used for the salt systems are the same as those used for the HYDRO-FOIL
systems.

A typical formulation for a salt saturated system is shown in Table 10.

25
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
HYDRO-ZAN Viscosifier 0.75 – 1.0 2.14 – 2.85
HYDRO-PAC LV Filtration Control 0.5 – 2.5 1.43 – 7.13
HYDRO-STAR / Filtration Control 2.0 5.7
HYDRO-STARCH /
HYDRO-STAR CMS
HYDRO-SPERSE Deflocculant 1–6 2.85 – 17.12
HYDRO-DEFOAM A Defoamer As required

Table 11 – Typical saturated salt formulation

For the saltwater and brackish water systems the product concentrations will vary with the salt
concentration, the higher salt systems generally requiring increased concentrations.

Supplementary products which are used with salt muds include:-

Product Function Concentration

Isothiazolin Biocide 500 – 1000 ppm
HYDRO-LUBE, LUBRI- GREEN Lubricity 0 – 3%
HYDRO-CAP XP Shale encapsulation 1 – 2 lb/bbl
2.85 – 5.7 kg/m3
HyPR-DRL ROP enhancer 0.5 – 5 %

Table 12 Supplementary products

Engineering guidelines
The chloride content of saturated salt muds is 192,000 mg/l (315,000 mg/l NaCl) at saturation. As the
temperature of the mud increases, more salt is able to go into solution. This means that a fluid which
is saturated under surface conditions may not be saturated at downhole temperatures and can cause
substantial washout in a salt zone due to increased salt solubility.

Mixing salt muds

ƒ Prehydrate DRILL-GEL at 20 – 30 lb/bbl (57 - 85.5 kg/m3) in freshwater
ƒ Mix the salt brine to the required concentration
ƒ Treat out the calcium from the mix water with the required amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water with caustic soda to above 10.5 as this will precipitate any magnesium and
other divalent ions
ƒ Mix in the required amount of prehydrated DRILL-GEL
ƒ Add the required fluid loss control agent e.g. HYDRO-STAR
ƒ Add defoamer as required
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR

26
If the system is converted from an existing mud it is recommended that the following treatment
levels are determined by pilot testing.

ƒ Break over will require a minimum of three circulations (two to add all the chemicals evenly and one
to ensure that the fluid is thin)
Adjust pH to > 10.5 and treat out hardness with caustic soda and
soda ash
ƒ Reduce the MBT to 10 -15 lb/bbl (28.5 - 42.3 kg/m3) by dilution and if dumping necessary
ƒ Add deflocculant – HYDRO-SPERSE as required
ƒ Add sodium chloride at + 110 lb/bbl (313.5 kg/m3) to saturation
ƒ Adjust fluid loss with HYDRO-STAR or HYDRO-PAC LV
ƒ Adjust rheology with prehydrated DRILL-GEL or HYDRO-ZAN
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR

pH
These muds do not require pH to function however it is a common practice to maintain the pH of the
mud from 10.5 – 12.0 with additions of caustic soda. Saturated salt muds require larger additions of
caustic soda to maintain a higher pH than do freshwater muds. Maintaining a 10.5 -12 pH offers several
advantages:

ƒ Deflocculants are more effective

ƒ Corrosion is reduced
ƒ Lower concentrations of filtration control additives are required when Ca ++ and Mg ++ solubility is
reduced
ƒ Foaming tendency is lessened
ƒ Mud is generally more stable

Hardness
Saturated salt muds will normally contain soluble calcium due to the formations penetrated and the
type of makeup water used. Generally, the presence of calcium does not produce detrimental effects
on the mud; except when the pH is increased beyond 12.0 when the fluid loss will be difficult to control.

Foaming
Saturated salt muds are characterised by foaming. Foaming is generally restricted to surface foam and
is not troublesome unless aggravated by mechanical agitation. The degree of foaming may sometimes
be decreased by increasing the alkalinity of the mud (Pm). A defoaming agent may be necessary.

Temperature Stability
The temperature limitation of saturated salt muds is around 250 °F (125 °C) and is normally dictated by
the filtration control additives used.

Fluid Loss Control

Ca ++ and Mg ++ hardness do not adversely affect filtration control in Saturated Salt Muds when using
HYDRO-STARCH however, when HYDRO-PAC is used, hardness should be below 400 mg/l.

opta-flo
The selection of drilling fluids to drill reservoir sections is critical to the success of any well in order
to minimise or prevent damage to the reservoir rock. Formation damage is caused by various
mechanisms including fines migration, clay swelling, emulsion blocking and solids invasion all of
which can result in poor completions and loss of production. A ‘fit for purpose ‘Drill In Fluid’, DIF,
must provide inhibition/wellbore stability, lubricity, bridging and solids suspension yet provide filter-
cakes which are easily removed in the production process.

27
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

OPTA-FLO is a water based ‘Drill In’ Fluid (DIF) designed to drill reservoir sections with zero to
minimal formation damage. OPTA-FLO DIF systems are based on bridging methods which provide a
positive control of filtrate and mud leak off over a wide permeability range, into the formation, while
providing filter-cakes which are readily removed by the produced fluids. OPTA-FLO systems are
flexible and can be designed for specific reservoirs based on the petro-physical properties of the rock
as well as the pore fluid chemistry.

OPTA-FLO systems are environmentally safe with no special HSE requirements.

Specially selected enzyme treatment systems may also be utilised for post completion treatments to
enhance the removal of the filter cake.

Damage mechanisms while drilling reservoirs include:

ƒ fluid invasion
ƒ solids invasion
ƒ incompatible filtrate and pore fluid chemistry leading to:-
ƒ emulsion blocking
ƒ interstitial clay hydration
ƒ In-situ fines migration
ƒ wrong or incorrect stimulation methods

Subsequent filter cake may not be easily ‘lifted off and completely removed which can adversely affect
the well production.

OPTA-FLO is formulated to ensure

ƒ fluid invasion is minimised

ƒ solids do not impair the reservoir permeability and are acid soluble
ƒ filtrate compatibility with pore fluids
ƒ the filter cake is easily removed at low lift off pressure during production
ƒ deliver or exceed prognosed well productivity

OPTA-FLO is a high performance drilling fluid with the following characteristics;

ƒ provides cutting suspension for hole cleaning

ƒ thin, tough and resilient low permeability filter cake
ƒ lubricity to minimise drag and torque in directional and horizontal wells
ƒ engineered PSD of bridging agents to provide effective sealing
ƒ non damaging fluid

The OPTA-FLO system can be used to drill reservoirs with various well profiles :

ƒ directional wells
ƒ extended reach wells
ƒ horizontal wells

and for wells with a wide range of completion strategies

ƒ cased hole completion

ƒ slotted and perforated liner
ƒ expandable slotted screen
ƒ open hole gravel pack
ƒ barefoot completions

28
The OPTA-FLOsystem provides the following features and benefits:

Features: Benefits:

ƒ Non-damaging ƒ High return permeability

ƒ Low Skin ƒ
High production
ƒ Low lift off pressure ƒ
No blockage with cake pieces
ƒ Low permeability, tough, thin & ƒ Low leak off and minimum chances of
resilient filter cake stuck pipe
ƒ High lubricity / low friction factors ƒ Low torque and drag
ƒ Environmentally compliant ƒ Low disposal cost
ƒ Works with any completion tool assembly ƒ Wide flexibility in usage

OPTA-FLO System Components:

OPTA-VIS
A premium quality non xanthan based viscosifier has been selected for use in the OPTA-FLO system.
OPTA-VIS is readily dispersible in makeup water, is highly shear thinning, does not leave any residue
and may be completely removed with acid treatments . OPTA-VIS increases the LSRV & LSYP to
provide excellent suspension properties for effective hole cleaning.

OPTA-ZAN
A high purity clarified xanthan gum used in the OPTA-FLO system fluid as a viscosifier. Small quantities
provide viscosity and weight material suspension for all water-based drilling fluids systems. OPTA-
ZAN has the unique ability to produce a fluid that is highly shear-thinning and develops a true gel
structure.

OPTA-STAR PLUS
A premium grade starch product developed for applications in DIF, OPTA-STAR PLUS is very
effective at reducing the fluid loss and providing a thin, tough and low permeability cake. The filter
cake formed is lifted off with low pressures.

OPTA-CARB
Sized calcium carbonate particles, ground marble. High grade marble is used to provide particles
which exhibit minimal attrition while drilling. A common occurrence with softer limestone. Proprietary
software HyPR-SIZER is used to engineer the OPTA-CARB PSD to match, as closely as possible,
the reservoir pore size distribution thus providing an effective sealing on the formation surface to
minimising fluid and/or solid invasion of the pay zone.

OPTA-LUBE CB
An environmental friendly and non-damaging lubricant which increases the lubricity of the system
and reduces the torque and drag especially in directional and horizontal wells.

OPTA-ZYME S
An alpha-amylase enzyme designed to remove polymer damage caused by the starch based
products used in the OPTA-FLO Drill-In fluids system primarily in horizontal and multilateral wells.
As the starch is broken down by the enzymes the bridging agents present in the filter cake will be
readily dispersed and may even be completely removed by additional treatments. All enzyme
treatments should be customised in the laboratory before use in the field.

29
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

OTHER PRODUCTS:

KCl
Potassium chloride is used as an clay / shale inhibitor where clay and or shale formations are inter
layered in the producing sand. The concentration required will be based on the extent of the clay /
shale layers but will generally vary from 3 – 8% in OPTA-FLO systems. KCl should not be used if
Kaolinite is present. KCl can destabilise Kaolinite in shales and causing Kaolinitic fines to mobilise
and migrate in reservoir rocks.

Glutaraldehyde
OPTA-STAR PLUS and OPTA-ZAN may be subject to bacterial degradation in under saturated brines.
A biocide such as Glutaraldehyde should be used in the system.

Inhibition
While some inhibition, sufficient for most reservoirs, will be provided by the salt selected for the
system, many reservoirs which have shales present in the formation may require additional inhibition.

The OPTA-FLO system is compatible with the inhibitive cloud point glycols CIRRUS and CUMULUS
as well as the amine inhibitor, HyPR-HIB. These products will increase the inhibitive nature of the
fluid and will have minimal impact on the fluids properties. However it is recommended that these
products are only added to the OPTA-FLO after their effects on the reservoir have been confirmed.

Formulation
An example of an OPTA-FLO formulation and associated properties is shown in Table 13. All formulations
must be engineered to meet characteristics of individual reservoirs.

Product Concentration
lb/bbl kg/m3
water 0.85 bbl/bbl 0.85 m3/m3
soda ash 0.2 0.6
caustic soda 0.5 1.4
KCl 22 62.7
OPTA-VIS 1-2 2.85 – 5.7
OPTA-STAR PLUS 4-6 11.2 – 17.1
OPTA-CARB 30 - 50 4.3
Parameter Unit Typical Value
Density lb/gal /SG 9.4 / 1.13
PV cP 12 - 16
Yield Point lb/100 ft2 12 - 20
6 rpm Dial reading > 10
Brookfield Viscosity cP > 40,000
API Filtrate ml / 30 mins. <4

Mixing Guide lines:

The OPTA-FLO system is readily mixed at the wellsite with no specialised equipment required. It is
critical that the OPTA-FLO system is kept clean to avoid compromising its non-damaging characteristics.
Care must be taken to isolate the system from other WBM or NAF to prevent contamination.

30
ƒ Clean the mud tanks thoroughly
ƒ Flush all the hopper and mixing lines
ƒ Add appropriate amount of water (or brine) in the tank (NB polymers will yield faster in fresh
water – mixing in brine will require a longer time to fully hydrate, however, the use of brine or fresh
water will depend on the practicality of mixing at the wellsite or mud plant)
ƒ Add biocide
ƒ Determine total hardness of water, calculate and mix soda ash required to treat the hardness to
below 200 mg/l
ƒ Citric acid may be added at this point to lower the pH to 3 to 4 for maximum polymer dispersion;
this is optional and not always required
ƒ Add OPTA-VIS or OPTA-ZAN ensuring fish eyes are not formed
ƒ Shear for one to two hours if time permits
ƒ
Add NaOH, KOH or MgO to achieve a pH of +/- 9.0 – 9.5 NB. Use only MgO in high calcium fluids,
> 1,000 mg/l
ƒ Add salts, including KCl for inhibition, if brine not used previously
ƒ Mix OPTA-STAR PLUS
ƒ Mix OPTA-CARB
ƒ Add additional products after mud has fully sheared and hydrated, lubricant, stabilisers etc.,

Treatment and maintenance of OPTA-FLO Systems

OPTA-FLO fluids are polymer based systems with similar maintenance and treatment requirements
to other water base polymer systems, however, to ensure the minimal damaging aspects of the fluids,
the system formulation should be maintained throughout. As treatment is required it is recommended
that, as far as possible, additions either as dilution or displacement fluid should be made with whole
mud/ premioc. Pilot testing of additives is also recommended to prevent any undesired effects which
may affect return permeability.

It is strongly recommended that, another fluid should be used to drill cement plugs and casing shoes
before displacing to OPTA-FLO to preserve the quality of polymers which can be adversely affected
by drilling cement.

Density
OPTA-FLO fluid density is primarily determined by the density of the brine used as the ‘base fluid’
with approximately + 0.6 lb/bbl (0.07 SG) from the system components. Typical brines used are
potassium or sodium chloride, with higher densities provided by the use of formate brines. Additionally
viscosity may be provided by further additions of OPTA-CARB but the use of clear brines is preferred in
order that the bridging agent concentration is not compromised- DO NOT USE BARITE.

Rheology
The OPTA-FLO system exhibits exceptional rheological characteristics and does not ordinarily
require supplemental additions of viscosifier although the LSRV may decrease while drilling, due to
shear and temperature degradation, oxidation (depending on formulation and temperature. If
required OPTA-ZAN or OPTA-VIS may be added directly to the system – pilot testing is recommended
to determine treatment level to minimise polymer additions.

Fluid Loss
The rapid mechanism for laying down filter cake ensures that there is a low spurt loss and low filtrate
invasion. Despite the relative low concentration of polymer filtration controllers this fluid system has
tight filter loss due to the synergetic relationship between the polymers and the bridging materials.

Initial fluid loss should be + 4 ml/30 minutes and will generally decrease as the fluid is circulated.
Additional OPTA-STAR PLUS may be added as needed to further reduce the fluid loss.

31
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

pH
The pH of the system should be maintained within the 8.5 - 9.5 range using NaOH, KOH or MgO
which will generally be determined by the brine phase selected. MgO is recommended as a pH buffer
for most systems but particularly so in calcium based systems where the calcium level is > 1,000 mg/l.
Pilot testing should be performed to determine the exact quantity needed in all systems.

If cement contamination occurs citric acid may be used to reduce the pH to around 10 – do not use acid
to reduce the pH further as it will be dissipated on the calcium carbonate in the system.

MBT
The MBT values should be checked frequently as the initial system is built with no reactive clays. Increases
in MBT values indicate that shale stringers are being drilled in the production formation. Accurate
checking on MBT levels will help determine when displacement volumes are required to keep the
system in the optimum range. Present lab data indicates a severe reduction in return permeability when
MBT values are allowed to increase.

Solids control
Drill solids in the circulating system must be eliminated or maintained at the lowest possible level as
these solids will negatively impact the fluid properties and the filter cake formation reducing the non
damaging nature of the system.

As there is no barite in the system there are no high gravity solids. The bridging material, calcium
carbonate, is the same density of drill solids. It is therefore imperative that the solids content be
monitored and the drill solids content differentiated from that of calcium carbonate.

It must be highlighted that while the primarily purpose of solids control equipment is to remove drill
solids, bridging materials will also be removed negating the non damaging nature of the fluids. A
balance has to be struck between solids removal and controlling the effects of drill solids contamination
by dilution. Fresh bridging agents are frequently added on a continuous basis to replace material lost
through solids control equipment.

Modern Linear Motion shakers are the preferred option with screen selection determined by OPTA-
CARB particle size and concentration, as well as hole size, cutting size, ROP and flow rate. Observe for
any damage to screens. Torn screens should be changed IMMEDIATELY.

Do not use Hydro-cyclones as OPTA-CARB will be discarded, unless excessive sand build up requires
intermittent use to reduce the sand content, in which case fresh additions of bridging agent must be
made to maintain the concentration. The hydro-cyclone discharge must be tested to ensure that
excessive amounts of bridging material are not being discarded.

The use of any equipment requiring centrifugal pumps should be minimised because the excessive
shear can degrade the polymers and solids prematurely. Do not leave the mud running through the
mixing system.

Corrosion
OPTA-FLO systems are not corrosive but corrosion issues might arise due to formation type, fluids and
temperature. The combination of alkalinity and bacterial control in the system may be supplemented
with oxygen scavengers, OX-SCAV, or filming forming inhibitors.

Temperature stability
In unsaturated systems polymer stability will be limited to < 250 °F (121 °C) and to + 300 °F (+149 °C) in
saturated and formate systems.

32
Temperature stability is improved with the use of:

ƒ Oxygen scavengers (OX-SCAV)

ƒ pH buffered to > 9.0 with MgO
ƒ HYDRO-BUFF a pH buffer and polymer extender for water base drilling fluids used when temperatures
range above 280 ˚F (137 ˚C).

All formulations must be tested and approved in the lab to determine the correct treatment levels for the
thermal stability desired.

Displacement

Cement the casing above the pay zone. RIH to TD with bit and casing scrapers. Drill the cement to within
5 ft (2 m) of the casing shoe using the existing mud system. Circulate and condition mud to prepare for
displacement.

During all displacement operations rotate and reciprocate the drillstring to ensure the low side of the hole
is clean.

Displacement from SBM to OPTA-FLO

Pump clean up pill sequence as set out in the detailed well cleanup programme:-

As a guide:

1. Pump base oil fluid pill, 15 – 50 bbl ( 2 – 8 m3)

2. Pump viscous pill containing clean up surfactant
3. Pump clean up pill with surfactant
4. Pump 50 bbl (8 m3) viscosified brine (same density as OPTA-FLO)
5. Pump and displace OPTA-FLO

Once the OPTA-FLO system is observed at the shakers, discontinue pumping and clean the flow-line,
shaker pits, and return ditch prior to initiating drilling. At this point, change screens on all solids control
equipment.

Displacement from WBM to OPTA-FLO

Pump clean up pill sequence as set out in well cleanup programme:-

As a guide:

1. Pump 100 bbl (16 m3) seawater pill containing detergent to clean casing
2. Pump 50 bbl (8 m3) viscosified brine (same density as OPTA-FLO)
3. Pump and displace OPTA-FLO

If possible pump 1 - 2 hole volumes of seawater to fully clean the casing before displacement to OPTA-
FLO. Once the OPTA-FLOsystem is observed at the shakers, discontinue pumping and clean the flow-
line, shaker pits, and return ditch prior to initiating drilling. At this point, change screens on all solids
control equipment.

33
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

From OOPTA-FLO to Brine

1. After reaching TD circulate the hole clean, minimum of one circulation and make a wiper trip into
casing.
2. Return to bottom and circulate until hole is clean.
3. Displace to either brine or a fresh solids free OPTA-FLO system containing no bridging agent –
minimum displacement = open hole + 500’ (150m) inside casing / liner.
4. If open hole displaced with solids free system then pull into casing / liner and displace to filtered
completion brine.
5. Displace brine / OPTA-FLO out of the well as detailed in the completion programme.

Field Trouble Shooting Guideline

Observation Possible Reasons Recommended Treatment

High PV ƒ Solid build up ƒ Check Shaker screens for holes
ƒ Inefficient or inadequate ƒ Use finer screens
solid removal Dilute the system with premix
Use other SCE judiciously
High YP ƒ Solid build up ƒ As above
ƒ Increase MBT value ƒ Dump & dilute with premix
High Gels ƒ High LGS ƒ As above
ƒ High Solids ƒ Dump & dilute with premix
High API Fluid loss ƒ Shift in particle size. ƒ Add OPTA-CARB
Polymers degrading ƒ Add OPTA-STAR PLUS
Bacterial problem ƒ Add bio-cide
Foaming ƒ Surface tension ƒ Maintain pH above 9
ƒ Add defoamer
Lubricity ƒ Well geometry ƒ Add OPTA-LUBE CB
ƒ BHA configuration
Low values of LSRV & YP ƒ Polymers degrading ƒ
Mix OPTA-VIS or OPTA-ZAN
ƒ Excess water added ƒ
Pilot test to determine optimum
through shaker cleaning treatment
or from other places ƒ
Identify and stop the source of
water addition.

rheo-plex
System Description
RHEO-PLEX is a mixed metal oxide system, MMO, providing a highly thixotropic water based fluid
that is both environmentally friendly and cost effective. The system shear thins, provides exceptional
hole cleaning, is stable above 300 ˚F (149 ˚C) and delivers an enhanced rheology profile and stability that
is easy to design, mix and maintain.

When RHEO-PLEX is added to the bentonite suspension the species displace the resident cations
and forms a bond on the surface of the bentonite platelets. The system is based on the unique
interaction between the MMO cationic specie and the bentonite platelet. The anionic specie bonds
to the negative charged sites of the bentonite forming a complex which structures the fluid and
provides its unique gels and viscosity profile. The system is viscous at rest and once shear stress is
applied it thins, only to regain its viscosity once the stress is removed.

34
The chemical inhibition of the RHEO-PLEX system is relatively low as it is formulated with little or
no salts provides a level of inhibition by non movement of fluid at the wall of the wellbore and
minimal filtration. It is also suspected that any filtrate that enters the formation will contain MMO and
will inhibit by cationic exchange.

RHEO-PLEX applications include drilling deviated hole sections, milling, depleted reservoirs and
unconsolidated formations. It must be noted that the fluid can provide chemical inhibition if used
with 3% KCl.

The mechanism for interactions between the individual MMO – bentonite complex is weakly
electrostatic. This electrostatic interaction is readily broken by mechanical means and reforms once
the stress is removed which explains the extreme thixotropic behaviour, i.e. why the RHEO-PLEX
fluid instantly shear thins with the application of mechanical agitation.

This chemistry gives the RHEO-PLEX fluid a unique rheological profile that exhibits high flat gels
which are fragile and easily broken with the start of circulation, but reform immediately when the
fluid is static giving very effective cuttings suspension.

During circulation the fluid has a inverted U shaped velocity profile in the wellbore with high
annular velocity in linear flow at the centre of the well and zero movement at the wellbore wall.
This flow profile leads to the effect of negative lag times whereby cuttings appear to reach surface
faster than the calculated time as only part of the fluid system is moving at velocity. This low velocity
at the well bore subjects the formation to zero shear stress.

Benefits of this system include:

ƒ Exceptional hole cleaning

ƒ Excellent suspension properties
ƒ Low torque and drag
ƒ Low ECD
ƒ Efficient solids removal
ƒ Proactive lost circulation remedy
ƒ Universal environmental approvals
ƒ High cost efficiency

Pre-System Checks
Prior to utilising the system on the rig, the rig site drilling fluids representative must become familiar
with system and well information which includes but is not limited to:

ƒ Ensure that all non fresh water or seawater pipes are blanked off and locked.
ƒ Clean all pits and circulating systems with drill water.
ƒ Ensuring that the rig contractor and other service companies are aware that the system will be used.
ƒ Pilot check all products prior to building at the rig site.

Formulation
An example formulation and associated properties is detailed in Table 13.

35
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
drill water Base Fluid 0.85 bbl/bbl 0.85m3/m3
soda ash Alkalinity Control <400 mg/l hardness
DRILL-GEL UA Viscosifier 8 -12 22.8 – 34.2
caustic soda pH control 9.5 -10.0
RHEO-PLEX Complexing Agent 0.80 -1.2 2.3 – 3.4
HYDRO-STAR CMS Fluid Loss control 3.0 - 5.0 8.55 – 14.25
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 192 547
PROPERTY UNITS TYPICAL VALUE
Mud Weight lb/gal 12
PV cP 4
YP lb/100 ft2 25 - 30
6 RPM dial reading 20
Gel lb/100 ft2 30 / 36
API ml/ 30 min <8
pH 9.5 -10

Table 14. Example RHEO-PLEX formulation

It is imperative that all materials are pilot tested. The system cannot be formulated using PAC, CMC
or charged polymers.

Engineering Guidelines
Hardness
It is recommended that the hardness be minimised. Prior to mixing treat out any hardness by the use
of soda ash. The interaction of the between the MMO and the bentonite is enhanced if the hardness is
below 400 mg/l.

API
Filtration control is provided by the use of HYDRO-STAR CMS, a non ionic starch. PAC or CMC materials
are incompatible with the MMO / bentonite complex.

Rheology
A characteristic of the RHEO-PLEX system is that the 3 rpm rheometer reading is about 20% lower than
the 600 RPM reading. The rheology of the system is based on RHEO-PLEX- DRILL-GEL UA complex.
In the event that the rheology is too high do not treat the system with polymeric deflocculants or
lignosulphonate thinners. Correct high rheology with dilution.

Density
Density is provided from DRILL-BAR and or calcium carbonate.

pH
It is imperative that the pH is maintained in the range specified 9.5-10. The interaction between the
RHEO-PLEX and the bentonite is optimised in this pH range.

Solids Tolerance:
This system is not solids tolerant and the drill solids must be maintained below 5%.

Contamination
All common contaminants, plus the drilling of lignitic and anhydritic formations, have a disruptive
effect on the RHEO-PLEX- DRILL-GEL UA complex which will cause a rapid loss of rheology. If this occurs
the only effective solution is to rebuild the system.

36
Reserve Volume:
Ensure that there is always sufficient RHEO-PLEX- DRILL-GEL UA blend on surface to rebuild the
circulating system.

Mixing RHEO-PLEX
When building the RHEO-PLEX particular care has to be taken. The following method is suggested.

ƒ Pilot test with the actual products

ƒ Ensure that the water being used has hardness below 200 mg/l
ƒ Ensure the bentonite being used is high quality untreated bentonite
ƒ Prehydrate bentonite, ensuring that the gel is fully yielded
ƒ Adjust the pH of the bentonite to pH range of 9.5 -10 using caustic soda
ƒ Add the RHEO-PLEX
ƒ Add the filtration control agent. (HYDRO-STAR CMS)
ƒ If necessary dilute with sea or drill water
ƒ Weight up to required density

Cementing
RHEO-PLEX is highly sensitive to divalent and polyvalent cations. Cement should not be drilled with
the system.

Displacement
Drill out the cement with the fluid that is to be displaced out of hole, prior to displacing to the RHEO-
PLEX fluid.

ƒ Displacement out of hole: If displacing with a lighter water based fluid, pump ahead a 50 bbl (8 m3)
brine spacer between the RHEO-PLEX system as well as a high viscosity water based pill, 6 lb/bbl (17.1
kg/m3) HYDRO-ZAN.

dispersed and calcium muds

System Description
A bentonite water based mud system which has been chemically deflocculated and the end
charges neutralised can be described as a dispersed system. The most common dispersants are
lignosuphonates, acylamide copolymers and phosphates. These systems have low inhibitive qualities
and are used to drill low reactivity shales. Bentonite systems are made more inhibitive by being
converted to calcium based systems with lime or gypsum.

These systems have lower filtration loss, higher pHs and more stabilised rheology than conventional
non dispersed bentonite system.

Systems which can be described as dispersed include:

ƒ HYDRO-SPERSE (Lignosulphonate)
ƒ HYDRO-TAN CF (Tannin)
ƒ Phosphate (SAPP)
ƒ Calcium Muds (lime and gypsum muds)

Benefits of Dispersed Bentonite Mud System

ƒ Fluid has high carrying capacity
ƒ Simple to formulate
ƒ Highly flexible and can be converted into inhibitive systems
ƒ Low fluid cost
ƒ High temperature tolerance
ƒ Simple to use

37
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Limitations of Dispersed Bentonite Mud System

ƒ Requires time to mix
ƒ High dilution rates
ƒ Relatively thick filter cakes
ƒ May have environmental restrictions on the use of some of the lignosulphonates

HYDRO-SPERSE (Lignosulphonate Muds)

HYDRO-SPERSE muds are used to drill well sections which have high bentonitic clay sections. The
system can be formulated with fresh and brackish water. However bentonite should prehydrated
with water that is of a good quality containing low hardness and chlorides. HYDRO-SPERSE provides
good filtration control and stabilizes the rheology. An example formulation is detailed in table 14.
The system may be further treated with the supplementary products detailed in Table 15.

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
ddrill water Base Fluid 0.90 bbl/bbl 0.90 m3/m3
soda ash Calcium Reducer To Ca++ <100 mg/l
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier / Filtration Control 10 - 25 28.5 – 71.25
caustic soda pH modifier To pH 10 -11
HYDRO-SPERSE Thinner / Filtration controller 2-8 5.7 – 22.8
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 35 99.75
PROPERTY TYPICAL VALUE UNITS
Mud Weight 9.2 lbs/gal
PV 20 cP
YP 12- 15 lbs / 100 ft2
6 RPM 10 dial reading
Gel 11/20 lbs / 100 ft2
API 6-8 ml / 30 min

Table 14. Example lignosulphonate system formulation

Order of Mixing
ƒ Treat out the calcium from the mix water with the required amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water with caustic soda to above 9.5 to precipitate any magnesium and other
divalent ions
ƒ Mix in the required amount of DRILL-GEL
ƒ Add the required HYDRO-SPERSE
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR
ƒ Add supplementary filtration controller if required

If the system is formulated using a previous bentonite mud as a base then:

ƒ Reduce the MBT to 10 -15 lb/bbl by dilution and if necessary dumping

ƒ Treat out the calcium from the mix water with the required amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water to above 10.5 as this will precipitate any magnesium and other divalent
ions
ƒ Although the system can be formulated with sea and brackish water, DRILL-GEL should be hydrated
with fresh water with low chloride content (< 5000 mg/l)
ƒ Mix in the required amount of DRILL-GEL
ƒ Add the required HYDRO-SPERSE
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR

38
Maintenance of HYDRO-SPERSE fluids:
ƒ Regular treatments with HYDRO-SPERSE are required to maintain the rheology while drilling.
ƒ The efficiency of the products are enhanced by maintaining low concentrations of Cl-, Ca2+ and Mg2+
ions.
ƒ Ensure that the solids control equipment is optimised and control the solids content by dumping
and diluting as required.
ƒ To ensure optimal drilling fluid performance and costs maintain the MBT below 20 lb/bbl. It may be
necessary to maintain the density and plastic viscosity by means of premixes.
ƒ Treatments with HYDRO-THIN will stabilise rheology and enhance filtration control.
ƒ Polymers such as HYDRO-PAC, HYDRO-STAR and CMC can be used to provide supplementary
filtration control.
ƒ In order to ensure the efficiency of the HYDRO-SPERSE ensure that the system pH is maintained in
the range of 9 – 9.5.

Calcium Treated Muds

Lime muds are more inhibitive than HYDRO-SPERSE fluids, due to the presence of soluble calcium,
and can be used to drill sections that have formations where shale reactivity may result in hole
instability and sections that have anhydrite formations and stringers. By increasing the concentration
of soluble calcium in the fluid, the inhibitiveness of the fluid is increased.

The lime system may be viewed as a HYDRO-SPERSE system that has been treated with soluble
calcium ions.

Example formulations and properties as well as supplementary product are shown in Tables 15 and 16.

PRODUCT Function Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration

Lime Mud Lime Mud Gypsum Gypsum
lb/bbl kg/m3 lb/bbl kg/m3
drill water Base Fluid 0.90 bbl/bbl 0.90 m3/m3 0.90 bbl/bbl 0.90 m3/m3
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier / 10 - 25 28.5 – 71.25 10 – 25 28.5 – 71.25
Filtration Control
HYDRO-SPERSE Thinner / Filtration 1-4 2.85 – 11.4 3-6 8.56 – 17.12
controller
lime Calcium Generator 1-8 2.85 – 22.8
gypsum Calcium Generator 4-8 11.4 – 22.8
HYDRO-TROL Filtration Controller 2-4 5.7 – 11.4 2–4 5.71 – 11.4
caustic soda pH modifier To pH 10 -11
HYDRO-PAC or Filtration controller 1 2.85 1 2.85
HYDRO-STAR NF
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 35 99.75 35 99.75
PROPERTY Units Typical Value Typical Value
Mud Weight lb/gal 9.2 9.2
PV cP 18 18
YP lb /100 ft2 6-7 7-8
6 RPM dial reading 2 3
Gel lb /100 ft2 3/13 2/18
Pf ml 1 – 2.5 0.15- 0.8
mF 5 -10 3-5
Excess calcium lb/bbl 1 - 10 2-5
calcium in filtrate mg/l 75 - 200 600 - 1200
pH 10.5 – 11.5 9.5 - 10
API ml / 30 min 5 - 11 4–8

Table 16. Formulation and properties of calcium treated muds.

39
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

Supplementary Products

Chemical Function Operational Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
HYDRO-PAC Viscosity and Filtration Enhanced filtration 1.0 – 5.0 2.85 – 14.3
control in displacement
mud and sweeps
CMC Viscosity and Filtration Enhanced filtration 1.0 – 5.0 2.85 – 14.3
control in displacement
mud and sweeps
HYDRO-TROL Viscosity and Filtration Enhanced filtration 1.0 – 5.0 2.85 – 14.3
control in displacement
mud and sweeps
Glutaraldehyde Biocide Prevention of
microbiological action 500 -1000 ppm
SAPP Stuck pipe freeing Is used as a stuck pipe 2.0 - 5.0 5.7 – 14.3
agent/ bit balling freeing agent when
preventer disrupting the filter
cake when placed over
the sticking zone
HYDRO-PLAST / High Temperature Enhanced filtration 2-8 5.7 – 22.8
HYDRO-PLAST Filtration Controller control in displacement
PLUS mud.
DRILL-BAR Barite To build spud mud and
displacement mud As required
where density is greater
than 8.8 lb/gal
HYDRO-ZAN Shear thinning As a rheology enhancer 0.25 -1.0 0.7 – 2.85
Viscosifier for operations where lb/bbl
poor water quality
prevents DRILL-GEL
from fully yielding.
HyPR-DRL ROP Enhancer Minimising bit balling 0.5 - 5%

Table 17. Supplementary products for dispersed systems

Note lime muds can be classified as:

ƒ low lime when the mud contains 1- 2.5 lb/bbl (2.85 – 7.1 kg/m3) of excess lime and
ƒ high lime when the excess lime content of the mud is 5 – 15 lb/bb (14 – 42 kg/m3).

Excess Lime Calculation

Excess lime (lb/ bbl) is estimated by the following formulae

Lime Content = PM – PF
4
Or

Lime Content = 0.26 (PM - % water fraction x PF)

Excess Lime kg/m3 = Excess lime lb/bbl x 2.85

40
Excess Gypsum Calculation

Excess Gypsum (lb/ bbl) is estimated by the following formula

Gypsum Content = VM – VF
4
3
Excess Gypsum kg/m = Excess lime lb/bbl x 2.85

VM is the ml of versanate from the hardness test on the whole mud

VF is the ml of versanate from the hardness test on the filtrate

Order of Mixing
ƒ Treat out the calcium from the mix water with the required amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water with caustic soda to above 10.5 as this will precipitate any magnesium
and other divalent ions
ƒ Mix in the required amount of DRILL-GEL
ƒ Add the required HYDRO-SPERSE
ƒ Add the required lime or gypsum
ƒ Add the required filtration controller
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR
ƒ Note the fluid may have a viscosity hump; this should disappear with shear thinning. However that
it does thin by agitation on the Hamilton beach mixer. Confirm that the pH is correct. Pilot test with
higher caustic then more HYDRO-SPERSE

If the system is formulated using a previous bentonite mud as a base then:

ƒ Break over will require a minimum of three circulations (two to add all the chemicals evenly and one
to ensure that the fluid is thin).
ƒ There will be a viscosity hump, during which there will be high filtration loss that will thin on
circulation. It is advisable to perform the break over inside casing.
ƒ Reduce the MBT to 10 -15 lb/bbl (28.5 – 42.75 kg/m3) by dilution and if necessary dumping.
ƒ Treat out the calcium from the mix water with the required amount of soda ash.
ƒ Raise the pH of the water to above 10.5 as this will precipitate any magnesium and other divalent
ions.
ƒ Although the system can be formulated with sea and brackish water, the DRILL-GEL should be
hydrated with fresh water with low chloride content (< 1000 mg/l).
ƒ Mix in the required amount of DRILL-GEL.
ƒ Add the required HYDRO-SPERSE.
ƒ Add the required lime or gypsum.
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR.
ƒ Add the require supplementary filtration control.

Maintenance of calcium muds:

ƒ While drilling with calcium fluids regular treatments with HYDRO-SPERSE, gypsum / lime / caustic
soda are required to maintain the rheology and filtration control.
ƒ Ideally all additions should be in the form of premixes.
ƒ Maintain the calcium concentration in the filtrate.
ƒ Avoid mixing of lime / gypsum and polymeric filtration controllers at the same time.
ƒ Avoid over treatment with caustic soda as the higher the pH the lower the solubility of the calcium.
ƒ Maintain drill solids content as low as possible. Ensure that the solids control equipment are
optimised and control the solids content by dumping and diluting as required.
ƒ To ensure optimal drilling fluid performance and cost, maintain the MBT below 20 lb/bbl.
ƒ It may be necessary to maintain the density and plastic viscosity by means of premixes.

41
 Section

11b water base drilling fluids

ƒ Treatments with HYDRO-THIN will stabilise rheology and enhance filtration control.
ƒ If after three circulations the viscosity hump is still present, check the pH. Treatment with caustic
may be required to ensure that the HYDRO-SPERSE becomes effective .

Tannin dispersed fluids are prepared in the same manner as HYDRO-SPERSE muds substituting
HYDRO-TAN CF for HYDRO-SPERSE .

42
 section 11c

non aqueous drilling fluids

section 11c Scomi Oiltools

confi-drill 2
confi-dense 6
confi-deep 8
opta-vert 17
 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

non aqueous drilling fluids

confi-drill
CONFI-DRILL is an invert emulsion drilling fluid system which can be tailored to meet environmental
and performance criteria. The system has excellent rheological and filtration characteristics easily
modified to meet changing pressure and temperature conditions,

The system consists of three phases; non aqueous, brine and solid.

The key to the system is the emulsifying chemicals designed to create and maintain the invert emulsion.
The system can be formulated with a range of base fluids including low toxic mineral oil (LMO), linear
paraffin (LP), linear alpha olefin (LAO) and internal olefin (IO).

Mechanism of Shale Stabilisation

Invert emulsion drilling fluids provide the highest level of shale inhibition by a drilling fluid. An invert
emulsion consists of two liquid phases:-

ƒ A hydrophilic brine internal phase.

ƒ A hydrophobic non polar continuous phase.

The internal phase is emulsified into the continuous phase with the use of emulsifiers.

As the hydrophobic continuous phase will not solvate or swell exposed shales, it makes the fluid system
ideal for drilling hydratable shales.

This characteristic is the basis for the use invert emulsions as non-reactive, inert drilling fluids. As water
contamination of the drilling fluid is unavoidable from drilled formation, the drilling fluid system must be
formulated to tolerate this additional water.

To prevent the internal hydrophilic phase from reacting with the formations, the system is formulated
with high salinity brine, usually calcium chloride. If the salinity of the brine is maintained at a
concentration higher than the formation salinity, water will flow by a process of reverse osmosis from
the formation into the fluid, stabilising reactive formations.

Benefits of the invert emulsion system include:-

ƒ Inhibition ƒ Fluid properties are tolerant of solids
ƒ Low filter loss ƒ Resistant to contamination
ƒ Re-use ƒ Protection against corrosion
ƒ Can be engineered to any specific requirement ƒ Low dilution rates
ƒ Thin, slick filter cake ƒ Can be formulated to relatively low densities
ƒ Can be engineered with environmentally ƒ Highly lubricious
friendly base fluids
ƒ Simple to use

The advantages of the system must be considered along with the limitations:-

ƒ High cost of losses ƒ Cost of remediation

ƒ High initial make up costs ƒ Re use may lead to build up of low
ƒ May have environmental restrictions gravity solids
ƒ May require complex clean up procedures


Formulation
An example of a CONFI-DRILL formulation and associated properties is detailed in Table 1. It must be
highlighted that product concentration will vary depending not only due to the density, temperature
and product ratio’s but also with the type of base oil utilised.

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
Base Fluid Base fluid 0.68 bbl/bbl 0.68 m3/m3
CONFI-MUL P Primary emulsifier 6 17.1
CONFI-MUL S Secondary emulsifier 2.5 7.1
CONFI-GEL HT Viscosifier 6 17.1
CONFI-MOD Rheology modifier 1 2.85
CONFI-TROL / Filtration controller 2-8 5.7 - 22.8
CONFI-TROL HT
drillwater Liquid phase 0.175 bbl/bbl 0.175 m3/m3
calcium chloride Water phase salinity 22 62.7
lime Emulsifier activator 8 22.8
DRILL-BAR Weight material 120 342

Table 1. Example CONFI-DRILL formulation

Property Typical Value Units

Mud Weight 9.5 lb/gal
PV 15 cP
YP 12 lbs/100 ft2
6 rpm 8 dial reading
10 minute Gel 10 lbs/100 ft2
HTHP (@ 250 °F) 2.0 ml /30 min

Table 2. Example CONFI-DRILL properties

In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used to optimise the system for
specific use. These supplementary products and their function and concentration are listed in Table 3.

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
CONFI-COAT Oil wetting agent 0.5 - 2 1.4 – 5.7
CONFI-LUBE Lubricant for SBM 1–3 1 – 3%
CONFI-PLEX LSR modifier 1–3 2.85 – 8.55
CONFI-THIN Oil wetting agent 0.5 - 2 1.4 – 5.7
CONFI-TROL Solid fluid loss control additive 2–8 5.7 -22.8
CONFI-TROL F Liquid fluid loss control 1–5 2.85 – 14.25
additive
CONFI-WET Oil wetting agent 0.5 - 2 1.4 – 5.7

Table 3. Supplementary products for CONFI-DRILL systems


 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

Engineering Guidelines
In general the following guidelines and mixing procedures apply to all non-aqueous fluids except where
indicated in system specific sections of this handbook.

Mixing CONFI-DRILL
When mixing an invert emulsion system the amount of shear in the mixing system has to be maximised.
It is recommended that a shearing unit is used and the fluid shear is maximised by circulating through
the gun lines.

1. Add the required quantity of base fluid to the mixing tank.

2. Add the primary emulsifier, CONFI-MUL P, and secondary emulsifier, CONFI-MUL S, as required.
3. Add organophilic viscosifier, CONFI-GEL / CONFI-GEL HT, as required.
4. Add required amount of water to the above mixture. If brine is to be used, then add brine after
the lime additions.
5. Add rheology modifier e.g. CONFI-MOD or CONFI-RM as required.
6. Add lime as required.
7. Add filtration control additives, CONFI-TROL, CONFI-TROL HT, CONFI-SEAL or or CONFI-TROL F,
as required.
8. Add calcium chloride powder if brine is not used. If calcium chloride powder is not available, then
mix the calcium chloride flakes into the water and add as a brine.
9. Mix above for several hours to ensure a good emulsion is formed.
10. Add weighting material as required for the desired density.

The shear available on most rigs is rarely sufficient to ensure that the organophilic clays have fully
yielded. Once the fluid is sheared through the bit, and heated, the rheology profile should increase.

Emulsifier
Emulsifier ensures that the invert emulsion is stabilised and provides initial filtration control with
zero water breakthrough. The measurement of emulsion stability gives an indication of the condition of
the emulsion. Optimisation of the emulsifier concentration will ensure that there is good temperature
stability, stabilised rheology and optimised lubricity.

Filter Loss
Filtration controllers are used to maintain filtration control. They act in conjunction with the emulsifier
package. Scomi Oiltools have a proprietary family of powdered filtration controllers including,
CONFI-TROL and CONFI-TROL HT as well as a liquid product, CONFI-TROL F, specifically formulated to
act synergistically with the emulsifier package. The effect of these products is specific to the emulsifier,
oil water ratio, temperature of test, density of the fluid and type of base fluid.

It is recommended that the HPHT filtration test is run at 25 ˚F (14 ˚C) higher than the maximum expected
bottom hole temperature.

Density
DRILL-BAR is used to provide density. If higher densities or flatter rheological profiles are required then
HyPR-BAR, fine grind barite, HAEMATITE or HYDRO-MAX can be used in the formulation.

In some cases additional density may be achieved by replacing the calcium chloride brine with calcium
or sodium bromide brine or by maintaining lower oil: brine ratios using either calcium chloride or
alternatives including sodium formate, in particular where a low solids content of the fluid is required.


Rheology
It must be highlighted that while drilling ahead there will be an increase in rheology as the
organophilic clay yields. This is particularly true when new fresh mud is delivered to or mixed on the rig.
Ensure that this increase in rheology does not become an operational problem, it must be controlled.

The two principal methods of imparting rheology are the use of the Organophilic clay, CONFI-GEL/
CONFI-GEL HT and or low end rheological modifiers. Optimise the effectiveness of organophilic
clays, with the addition of CONFI-MOD and/or CONFI-RM. The use of these modifiers will provide a
flatter rheology profile minimising the ECD. Note that overuse of rheology modifiers without sufficient
underlying organophilic clay structure can promote barite sag, which is detailed in section 6b of this
handbook, barite sag.

Oil Wetting Agents

The use of oil wetting agents, CONFI-WET and thinners, CONFI-COAT, should be avoided as the
difference between product effectiveness and over treatment can be a very fine balance. The thinners
act on the organophilic agents and destroy their effectiveness. Once a system is over treated it
becomes difficult to re gain the rheology and the danger of sag becomes more pronounced. If a
treatment of oil wetting agents is to be made to the circulating system, it is advisable that the
treatment is pilot tested extensively beforehand to determine the correct treatment level.

Lime
Lime is required to activate the emulsifiers; therefore, it is imperative the lime concentration be
maintained in excess as the efficacy of the emulsifiers is optimised. Experience demonstrates while
drilling ahead the excess lime concentration is steadily depleted. This is particularly noticeable while
drilling reservoir sections and or higher temperature zones. Lime will also be removed by acid gases.

Water Phase Salinity

The activity coefficient of the water, or brine phase, Aw, should be maintained lower than the activity
of the formation fluids. The water phase salinity ensures that the drilling fluid exerts a reverse
osmotic pressure on the formation, the activity level being determined by the type and concentration
of the salt.

The Aw is maintained with a salt most commonly calcium chloride. The determining factor for the
concentration of salt used is the status of the shale cuttings which should be firm and discrete. Any
sign of hydration of cuttings indicates that the water phase salinity level must be increased.

For reservoir drilling the brine phase may be provided by alternative salts including sodium bromide,
sodium formate and calcium bromide.

Temperature
A characteristic of invert emulsion systems is high temperature stability. The limiting factors being
the effectiveness of the emulsifiers, viscosifiers, rheological modifiers and filtration control, agents
at the elevated temperature. At elevated temperatures there will be a more rapid depletion of the
emulsifiers. This will also vary with density and type of base fluid.

Cementing
The primary effects of cement contamination are increases in the excess lime and water contents.

However the pre-flush pills used prior to cementing are designed to change the wettability of surfaces
which they achieve by attacking the emulsion package of the fluid. To minimise contamination of
the drilling fluid the volume of preflush pills should be minimised. Contamination of the mud by
the preflush results in a fall in emulsion stability, an increase in the HPHT filtrate and a decrease in the
base fluid/brine ratio. This contamination may be treated by increasing the oil/brine ratio with an
base fluid rich premix that contains an excess of emulsifiers.


 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

If possible any excess pre flush that reaches surface should be isolated from the system on the first
circulation, though in most cases it is so entrained into the mud it is impossible to isolate. When
cementing liners, however, the excess cement and preflush may be reversed out and it should be
possible to readily isolate the contamination in this case.

Solids Control Equipment

During displacements or after a trip, the shakers should be dressed with relatively coarse screens.
The size of the screen should be reduced as the fluid warms up and the viscosity of the mud decreases.

Gas Solubility
Gas is soluble in NAF which has major consequences for well control as gas will stay in solution until
close to surface and for deepwater wells expansion may not occur until the influx is in the riser. Kick
detection may be severely compromised and the ability to detect and react to very minor volume
changes is highly significant. This is especially true for H2S which is 40 times more soluble than
methane.

It should also be noted that solution gas, including trip gas, will be detected, in decreasing quantity,
at the same spot in the circulating system for several circulations until it is finally released from the mud.

Gas solubility is a function of temperature and pressure and will vary with base fluid type e.g. internal
olefins and mineral oils the response of both base fluids is similar to 4,000 psi. Above 4,000 psi
(27579 kPa) the effects of pressure dominate the solubility for mineral oils with methane being
completely miscible above 7,000 psi (48263 kPa) and effects of temperature are not significant.

On the other hand temperature has a pronounced affect on gas miscibility in internal olefins above
4,000 psi, higher temperatures significantly reducing the pressure at which methane is fully miscible,
from + 11,000 psi at 150 ˚F to + 8,500 psi at 300 ˚F (+ 75800 kPa at 65 ˚C to + 58600 kPa at 149 ˚C )

If condensate is either present or the main component of a ‘kick’ there may be differences in behaviour
compared to methane alone in solution:

1. Kick detection may be delayed for condensate kicks relative to methane kicks.
2. As the kick / base fluid mixture becomes heavier there is a corresponding decrease in volatility and
bubblepoint pressure, i.e. rapid expansion happens closer to surface.
3. Significant expansion of a kick occurs nearer to surface for ondensates than for methane and,
when it does occur because of gas evolution, it is more rapid. The rise in surface pressure shows
the same trend. The heavier the condensate and, for SBM, the lower the concentration, the nearer
the surface the rapid expansion and pressure rise occur as the bubblepoint pressure is lower.
4. When a condensate kick occurs in SBM contamination of the mud with condensate occurs as
only the volatile components are released at surface. This may have consequences for discharge
and or disposal of contaminated mud.

confi-dense
System Description
CONFI-DENSE is base oil or synthetic fluid based drilling fluid specifically engineered to provide
emulsion stability for high density and high temperature applications beyond the range of the
standard CONFI-DRILL system. The CONFI-DENSE system is stable to temperatures in excess of 400 ˚F
(204 ˚C), exhibiting minimal density differentiation under both dynamic and static conditions. The
system can be weighted to above 18.5 lb/gal (2.22 SG) with barite, or alternative weight materials such as
HAEMATITE and is run with higher Oil:Brine ratios of 85/15 to 90/10+. The system has excellent
rheological and filtration characteristics which are easily modified to meet changing pressure and
temperature conditions.


Formulation
An example of a CONFI-DENSE formulation and properties is detailed in Tables 4 and 5

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
Base Fluid – Iso Base fluid 0.48 bbl/bbl 0.48 m3/m3
Paraffin
CONFI-MUL HT Primary emulsifier 4-6 11.4 – 17.1
CONFI-GEL HT Viscosifier 2-4 5.7 – 11.4
CONFI-TROL F Filtration controller 5-6 14.25 – 17.1
CONFI- TROL HT Filtration controller 4-8 11.4 – 22.8
calcium chloride Water phase salinity 7 20
Drillwater 0.05 bbl/bbl 0.05 m3/m3
lime Emulsifier activator 10 18.5
DRILL-BAR Weighting agent 493 1405

Table 4. Example CONFI-DENSE formulation

Property Typical Value Units

Mud Weight 17.5 lb/gal
2.10 SG
PV 49 cP
YP 18 lbs/100 ft2
6 rpm 8 Dial reading
OWR 90:10
ES 1655 volts
Excess Lime 4 lb/bbl
HTHP (@ 350 °F) <2.0 ml/ 30 min

Table 5. Example CONFI-Dense properties

In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used to optimise the system for
specific use. These supplementary products and their function and concentration are listed below

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
CONFI-TROL XHT HT fluid loss control 1-4 2.85 – 11.4
CONFI-GEL XHT HT viscosifier 1-4 2.85 -11.4
HyPR-BAR Fine grind barite As required As required

Table 6. Supplementary products for CONFI-DENSE systems

A number of key aspects of the CONFI-DENSE system are;

ƒ Both polymeric and organophilic clay viscosifiers are used to provide optimum rheology with a
high base fluid:brine ratio.
ƒ Formulations are engineered specifically to each project.
ƒ Several filtration control additives are used to ensure the efficacy of the system at elevated temperature.
ƒ The system is formulated such that the parameters are independent of base oil type.
ƒ Due to the high solids content the system requires higher base fluid:brine ratios.

Engineering Guidelines
See guidelines under CONFI-DRILL.


 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

Pressure and Temperature Effects for HTHP fluids

Drilling fluid density and rheology are functions of temperature and pressure encountered in the
well. Higher pressures will increase rheology and density; higher temperatures will decrease them.

Note: The temperature effects on NAF are much higher than WBM as base oils have a much lower specific
heat capacity and lower thermal conductivity than water.

Fann 35 rheology readings at surface conditions do not reflect the rheology of the fluid at elevated
pressures and pressures therefore it is very important to regularly run the rheology on a Fann 75
and measure the rheology at bottom hole conditions. Rheological modelling, e.g. ECD calculations,
using only Fann 35 data will be inaccurate.

The volume of the fluid will increase and decrease while drilling and tripping as the fluid heats
and cools. This normal volume variation can lead to the interpretation that the well is flowing or losing.
To fully establish the effects of pressure and temperature and establish a ‘fingerprint’ of the fluid
behaviour to provide information to distinguish between “normal losses”, “down hole losses”, or “gains”
the following steps should be taken.

When the mud has reached equilibrium operating temperatures for each interval establish and record
the normal changes in surface volume due to:-

1. operation / shut down of mud pumps,

2. Running mud pumps at different rates,
3. Operation / shut down of mix pumps and solids control equipment.

Mud Coolers
To lower both the surface and downhole circulating temperatures a mud cooler may frequently be
used on HTHP wells. This surface cooling can lead to a reduction of > 25 - 50 ˚F (14 - 28 ˚C) plus in the
maximum flowline and circulating downhole temperature. This is of particular benefit for extending the
range and life of downhole tools.

confi-deep
CONFI-DEEP is a flat rheology invert emulsion drilling fluid system designed and formulated for
application in deep water drilling.

HSE: The CONFI-DEEP system is handled in the same way as any other non aqueous system. Always refer
to the MSDS of the base oil and the individual additives for safe handling instructions.

In deep water environments, a seawater temperature of 139 °F (4 ˚C) is typically measured. The
formation temperature may range to 212 °F (100 ˚C) or more. This variation in temperature causes wide
fluctuation of rheological properties in conventional invert emulsion drilling fluids which leads to:

ƒ pressure spikes
ƒ induced fractures with “wellbore ballooning/breathing”
ƒ barite sag
ƒ poor cuttings suspension
ƒ reduced hole cleaning
ƒ excessive ECD
ƒ severe mud losses
ƒ cuttings pack-off leading to stuck pipe
ƒ reduced drilling efficiency


The problem is compounded when pore pressure and fracture gradient converge. The margin for
density fluctuations is low or non-existent. Strict control of the ECD is required to prevent fracture
induction and often extremely expensive mud losses.

A comprehensive investigation of the complex and interactive chemistry of surface active agents
including emulsifiers; wetting agents and novel polymeric rheological modifiers to formulate a fluid
system with remarkably constant rheological properties over a broad temperature range has been
undertaken. Development was and continues to be focused on reducing the organophilic clay content
and balancing hole cleaning, suspension requirements using special rheology modifiers to deliver a
fluid with cold water viscosity values 33 – 50% of those of a conventional invert system

The result is the flat rheology CONFI-DEEP system which delivers a consistent rheological profile over
a wide range of temperatures, 40 - 200+ °F (4 - 95 °C) with ongoing development work demonstrating
the potential of the system to perform at temperatures up to 250 °F (121 °C). Flat rheology of these
deepwater systems typically considers plastic viscosity, yield point, and 6 rpm values.

Each application is rigorously pilot tested in the lab to assure conformance of design to ECD
requirements established by very detailed hydraulic modelling.

Figure 1 compares the yield point and 6 rpm values of CONFI-DEEP with a typical non aqueous fluid.
YP (Ib/100ft2) / 6 rpm reading

Figure 1 Rheology of CONFI-DEEP

CONFI-DEEP system is surprisingly tolerant of solids, water and oil contamination. While the
rheological properties change with contaminant concentration, the fluid remains stable and very
resistant to water wetting of solids. Rheological properties remain flat despite high concentrations
of contaminants. Incorporation of drill solids actually improves system properties and performance


 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

CONFI-DEEP can be formulated using wide variety of base oils providing the same level of flexibility
as with any other conventional non aqueous system currently in use in deep water drilling:

ƒ low toxic mineral oil

ƒ linear paraffin
ƒ linear alpha olefin
ƒ internal olefin

Conversion Flexibility and System Stability

The standard invert emulsion system CONFI-DRILL may be converted to the CONFI-DEEP system, but
only after thorough pilot testing. Conversion of salvaged mud offers potential cost savings and in some
cases a more stable and flat “pre-aged” mud system. The conversion process and the treatment have
been verified in the laboratory using a variety of salvaged mud systems mixed in 33 – 50% proportions.
Extensive lab tests also have confirmed the ability of CONFI-DEEP to incorporate surprisingly large
quantities of drilled solids, seawater, and cement as illustrated in Figure 2.

F ig ure 2 : C O N F I -DEE P S yst em S tab ility

(after hot roll @ 2 0 0 F for 16 hours)
40

35

30

25
YP (Ib/100ft2)

20

15

C O N F I -D E E P + 4 0 p p b r e v d u s t
10
C O N F I -D E E P + 2 5 p p b r e v d u s t + 5 p p b c e m e n t
5 C O N F I -D E E P + 2 5 p p b r e v d u s t + 2 0 % ( v /v ) s e a w a t e r

40 F 70 F 120 F 150 F
Temp (deg F)

Figure 2 CONFI-DEEP contamination tolerance

10
Performance:

ƒ Stable Rheology over wide ƒ Decreased pack off chances

range of temperatures ƒ Less dilution required
ƒ Pressure spikes minimised ƒ Can be converted from CONFI-DRILL system
ƒ Carrying & Suspension capacity increased ƒ Can be formulated using variety of base oil
ƒ Decreased barite sagging tendencies

Advantages:

ƒ Improved ECD management ƒ Less chances of stuck pipe

ƒ Reduced fracture induction ƒ Flexible formulation
ƒ Reduced losses ƒ Reduced environmental cost
ƒ Less chances of formation breathing ƒ Lower overall well cost
ƒ Better hole cleaning ƒ Optimized drilling performance

The CONFI-DEEP system, similar to other invert emulsions, consists of three phases, two immiscible
liquids, base oil and brine, and the third solids phase of barite and drilled solids.

CONFI-DEEP products

Pilot testing at the wellsite, with these products, is strongly advised for assuring economical and
effective treatment levels

Base Fluid
As noted previously a wide selection of base fluids may be used to build a CONFI-DEEP system, however,
as is the case with any system for low temperature applications a base fluid with a pour point lower
than the expected sea bed temperature must be used to avoid mud solidification.

Brine
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, is the salt of choice to be used for lowering the mud activity to balance shale
activity. CaCl2 is used to ensure Aw as close to that of the clay/shale or lower.

cDEEP-MUL
A specially engineered surface active emulsifier and wetting agent in the CONFI-DEEP system is based
upon complex surfactant chemistry, cDEEP-MUL emulsifies the brine in the base fluid and maintains an
oil wet state of drilled solids, barite, and other solids. Other functions of cDEEP-MUL include
deflocculation of system components and rheological control and stability. cDEEP-MUL also provides
very effective HPHT fluid loss control up to about 200 °F (93 °C), reducing the requirement for fluid loss
agents.

cDEEP-MUL provides stable and tight emulsion over a wide temperature range from 32 – 250 °F
(0 - >12 °C). The cDEEP-MUL concentration is custom optimised for each field application to provide
stable rheology and fluid loss over the temperature range specific to the well.

CONFI-MUL SA
A blend of saturated fatty acids used in non-aqueous fluids to increase viscosity and provide
support for weight materials particularly for freshly mixed muds during transportation as the full
viscosity of the fluid is dependent on heat and shear in the wellbore along with solids incorporation.
When exposed to higher temperatures in the wellbore CONFI-MUL SA liquefies, the initial temporary
viscosity is lost, and the product and works as a weak secondary emulsifier. Its primary function is
to provide suspension characteristics to freshly prepared mud before the viscosifiers have fully yielded.

11
 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

cDEEP-MOD
Is a specially designed organic polymer designed to maintain a flat rheological profile over the full
range of temperatures encountered in a deepwater well. cDEEP-MOD is the primary viscosifier of the
CONFI-DEEP system at temperatures > 68 °F (20 °C).

cDEEP-RM
Is a secondary modifier to assist in maintaining a flat rheology profile while drilling. An engineered
combination of a special organic polymer and rheology modifier provides a stable dynamic flow profile.

CONFI-GEL HT
Premium organophilic clay which may be used as a supplementary viscosifier in the CONFI-DEEP
system to provide additional gel structure to minimise sag. CONFI-GEL HT primarily provides
rheological control below about 68 °F (20 °C) when used at low concentration. CONFI-GEL HT also is an
effective emulsifier of water into non-aqueous fluids and a fluid loss reducer.

cDEEP-TROL
Is the primary fluid loss control additive for the CONFI-DEEP system. The additive has a synergistic
effect with the system emulsifiers in controlling and reducing the HPHT fluid loss.

Other non aqueous fluid loss additives may also be used but should be pilot tested before addition.
The effectiveness of different fluid loss control additives is dependent on OWR; temperature, density
and the type of base oil. Laboratory tests are advised for ascertaining the correct formulation for the
project.

cDEEP-BAR
Is an economical non API sub-400 mesh barite for use in deepwater operations. cDEEP-BAR typically
exceeds API quality specifications for mineral quality. cDEEP-BAR is specifically ground for formulation
and maintenance of drilling fluids in which ‘barite sag’ is virtually eliminated in all fluid types and
densities. cDEEP-BAR is a solution for fracture induction losses due to a narrow mud weight window.
The products inherently low contribution to viscosity supports use in ECD sensitive wells.

cDEEP-THIN
A specially formulated and engineered complex surfactant polymer used in low concentrations as a
thinner for the CONFI-DEEP system. It is very powerful and must be used carefully and judiciously –
again pilot testing must take place before addition of ANY quantity. Overtreatment of any non-
aqueous fluid with a thinner, can result in a serious deterioration of fluid properties which may be
expensive to correct.

Lime is required for activation of the emulsifiers and proper solubilisation of cDEEP-MOD. Extensive
studies have determined that the EXCESS lime content must be maintained greater than 3 lb/bbl
AT ALL TIMES

12
CONFI-DEEP formulations

General formulation

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
base fluid Continuous phase of emulsion As required As required
cDEEP-MUL Primary emulsifier and wetting agent 7 - 13 20 - 37
CONFI-MUL SA Suspension for fresh mud 1–3 2.85 – 8.55
cDEEP-MOD Primary viscosifier – flat rheology 1.5 – 3 4.3 – 8.55
additive
cDEEP-TROL Filtration control 2–5 5.7 - 14
CDEEP RM Secondary modifier As required – pilot As required – pilot
test test
CONFI-GEL HT Secondary viscosifier 0–4 0 – 11.4
cDEEP-THIN Thinner – rheology control < 0.5 < 1.4
(as required) (as required)
lime Alkalinity 8 22.8
CaCl2 Water phase activity, Aw As required As required
DRILL-BAR Density As required As required

Table 7 General Formulation

Example CONFI-DEEP formulations (by density and SWR) with Saraline 185V

Density – lb/gal 7.9 9.0 10.5 15.0

Products
cDEEP-MUL – lb/bbl 13 13 13 13
cDEEP-MOD – lb/bbl 2 2 2 1
CONFI-GEL HT– lb/bbl 3 2 1.5 1
cDEEP-MUL SA – lb/bbl As required As required As required As required
lime – lb/bbl 8 8 8 8
95% CaCl2 - lb/bbl 36 34 35 22
DRILL-BAR 61 153 394
Fluid Properties
OWR 70/30 70/30 75/25 75/25
Rheology at 150 °F
PV – cP 13 13 16 22
2
YP - lb/100 ft 20 20 16 25
6 rpm 13 12 12 15
HTHP filtrate, ml <4 <4 <4 <4

Table 8 CONFI-DEEP formulations (Product concentrations lb/bbl will vary with base fluid selection)

13
 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

Example CONFI-DEEP formulations (by density and SWR) with Saraline 185V

Density - SG 0.95 9.0 1.26 1.80

Products
cDEEP-MUL – kg/m3 37 37 37 37
cDEEP-MOD – kg/m3 5.7 5.7 5.7 2.85
CONFI-GEL HT– kg/m3 8.55 5.7 4.3 2.85
cDEEP-MUL SA – lb/bbl As required As required As required As required
lime – lb/bbl 22.8 22.8 22.8 22.8
95% CaCl2 - lb/bbl 103 97 100 63
DRILL-BAR 174 436 1123
Fluid Properties
OWR 70/30 70/30 75/25 75/25
Rheology at 150 °F
PV – cP 13 13 16 22
2
YP - lb/100 ft 20 20 16 25
6 rpm 13 12 12 15
HTHP filtrate, ml <4 <4 <4 <4

Table 9 CONFI-DEEP formulations (Product concentrations kg/m3 will vary with base fluid selection)

The following graphs, figure 3 plot the rheology of different fluid densities vs. temperature

CONFI-DEEP - Yield Point graph

30

25
YP, Ib/100ft2

20

15

10 7 .9 p p g ( s o lid f r e e )

9 ppg

1 0 .5 p p g
5
15 ppg

0
40 F 70 F 120 F 150 F

Temp, deg F

CONFI-DEEP - 6 rpm graph

20

16
6-rpm, DR

12

8
7 .9 p p g ( s o lid f r e e )

9 ppg
4 1 0 .5 p p g

15 p pg

0
40 F 70 F 120 F 150 F

Temp, deg F

14
 CONFI-DEEP -PV graph
90
80
70
60 7 .9 p p g ( s o lid f r e e )

PV, cP 50
9 p pg

1 0 .5 p p g

40 15 p pg

30
20
10
0
40 F 70 1
F20 F 150 F

Temp, degF
Figure 3 Rheology vs. Temperature and pressure

CONFI-DEEP mixing procedure:

ƒ Add the required amount of base fluid in the mixing tank.

ƒ Add cDEEP-MUL to the base fluid at the required dosage.
ƒ Mix cDEEP-MOD slowly in the mixing tank and shear thoroughly for proper dispersion to get
viscosity. The use of a shearing device is recommended.
ƒ Mix CONFI-GEL HT if required and continue shearing. Shearing is very important for viscosifiers to
yield.
ƒ Add lime
ƒ Add prepared brine of the required salt concentration to the mixing tank. If brine is not available,
bleed in water slowly running the hopper continuously while bleeding in the brine or water.
ƒ Add CaCl2 powder if brine was not prepared.
ƒ. Thoroughly shear the fluid to develop maximum emulsion stability and viscosity.
ƒ Add cDEEP-TROL required for HPHT fluid loss control and continue shearing.
ƒ If the desired viscosity has not been achieved in the mud plant due to low shear levels even with a
dedicated device, add CONFI-MUL SA which will impart viscosity at low temperature with low shear
in a low solids system.
ƒ Load barite to get the desired density.
ƒ Shear the system to get stable uniform properties.
ƒ Bridging agents should not be mixed in the liquid mud plant (LMP) to avoid shear degradation.
Bridging agents are best added in the field immediately before their use is required.

15
 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

Field Trouble Shooting of the CONFI-DEEP system:

Observation Possible Reasons Recommended Treatment

High PV ƒ Solid build up • Check Shaker screens for holes
ƒ Inefficient or inadequate solid • Use finer screens
removal • Run Centrifuge in correct mode
• Dilute the system with base oil
High YP ƒ Solid build up • For solids as above
ƒ Water contamination • Add base oil to get the correct
ƒ Excess viscosifier OWR and to reduce viscosifier
concentration
High Gels ƒ High LGS • Same as “A”
ƒ High Solids
Non-Flat ƒ Less concentration of cDEEP-MOD • In case Rheological parameters
rheology ƒ Poor emulsification permit add cDEEP-MOD
ƒ High concentration of organophilic • Mix cDEEP-MUL
clays • Dilute SBM with base oil and mix
cDEEP-MOD
Low values of ƒ Reduction in cDEEP-MOD • Mix cDEEP-MOD
LSRV & YP ƒ Reduction in cDEEP-RM • Mix cDEEP-RM – Be careful to
Unstable emulsion ensure Flat rheology is maintained.
Excess of organophilic clay may give
temperature dependent rheology.
• Mix cDEEP-MUL
Low ES ƒ Drop in concentration of • Mix cDEEP-MUL
cDEEP-MUL
High HTHP Fluid ƒ Weak emulsification or less • Add cDEEP-MUL
loss emulsifier in the system • Mix cDEEP-TROL
ƒ Less of Fluid Loss additive • Reduce solids as per “A”
ƒ Less of clay in the system
ƒ Solids build up
Decreasing Oil ƒ Surface water contamination • Check all water sources like taps on
Water ratio ƒ Excessive shale dehydration - surface – check drill floor cleaning
removing water from formation • Bleed in base oil to increase OWR
with concurrent treatment to
maintain parameters
• Observe shale cuttings for being
very brittle & fragile due to excessive
dehydration. Normal dehydration
strengthens shale
• Reduce WPS by dilution and treating
the drilling fluid with proper
additives

Table 10. Supplementary products for EXTRA-VERT systems

16
opta-vert
System Description
OPTA-VERT is an invert emulsion DRILL-IN fluid that has been custom designed to provide minimal
reservoir damage across of a wide range of porosities and permeabilities whilst laying down a filter cake
readily removable on draw down.

The system is custom designed for each individual reservoir and uses a range of high quality
components and design tools to facilitate the design process including the HyPR-SIZER program which
allows the concentration and particle size of the bridging agent to be optimized to ensure solids are
deposited across the pore throat with minimal invasion while sealing off the reservoir with a thin and
resilient filter cake.

OPTA-VERT is recommended for reservoir drill-in applications with the raised potential for problems
such as emulsion blocking associated with water based drilling fluids.
Problems which OPTA-VERT minimises include:

ƒ Wellbore instability caused by hydratable shales above or inter-bedded in the reservoir sands.
ƒ Fluid instability due to high bottom hole temperatures.
ƒ Excessive torque and drag related to high angle and extended reach drilling.

The result is a system that provides strong benefits as a high performance, non-damaging drill-in fluid
optimising production rates across a wide range of completion methods:

ƒ Open hole gravel pack or non gravel pack completions.

ƒ Expandable slotted screen completions.
ƒ Slotted or perforated liner completions.
ƒ Cased hole completions where hole cleaning or minimised fluid invasion is critical.

The system is highly inhibitive and ideally suited to drilling reservoirs with shale interbeds.

The OPTA-VERT system can be used to drill overbalanced by optimising the concentration of the
bridging material to effectively seal new virgin formation as it is exposed by the bit, thus preventing
losses.

Benefits of the OPTA-VERT System include:

ƒ Highly inhibitive ƒ Re-use

ƒ Low filter loss ƒ Can be engineered with environmentally
ƒ Re-use friendly base fluids
ƒ Can be engineered on reservoir specific basis ƒ Simple to use
ƒ Rapid bridging ƒ Fluid properties are tolerant of solids
ƒ Easily removable filter cake ƒ Resistant to contamination
ƒ Filter cake has low lift off pressure ƒ Protection against corrosion
ƒ Filter cake can be back produced through ƒ Low dilution rates
slotted liners ƒ Can be formulated to relatively low
ƒ Acid soluble filter cake densities

17
 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

The advantages of the system must be considered along with the limitations:

ƒ High cost of losses ƒ May require complex clean up procedures

ƒ High initial make up costs ƒ Cost of remediation
ƒ May have environmental restrictions ƒ Re use may lead to build up of drill
solids content
Formulation
An example of an OPTA-VERT formulation and associated properties is shown in Table 11. All formulations
must be engineered specifically for each reservoirs individual characteristics.

Product Function Concentration Concentration

lb/bbl kg/m3
Base Oil LP Base Fluid 0.65 bbl/bbl 0.65 m3/ m3
CONFI-MUL P Primary emulsifier 6-8 11.4
CONFI-MUL S Secondary emulsifier 3-4 8.55 – 11.4
CONFI-GEL Viscosifier 4-6 11.4 – 17.1
calcium chloride Brine phase 15 42.75
drillwater 0.12 bbl/bbl 0.12 m3/ m3
lime Lime 10 28.5
OPTA-CARB Bridging & density 10 – 55 as required 18 – 156 as required

Table 11. Example OPTA-VERT formulation

Property Typical Value Units

Mud Weight 9.1 lb/gal
PV 26 cP
YP 21 lbs/100 ft2
6 RPM 13 dial reading
SWR 85:15
ES 1040 volts
HTHP (@ Bottom Hole Temp °F) <4.0 ml/30 min

Table 12. Typical OPTA-VERT properties

A number of aspects of this formulation need to be highlighted.

ƒ
Note the relatively low concentration of emulsifier. The system is run with little or no excess
emulsifier to minimise emulsion blockage in the formation. However, must be emphasised that the
amount of emulsifier must be sufficient to ensure emulsion stability.
ƒ
Filtration control additives maybe restricted to prevent formation damage. In that case filtration control
is provided by the emulsion and the concentration of bridging material.
ƒ
The concentration, particle size distribution and type of the OPTA-CARB bridging material, will be
project and well specific.

Engineering Guidelines
Ensure that the emulsion remains stable, with low filter loss and no water break through. It is
also imperative that there is sufficient bridging material of the correct size to ensure that the non
damaging nature of the fluid. The drilling process will degrade the bridging material and some of
the material will be removed by the shale shakers. New bridging material should be added to regularly
to the circulating system to maintain the correct particle size distribution.

18
Mixing OPTA-VERT
ƒ Add the required quantity of base fluid to the mixing tank.
ƒ Add the primary emulsifier, CONFI-MUL P, and secondary emulsifier, CONFI-MUL S, as required.
ƒ Add organophilic viscosifier, CONFI-GEL / CONFI-GEL HT, as required.
ƒ Add required amount of water to the above mixture. If brine is to be used, then add brine after the
lime additions.
ƒ Add rheology modifier e.g. CONFI-MOD or CONFI-RM as required.
ƒ Add lime as required.
ƒ Add filtration control additives, CONFI-TROL, CONFI-TROL HT, CONFI-SEAL or CONFI-TROL F, as
required.
ƒ Add calcium chloride powder if brine is not used. If calcium chloride powder is not available, then
mix the calcium chloride flakes into the water and add as a brine.
ƒ Mix above for several hours to ensure a good emulsion is formed.
ƒ If the formulation requires barite add the required amount.
ƒ Add the bridging material e.g. OPTA-CARB as the final product.
ƒ After the bridging material has been added it is advisable that shear in the mixing system is
minimised to prevent the grinding of the bridging material. It is recommended that if logistically
possible the bridging materials are not added to the fluid until it is needed e.g. immediately before
entering the reservoir or after the casing / liner is drilled out.

The shear available on most rigs is rarely sufficient to ensure that the organophilic clays have fully
yielded. Once the fluid is sheared through the bit the rheology profile may increase.

Filter Loss
The HPHT should be run at the maximum expected bottom hole temperature. As there is a minimal
concentration of emulsifiers in the fluid, the HPHT test should be run several times on each shift to
ensure that the fluid remains within the required parameters.

Density
Initial density is provided by the OPTA-CARB in the system. Barite should be added only if the
engineered bridging material is not sufficient to provide the required density.

In order to minimise the amount of solids, alternative weight materials such as HAEMATITE, or for
specialist applications, HYDRO-MAX, may be used. These weight materials will deliver fluids which
have lower plastic viscosities than systems formulated with conventional barite.

Rheology
It must be highlighted that while drilling ahead there will be an increase in rheology as the
organophilic clay yields. This is particularly true when new fresh mud is delivered to or mixed on the rig.
Ensure that this increase in rheology does not become an operational problem, it must be controlled.

The two principal methods of imparting rheology is by the use of the Organophilic clay, CONFI-
GEL / CONFI-GEL HT and or low end rheological modifiers. Optimise the effectiveness of organophilic
clays, with the addition of CONFI-MOD and/or CONFI-RM. The use of these modifiers will provide
a flatter rheology profile minimising the ECD. Note that overuse of rheology modifiers without
sufficient underlying organophilic clay structure can promote barite sag, which is detailed in section 6b
of this handbook, barite sag.

19
 Section

11c non aqueous drilling fluids

Oil Wetting Agents

The use of oil wetting agents, CONFI-WET, and thinners, CONFI-COAT, should be avoided as the
difference between product effectiveness and over treatment can be a very fine balance. The
thinners act on the organophilic agents and destroy their effectiveness. Once a system is over treated
it becomes difficult to re gain the rheology and the danger of sag becomes more pronounced. If a
treatment of oil wetting agents is to be made to the circulating system, it is advisable that the
treatment is pilot tested extensively beforehand to determine the correct treatment level.

Emulsifier
Emulsifier ensures that the invert emulsion is stabilised and aid in filtration control. The measurement
of emulsion stability gives an indication of the condition of the emulsion. While drilling with the
OPTA-VERT system the emulsifier concentration is minimised to prevent formation damage.

Filtration Controllers
The use of filtration controllers may be restricted when using the OPTA –VERT system. However,
depending on fluid loss requirements OPTA-VERT systems may be formulated with the CONFI-
TROL product range or blend of these products.

Water Phase Salinity

Refer to CONFI-DRILL.

Non Standard Rig Site Testing

The primary method of preventing damage is the use of bridging materials. The quantity and quality
(particle size distribution) needs to be monitored. A number of additional testing regimes may be
required. These include

Test Reason Equipment / Test

Pore Plug Test Bridging Efficiency PPA apparatus
Calcium Carbonate Concentration Determine the quantity of Non Standard Test
bridging material
Particle Size Distribution Determine the size of the Malvern Particle Size
particles in the fluid tester

These tests will determine the rate of depletion of bridging material in terms of quantity and quality
which will allow addition of the required bridging material to the system while drilling ahead.

Solids Control Equipment

It must be highlighted that while the primarily purpose of solids control equipment is to remove
drill solids, bridging materials will also be removed negating the non damaging nature of the fluids.
A balance has to be struck between solids removal and controlling the effects of drill solids
contamination by dilution.

Fresh bridging agents are frequently added on a continuous basis to replace material lost through
solids control equipment.

20
 section 11d

completion fluids
section 11d Scomi Oiltools

clear brines 2
density 2
crystallisation point 5
environmental concerns 6
brine / formation water compatibility 6
cost 7
brine testing procedures 7
hse 8
engineering guide lines 9
filtration 10
corrosion inhibition 10
wellbore clean up and displacement 11
losses during completion 12
 Section

11d completion fluids

completion fluids
Clear brines are use to provide hydrostatic pressure control barrier both during the running of
completion strings and during work over operations and are generally selected for non formation
damaging characteristics.

clear brines
The ideal fluid should be free from solids, polymers and compatible with the formation therefore clear
brines are the preferred option.

The selection of brine will be dependent on the following criteria:

ƒ Brine density range

ƒ Brine crystallisation point
ƒ Fluid / formation compatibility
ƒ Corrosion
ƒ Local environmental rules
ƒ Cost
ƒ Availability

Brines are classified by the valency of the cation into monovalent and divalent brines.

Monovalent brines include:

ƒ Potassium chloride
ƒ Potassium formate
ƒ Potassium nitrate
ƒ Potassium bromide
ƒ Sodium chloride
ƒ Sodium bromide
ƒ Sodium formate
ƒ Sodium nitrate
ƒ Caesium formate
ƒ Caesium acetate

Divalent brines include:

ƒ
Calcium chloride
ƒ
Calcium bromide
ƒ
Zinc bromide
ƒ
Zinc chloride
ƒ
Magnesium chloride

Brines may be made from blends of these salts, however, divalent and monovalent brines should not
be mixed, as this will result in co- precipitation. Typical blends are Sodium / Potassium Chloride and
Calcium Chloride / Calcium Bromide.

density
The density of brine depends both on the type and quantity of salt dissolved in water and all brines
have a maximum concentration of salt (saturation) after which the salt no longer goes into solution.


Brine densities vary as detailed in Table 1 below:
Brine Maximum Density
lb/gal SG
Potassium Chloride 9.7 1.16
Magnesium Chloride 9.9 1.19
Sodium Chloride and 10.0 1.20
Sodium Chloride Potassium Chloride Blend
Calcium Nitrate 10.5 1.26
Sodium Formate 11.1 1.33
Potassium Bromide and Potassium Bromide / Potassium Chloride Blend 11.5 1.38
Calcium Chloride 11.7 1.39
Potassium Carbonate 12.8 1.536
Sodium Bromide and Sodium Bromide/ Sodium Chloride Blend 12.7 1.52
Potassium Carbonate 12.8 1.53
Calcium Nitrate 12.9 1.54
Potassium Formate 13.3 1.59
Calcium Bromide and Calcium Chloride / Calcium Bromide Blend 15.4 1.85
Caesium Formate / Caesium Acetate 19.7 2.36
Zinc Bromide and Calcium Bromide Zinc Bromide Blend 20.5 2.46

Table 1 Brine density

To determine the relationship between density and salt concentration a brine table must be consulted,
as the mass balance equation does not apply to brines that are not fully saturated. Brine tables are detailed
in Section 18, Salt Tables.

It is imperative that the maximum temperature requirement (usually BHT) is quoted when specifying
the fluid density requirements as there is significant volume, therefore density, variation with temperature
in clear brines. As the temperature increases the fluid density decreases e.g. Calcium Chloride with a
density of 11.0 lb/gal (1.32 SG) at 60 ˚F (15.5 ˚C) has a density of 10.5 lb/gal (1.26 SG) at 220 ˚F (104 ˚C).

It is also important to know the minimum surface temperature the brine will be exposed to as
high concentrations of some salts e.g. Potassium Chloride having crystallisation points (see below)
> freezing point. In cold climates / winter conditions the maximum density achievable with the brine
might be reduced.

Brine selection for any application will be dependent initially on the ability to meet the density
requirements at the maximum temperature in the wellbore.

Factors to consider when calculate drilling fluid density include:

ƒ
type of fluid in use
ƒ
fluid column properties - dynamic or static
ƒ
if mud is circulating in well, has temperature and density steady state been achieved
ƒ
temperature gradient of well - uniform or variable

Calculation of hydrostatic pressure at any point in the well is affected by the gradient of temperature
increase to which the fluid is exposed in the earth. However in deep-water wells the gradient of
temperature decrease to which the mud is exposed in the riser extending through the column of
seawater must also be considered. When circulation is broken before or after a trip a near steady
state may be interrupted and temperatures and pressures begin to change minute by minute. For this
reason the following expressions can provide only serviceable estimates which may not apply when
maintaining bottom hole pressure is critical to well control or circulating losses.


 Section

11d completion fluids

Specific comments important to understanding the significance of the following equation include:

ƒ In a circulating well which has not reached a near steady state the fluid temperatures are in flux.
ƒ As a near equilibrium or steady state temperature gradient is achieved during continuous circulation
the flow line, temperature will generally be significantly above ambient conditions. Fluid temperature
at wellbore will be less than BHT.
ƒ Actual surface density and temperature at flowline should be used in the calculations.
ƒ If BHT is used results will be conservative. If estimated BHCT is applied, calculated pressure will be
increased.
ƒ This simple mathematical treatment assumes a linear temperature gradient which may not reflect
the actual well conditions.
ƒ When drilling in cold water (deepwater Gulf of Mexico or in arctic waters for example) the cooling
effect on riser may reduce flowline temperature to near 32 ˚F (0 ˚C). In these examples a separate
calculation should be performed on the mud column contained by the riser.
ƒ A carefully described computer model which considers temperature transfer across the tubulars,
thermal conductivity of cased and open hole, thermal conductivity of the fluid, allows for changing
temperature gradients when applicable, flow rate, and temperature change of fluid at bit nozzles will
provide a more accurate estimate of pressure.

The following expressions yield approximate corrections for density gain or loss.

To calculate an average well temperature is straight-forward

(BHT + ST)
2
Where
BHT = bottom hole temperature (˚F)
ST = surface temperature (˚F)
AT = average well temperature (˚F)

Using the previous calculation an average temperature increase can be calculated

AT - ST = ATI

Where
AT = average well temperature (˚F)
ST = surface temperature (˚F)
ATI = average temperature increase (˚F)

From the temperature increase and an estimated correction factor constant (Table 2) can be calculated
change in density

ATI x Cft = DDt

Where
ATI = average temperature increase (˚F)
Cft = temperature correction factor
DDt = change in density (lb/gal) due to temperature

From previous calculations can be calculated average hydrostatic pressure

(SD - DDT) x 0.052 x TVD = AHP
2


Where
SD = surface density (lb/gal)
DDt = change in density (lb/gal) due to temperature
TVD = true vertical depth of well (ft)
AHP = average hydrostatic pressure (lb/in2)
0.052 = hydraulic constant

From previous calculations can be calculated density change due to increase in pressure
AHP x Cfp = DDP

Where
AHP = average hydrostatic pressure (lb/in2)
Cfp = correction factor for pressure
DDp = density change (lb/gal) due to hydrostatic pressure

The average wellbore density resulting from the temperature gradient and hydrostatic pressure can then
be estimated using the following equation:
SD + DDt + DDp= DP

Where
SD = surface density (lb/gal)
DDt = change in density (lb/gal) due to temperature
DDp = density change (lb/gal) due to hydrostatic pressure

Correction Factors
Fluid Type Temp Pressure
NaCl or KCl 0.0024 0.000019
CaCl2 0.0027 0.000017
NaBr 0.0033 0.000021
NaBr / NaCl blend 0.0033 0.000021
CaBr2 0.0033 0.000023
CaCl2 / CaBr2 blend 0.0033 0.000023
ZnBr2 / CaBr2 / CaCl2 - 14 to 17.5 lb/gal 0.0036 0.000024
ZnB2 / CaBr2 / CaCl2 - > 17.5 lb/gal to 0.0048 to 0.000031

Table 2 Brine correction Factors

crystallisation point
As the temperature of brine is reduced the solubility of the salt is reduced and at a specific temperature
salt crystals will begin to precipitate. The point at which the salt begins to precipitate is described as the
crystallisation point. The precipitation of these solid salts will result not only in a density drop, with an
impact on safe well control, but may also cause plugging in pumps and lines as the salt settles out.

Four temperatures values are used to describe the crystallisation point:

ƒ First crystal to appear (FCTA)

ƒ True crystallisation temperature (TCT)
ƒ Last Crystal to dissolve (LCTD)
ƒ Pressure Crystallisation Temperature (PCT)

The crystallisation point is also a determining factor in brine selection. For instance in cold environments
and / or offshore operation, the temperature may be too low to allow particular brine or brine blend to be
used as the operation temperature is below the crystallisation temperature. To provide a safe operating
margin allow a 10 ˚F margin below the lowest crystallisation temperature of the brine.


 Section

11d completion fluids

Crystallisation - TCT for NaCl, KCl & CaCl2

70

60

50

40 KCl CaCl2
30
CP (deg F)

20
NaCl
10

-10

7
0

7
2

7
4

8
.2

9
.1

.3
84

60

93
98

28
56

13
70

44
42

76

.6

.5
.4

.8

.1
.9
10
10

11
10
8.

9.

9.
8.

11
9.

10

10

11
8.

9.
8.

9.
8.

9.

10
-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

Density (ppg)

Figure 1: TCT GRAPH

environmental concerns
In some locations the selection of brines may be limited due to environmental regulations on the use
and / or disposal of the brine. These regulations may prevent the use of particular brines and / or limit
the discharge to below a certain threshold concentration. In case of discharge restrictions, the use of
the brine may be allowed if there is a remedial method such as total containment at the rig site.

brine / formation water compatibility

Completion and work over brines will come into contact with the formation solids, fluids and gasses
raising the possibility of chemical incompatibility, which will interfere with the passage of fluids to
and from the well bore during production or injection activities.

The most common incompatibilities include:

ƒ Reaction of the brine with the shale formation causing shale swelling.
ƒ Precipitation of iron compounds in the formation from iron dissolved in the brine.
ƒ Formation of emulsions between the brine and hydrocarbon liquids in the formation.
ƒ Scale formation from the reaction between the brines and dissolved solutes in the formation e.g.
calcium brines with dissolved carbon dioxide.
ƒ Co precipitation of salts when divalent ions in the formation mix with monovalent ions from the
brine and vice versa.

In order to ensure the compatibility of completion fluid the following tests can be used to evaluate
compatibility.

ƒ Return Permeability
ƒ Brine and formation water compatibility test
ƒ Formation mineralogy
ƒ Chemical Analysis of formation water
ƒ Produced fluid brine compatibility tests


It should be noted that in order for these tests to be valid, core and produced fluids from the nearest
offset wells should be used for the test.

cost
Cost may be a limiting factor as to the selection of clear brines, there being a considerable cost variation
for brine types in particular the high density brines. If a brine can cover the density range, has a high
enough crystallisation point, fulfils all the environmental regulatory requirements, is non corrosive, its
selection may be precluded in the event that the cost is too high to make the project financially viable.

brine testing procedures

Brine Density
Although density of brine can be determined using a mud balance, a more accurate way to determine the
density is by the use of a hydrometer.

The density of an aqueous solutions is measured with a hydrometer. A

hydrometer consists of a leaded weight encased in a long glass bulb and
a calibrated scale on the top end of the bulb. When placed in an aqueous
solution, the hydrometer sinks to a level that corresponds to the density of the
solution.
Figure 2
Hydrometer Set Crystallisation Point
The true crystallisation point can be determined using a Brine Crystallisation
Kit.

Corrosion
Rate of corrosion can be determined by the use of corrosion coupons.See section 12, Corrosion.

pH
It is recommended that pH be tested using strips as opposed to the use of an electrode type pH meter
as the high electrolyte concentration in brines interferes with the meters accuracy.

Solids Content
Clear brines are free from solids; however they will pick up contamination when they are circulated
down hole. To determine the level of solids contamination there are two test methods

ƒ Centrifuge

The sample is placed in a cell and the centrifuge is spun. Solids are reported as % solids.

ƒ Turbidity Meter

The brine is placed in a sample tube and tested on a standardised turbidity meter. The result is reported
in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) and acceptable values will vary, generally being in the range of
40 – 200 NTU


 Section

11d completion fluids

It should however be highlighted that some dissolved ions will increase the turbidity of the fluid while
not affecting the solids content. It is recommended that when the Turbidity is suspected to be due
to dissolved ions, that the turbidity is tested after the brine is treated with concentrated hydrochloric
acid.

hse
It is important that the HSE issues associated with the use of brines are communicated to the rig crew
and service personnel before the beginning of brine handling operations.

High density brines have unique chemical properties and consequently should be handled in a different
manner from conventional muds, especially for safety reasons. Personnel safety when handling these
brine systems involves two basic aspects:

1. Education of all personnel

2. Proper Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE)

Each person involved with the well site project must be aware of brine properties and how to handle
these systems before brines are used on the rig site. People working with these brine systems must
be aware of brine properties before the drill-in, completion, or workover actually begins. At the
rigsite, they should wear the necessary safety equipment to perform the job. Proper preparation and
teamwork during the job will ensure a safe effective operation.

Toolbox talks should be given to all people that will be involved with the project. The topics should
include:

ƒ
A description of the brine system and fluid properties that affect safety.
ƒ
Safety equipment on the rig, the reason it’s there, its location, when to use it and how to use it.
ƒ
Personal wearing apparel, why, when and how to use it, and how to maintain it.
ƒ
Specific safety procedures.

Pre-spud meetings should be held between the operating company and all service companies
involved. The service company personnel, as well as the regular crews, should be made aware of all
the safety procedures and equipment needed.

Safety and knowledge go hand in hand. Personnel armed with correct information, will be comfortable
with the system, aware of the correct procedures, alert to any situation, and able to avoid potential
pitfalls.

Exposure To Skin
As a general rule, brine solutions become more irritating to the skin as the density of the fluid is increased
and/or the pH of the fluid becomes more acidic. Brines such as CaCI2 and CaBr2 can be extremely irritating
to the skin and if not washed off and if contaminated clothing is not removed, skin burns can result.
Monovalent brines are much less irritating to skin

Brines should be washed off using soap and water as soon as possible especially as the more irritating
brines will pull the moisture directly from the skin due to their hygroscopic properties.

Remove contaminated clothing from the body as this will continue to cause irritation.

Report all incidents of exposure and get qualified medical attention if the irritation is not relieved.


Exposure To Eyes Or Mucous Membranes
Always wear appropriate eye protection. Heavy brines immediately irritate the eyes, mucous membranes
and any cuts or scratches that are contaminated. Wash the affected area, immediately, with large amounts
of water for a minimum of 15 minutes. Get qualified medical attention.

Ingestion
Consult the MSDS for response information. Induce vomiting if the victim is conscious. Do not induce
vomiting if the victim is unconscious.

PPE
The type and amount of safety apparel to be worn will vary with the specific task being done. The
following are the minimum recommended requirements:-

ƒ Use chemical splash goggles to seal against the skin around both eyes and protect the wearer
from splashing at almost any angle as safety glasses with side shields and full face do not provide
this full protection.
ƒ Use plastic or rubber gloves, preferably with long arms, that will protect the hands. Cotton gloves
should be worn over this type of glove to prevent the glove from tearing.
ƒ Ensure that barrier and moisturising creams containing lanolin and/or glycerine. Barrier creams
should be rubbed on the hands before putting on gloves. They are not a substitute for gloves.
ƒ Wear steel toe rubber boots as leather boots will become stiff and shrink when saturated with
heavy brines.
ƒ Wear rubber or plastic aprons when lifting sacks of dry salt or other additives.
ƒ The use of slicker suits or disposable coveralls is recommended for activities when splashing is
probable, such as tripping pipe.
ƒ Use disposable dust/mist respirators when mixing dry additives or salts.

Rig Safety Equipment

Ensure that eye wash fountains and drench showers are near to and working at each area of high activity.

engineering guide lines

Completion / clean-up programs detail the requirements and pumping sequences for completion fluids
including timing sequence and volumes of each specific fluid being pumped and any contingency pill
requirements.

Transport of Brine
On occasion it may be possible to prepare the brine in town at a brine plant. Ensure the following:
ƒ Tanks that the brine is to be mixed in are clean and dry.
ƒ In order to reduced the cost of transport brine may be delivered as concentrated higher density
liquor, and cut back at the rig site to the required density.
ƒ Ensure the tanks are closed securely during transport.
ƒ If possible it is suggested that the brine is pre-filtered prior to loading. This will reduce time at the
rig site for filtration.
ƒ Ensure all hoses used in the transfer are in good condition.
ƒ Ensure that the transport personnel are aware of brine safety issues.


 Section

11d completion fluids

Rig Preparation
Prior to mixing the brine or receiving the brine at the rig site the rig fluid system has to be clean.
The degree of cleanliness will depend on the operational needs. It should be noted, pit and
line cleaning can take as long as 20 – 30 hours of dedicated cleaning. Pits may be cleaned with
water with soap or surfactant pills pumped through all lines and pumps.

Ensure that the following areas are cleaned, dried and free from contamination.

ƒ Flow line / return lines

ƒ Process pits
ƒ Pits
ƒ Trip Tank
ƒ Mud pits
ƒ Mixing lines
ƒ Transfer lines
ƒ Area under the solids control equipment

Other rig preparations considerations are:

ƒ It is advisable that the pits be covered to prevent contamination of the brine by debris and or rain
water.
ƒ Ensure that the pits are not leaking. (Hydro testing is suggested).
ƒ All gates should be sealed shut.
ƒ Blank off all water pipes, to ensure that there is no inadvertent contamination of brine with water.
ƒ If possible in order to prevent cross contamination of brine, it is advisable to only have brine on the rig
during completion operations.
ƒ Hold planning meetings to discuss the safety and operational issues where brine is concerned.
ƒ Ensure hoses are in good condition and compatible with the brine.
ƒ Ensure that other service personnel are aware of the type of brine to be used in order to ensure
that their equipment is compatible.

filtration
To ensure the non damaging nature of the brine after mixing or receiving brine it may be necessary to
remove solids particles and or dirt. The most common method is to filter the brine.

The two most common filtration mediums are:

1. Diatomaceous earth filter (DE)

2. Cartridge type filter.

The two systems can be used in series with, initial filtration by the diatomaceous earth filter then a final
polish through the cartridge type filter. Filters come in a range of sizes and can filter as low as 2 microns.

Note filtration can reduce the density by as much as 0.2 lb/gal as solids and contaminants are removed.
If higher density brine liquor has been supplied then It is advisable to filter the brine before dilution
with water to the required density.

corrosion inhibition
In order to reduce the possibility contamination due to corrosion of the metal surfaces on the tubular
and the completion string the fluid may be treated with a variety of corrosion inhibitors as listed below:

10
 Function Product Name Typical Concentration
lb/bbl kg/m3
Biocide Isothiazolin 500 – 1000 ppm
3 in 1 corrosion inhibitor COR-MUSCLE 3 – 7 gal / 100 bbl 0.71 – 2.3 litres/m3
Oxygen Scavenger OX-SCAV 0.5 – 1 1.42 – 2.85
Oxygen Scavenger for divalent brines OX-SCAV CA 0.5 – 1 1.42 – 2.85
pH Modifier Caustic Soda As required

Prior to treatment it is imperative that the compatibility of the products with the brine is confirmed. It
is recommended that should filtration of the brine be needed then the inhibitor treatment is done
after filtration as treatments may destroy the filtering mediums causing contamination of the brine.

wellbore clean up and displacement

After the well has been drilled, and cased the standard procedure is to clean the casing with a sequence
of clean up pills. If possible consideration should be given to cleaning the well before mixing or receiving
brine. Care should also be taken not to contaminate any brine with the clean up pills.

Clean up procedures and requirements vary depending on completion type and operator specifications.
Clean up procedures can include the use of:

ƒ Thinning pills
ƒ Flocculating pills
ƒ Wettability changing pills
ƒ Surfactant pills (to clean up the well)
ƒ Scrub pills
ƒ High viscosity pills
ƒ Low viscosity pills.

These pills may be combined in sequence, usually in combination with scrapers, brushes and magnets
installed in the drill-string. The pills are usually displaced at high pump rates with large volumes of water
until the specified cleanliness level (NTU) is achieved and may include displacement to the completion
brine as part of the clean-up circulating process.

The following procedure outlines some requirements for brine displacement

ƒ Develop a logistic and pit plan. Ensure there is enough volume available to fill the hole, process
and active pits. Determine the number of stokes required for each part of the displacement.
ƒ Discuss the plan with derrick man / pump man prior to operation.
ƒ By pass the shakers.
ƒ Hold a pre–job tool box talk with every one involved with operation. Discuss and highlight safety
aspects of the operations and distribute a copy of the logistic plan.
ƒ the drilling fluids engineer must monitor the displacement and trouble shoot any problems.
ƒ If weighted fluid is being displaced out of the well with a lower density brine or water it is
recommended that a 50 bbl (8 m3) displacement pill weighted to 2.0 lb/gal (0.24 SG) above the density
of the brine system is pumped between the fluids.
ƒ Pump as fast as operationally possible.
ƒ Once the brine is 150 ft (45 m) above the bit begin rotating and reciprocating the drill string.
ƒ When the interface is at surface divert the returns until the correct density is received at the flow-line.

It should be noted that the interface can use up 50 % of the hole volume depending on the well
geometry and porosity. Ensure that this is taken into account in planning required volumes and pit
space requirements.

11
 Section

11d completion fluids

losses during completion

Down hole losses may occur during completion or workover operations such as perforation, pulling
of tubing, pulling of completion, injectivity tests and during cycling of pumps to set balls or close
valves. As clear fluids are solids free the loss rates may be larger than with fluids containing solids.

Ensure that there is a loss circulation plan developed and included in the operation plan, if losses
are a potential hazard. This plan should include what loss rate and loss of time is acceptable before
remedial action becomes necessary as well as which technique should be used.
Technique to cure down hole losses include

ƒ The lowering of the hydrostatic over burden

ƒ The use of viscosified solids free loss circulation pills
ƒ The use of pills containing sized solids
ƒ The closure of down hole valves
ƒ Setting of packers

The type and cause of loss will determine which method is used to cure the losses.

When using a loss circulation pill during completion and work over operations it is imperative that the pill
is non-damaging and formulated from material which can be produced back or broken down by a wash
treatment e.g. Perchlorate or acid and alkali washes.

Solids Free Viscosified LCM Pill

A pill may be formulated by blending 1- 5 lb/bbl (2.85 - 14.25 kg/m3) of HEC-TOR in brine.

LCM Pills

It is recommended that an optimised OPTA-FLO pill is used as a lost circulation pill. A typical pill consists
of a viscosified brine with a sized calcium carbonate or marble.

Product Function Concentration

llb/bbl kg/m3
OPTA-ZAN Clarified Viscosifying Polymer 1–2 2.85 – 5.7
OPTA-CARB , 5, 25, 50 Bridging Agents 30 – 50 85.5 – 142.5
& 100

Other bridging agents that may be used include Sized Salts and Oil Soluble Resin.

12