LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE

IN

ES 136 – MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE

BODIES

BY:

ENGR. EMMANUEL J. JUMAWAN

SUBJECT INSTRUCTOR

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Module No. 1
I. Title: Concept of Stress

II. Topic: Review of the Methods of Statics, Stresses in the Members of a Structure, Oblique
Plane and Design Considerations

III. Time Frame: 8 hours

IV. Introduction

Mechanics of Materials: provides future engineers with the means of analyzing and
designing various machines and load-bearing structures involving the determination of
stresses and deformations. This first module is devoted to the concept of stress. Section 1.1 is
a short review of the basic methods of statics and their application to determine the forces in
the members of a simple structure consisting of pin-connected members. The concept of
stress in a member of a structure and how that stress can be determined from the force in the
member will be discussed in Sec. 1.2. You will consider the normal stresses in a member
under axial loading, the shearing stresses caused by the application of equal and opposite
transverse forces, and the bearing stresses created by bolts and pins in the members they
connect. Section 1.2 ends with a description of the method you should use in the solution of
an assigned problem and a discussion of the numerical accuracy. These concepts will be
applied in the analysis of the members of the simple structure considered earlier. Again, a
two-force member under axial loading is observed in Sec. 1.3 where the stresses on an
oblique plane include both normal and shearing stresses.
Finally, Sec. 1.4 is devoted to the determination of the ultimate strength from test
specimens and the use of a factor of safety to compute the allowable load for a structural
component made of that material.

Both systems of unit are used

1. International System of Units (SI unit): basic units are kg, sec, m
2. U.S. Customary System (USCS): basic units are lb, sec, ft

V. Pre-test: This pre-test will be conducted through online

VI. Objectives

At the end of this course the student is able to;

1. Review of statics to determine forces in members of simple structures.

2. Identify the concept of stress.
3. Discuss the components of stress on different planes and under loading conditions.
4. Develop problem solving approach.

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VII. Learning Activities

1.1 REVIEW OF THE METHODS OF STATICS

Consider the structure shown in Fig. 1.1, which was designed to support a 30-kN load.
It consists of a boom AB with a 30 x 50-mm rectangular cross section and a rod BC with a 20-
mm-diameter circular cross section. These are connected by a pin at B and are supported by
pins and brackets at A and C, respectively. First draw a free-body diagram of the structure by
detaching it from its supports at A and C and showing the reactions that these supports exert
on the structure (Fig. 1.2). Note that the sketch of the structure has been simplified by
omitting all unnecessary details. Many of you may have recognized at this point that AB and
BC are two-force members. For those of you who have not, we will pursue our analysis,
ignoring that fact and assuming that the directions of the reactions at A and C are unknown.
Each of these reactions are represented by two components: A x and A y at A, and C x and C y
at C. The equilibrium equations are.

Fig. 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-kN load.

We have found two of the four unknowns, but cannot determine the other two from
these equations, and no additional independent equation can be obtained from the free-body
diagram of the structure. We must now dismember the structure. Considering the free-body
diagram of the boom AB (Fig. 1.3), we write the following equilibrium equation:

Substituting for A y from Eq. (1.4) into Eq. (1.3), we obtain C y= +30 kN. Expressing the
results obtained for the reactions at A and C in vector form, we have

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Note that the reaction at A is directed along the axis of the boom AB and causes compression
in that member. Observe that the components C x and C y of the reaction at C are,
respectively, proportional to the horizontal and vertical components of the distance from B to
C and that the reaction at C is equal to 50 kN, is directed along the axis of the rod BC, and
causes tension in that member.
These results could have been anticipated by recognizing that AB and BC are two-
force members, i.e., members that are subjected to forces at only two points, these points
being A and B for member AB, and B and C for member BC. Indeed, for a two-force member
the lines of action of the resultants of the forces acting at each of the two points are equal and
opposite and pass through both points. Using this property, we could have obtained a simpler
solution by considering the free-body diagram of pin B. The forces on pin B, F AB and F BC , are
exerted, respectively, by members AB and BC and the 30-kN load (Fig. 1.4a). Pin B is shown
to be in equilibrium by drawing the corresponding force triangle (Fig. 1.4b). Since force F BC
is directed along member BC, its slope is the same as that of BC, namely, 3/4. We can,
therefore, write the proportion
F AB F BC 30 kN
= =
4 5 3
from which

F AB=40 kN F BC =50 kN

Forces F ' AB and F ' CB exerted by pin B on boom AB and rod BC are equal and opposite to F AB
and F BC (Fig. 1.5).

Knowing the forces at the ends of each member, we can now determine the internal forces in
these members. Passing a section at some arbitrary point D of rod BC, we obtain two portions
BD and CD (Fig. 1.6). Since 50-kN forces must be applied at D to both portions of the rod to
keep them in equilibrium, an internal force of 50 kN is produced in rod BC when a 30-kN
load is applied at B. From the directions of the forces F BC and F ' BC in Fig. 1.6 we see that the
rod is in tension. A similar procedure enables us to determine that the internal force in boom
AB is 40 kN and is in compression.

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1.2 STRESSES IN THE MEMBERS OF A STRUCTURE

Axial Stress

In the preceding section, we found forces in individual members. This is the first and
necessary step in the analysis of a structure. However it does not tell us whether the given
load can be safely supported. Rod BC of the example considered in the preceding section is a
two-force member and, therefore, the forces F BC and F ' BC acting on its ends B and C (Fig.
1.5) are directed along the axis of the rod. Whether rod BC will break or not under this
loading depends upon the value found for the internal force F BC , the cross-sectional area of
the rod, and the material of which the rod is made. Actually, the internal force F BC represents
the resultant of elementary forces distributed over the entire area A of the cross section (Fig.
1.7). The average

F BC
intensity of these distributed forces is equal to the force per unit area, , on the section.
A
Whether or not the rod will break under the given loading depends upon the ability of the
F
material to withstand the corresponding value BC of the intensity of the distributed internal
A
forces. Let us look at the uniformly distributed force using Fig. 1.8. The force per unit area,
or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section, is called the stress and is denoted by
the Greek letter σ (sigma). The stress in a member of cross-sectional area A subjected to an
axial load P is obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the load by the area A:

A positive sign indicates a tensile stress (member in tension), and a negative sign indicates a
compressive stress (member in compression).
As shown in Fig. 1.8, the section through the rod to determine the internal force in
the rod and the corresponding stress is perpendicular to the axis of the rod. The corresponding
stress is described as a normal stress. Thus, Eq. (1.5) gives the normal stress in a member
under axial loading:
Note that in Eq. (1.5), σ represents the average value of the stress over the cross
section, rather than the stress at a specific point of the cross section. To define the stress at a
given point Q of the cross section, consider a small area ΔA (Fig. 1.9). Dividing the
magnitude of ΔF by ΔA, you obtain the average value of the stress over ΔA. Letting ΔA
approach zero, the stress at point Q is

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In general, the value for the stress s at a given point Q of the section is different from that for
the average stress given by Eq. (1.5), and σ is found to vary across the section. In a slender rod
subjected to equal and opposite concentrated loads P and P’ (Fig. 1.10a), this variation is small in a
section away from the points of application of the concentrated loads (Fig. 1.10c), but it is quite
noticeable in the neighborhood of these points (Fig. 1.10b and d).
It follows from Eq. (1.6) that the magnitude of the resultant of the distributed internal forces
is
0

∫ dF = ∫ σ dA
A

But the conditions of equilibrium of each of the portions of rod shown in Fig. 1.10 require that this
magnitude be equal to the magnitude P of the concentrated loads. Therefore,

P = ∫ dF = ∫ σ dA (1.7)
A

which means that the volume under each of the stress surfaces in Fig. 1.10 must be equal to
the magnitude P of the loads. However, this is the only information derived from statics
regarding the distribution of normal stresses in the various sections of the rod. The actual
distribution of stresses in any given section is statically indeterminate. To learn more about
this distribution, it is necessary to consider the deformations resulting from the particular
mode of application of the loads at the ends of the rod.
In practice, it is assumed that the distribution of normal stresses in an axially loaded
member is uniform, except in the immediate vicinity of the points of application of the loads.
The value σ of the stress is then equal to σ ave and can be obtained from Eq. (1.5). However,
realize that when we assume a uniform distribution of stresses in the section, it follows from
elementary statics† that the resultant P of the internal forces must be applied at the centroid C
of the section (Fig. 1.11). This means that a uniform distribution of stress is possible only if
the line of action of the concentrated loads P and P’ passes through the centroid of the
section considered (Fig. 1.12). This type of loading is called centric loading and will take
place in all straight two-force members found in trusses and pin-connected structures, such as
the one considered in Fig. 1.1. However, if a two-force member is loaded axially, but
eccentrically, as shown in Fig. 1.13a, the conditions of equilibrium of the portion of member
in Fig. 1.13b show that the internal forces in a given section must be equivalent to a force P
applied at the centroid of the section and a couple M of moment M = Pd. This distribution of

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forces—the corresponding distribution of stresses—cannot be uniform. Nor can the

distribution of stresses be symmetric.

Example 1.1

In structure of Fig. 1.1, assume that rod BC is made of a steel with a maximum allowable
stress σ ave = 165 MPa. Can rod BC safely support the load to which it will be subjected? The
magnitude of the force F BC in the rod was 50 kN. Recalling that the diameter of the rod is 20
mm, use Eq. (1.5) to determine the stress created in the rod by the given loading.

Solution:

P = F BC = +50 kN =50 X 103 N

A= π r 2 = π ¿ = π (10 x 10−3 m ¿ ¿2
= 314 x 10−6 m 2
p +50 x 10 3 N
σ= = = +159 x 10−6 Pa
A 314 x 10−6 m2

= +159 MPa
Fig. 1.1
Since σ is smaller than σ all of the allowable stress in the steel used, rod BC can safely support
the load

Example 1.2

As an example of design, let us return to the structure of Fig. 1.1 and assume that aluminum
with an allowable stress σ all = 100 MPa is to be used. Since the force in rod BC is still P =
F BC = 50 kN under the given loading, from Eq. (1.5), we have

Solution:

p p +50 x 103 N
σ all= , A= = =500 x 10−6 m 2 : and since A = π r 2,
A σ all −6
100 x 10 Pa

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−6 2
A
= 500 x 10 m = 12.62 x 10−3 m = 12.62 mm
r=
√ √
π
d = 2r = 25.2 mm
π

Therefore, an aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter will be adequate

Shearing Stress

The internal forces and the corresponding stresses were normal to the section
considered. A very different type of stress is obtained when transverse forces P and P’ are
applied to a member AB (Fig. 1.14). Passing a section at C between the points of application
of the two forces (Fig. 1.15a), you obtain the diagram of portion AC shown in

Fig. 1.15b. Internal forces must exist in the plane of the section, and their resultant is equal to
P. These elementary internal forces are called shearing forces, and the magnitude P of their
resultant is the shear in the section. Dividing the shear P by the area A of the cross section,
you obtain the average shearing stress in the section. Denoting the shearing stress by the
Greek letter τ (tau), write

The value obtained is an average value of the shearing stress over the entire section.
Contrary to what was said earlier for normal stresses, the distribution of shearing stresses
across the section cannot be assumed to be uniform. The actual value τ of the shearing stress
varies from zero at the surface of the member to a maximum value τ max that may be much
larger than the average valueτ ave.

Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to connect
various structural members and machine. Consider the two plates A and B, which are
connected by a bolt CD (Fig. 1.16). If the plates are subjected to tension forces of magnitude
F, stresses will develop in the section of bolt corresponding to the plane EE’. Drawing the
diagrams of the bolt and of the portion located above the plane EE’ (Fig. 1.17), the shear P in

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the section is equal to F. The average shearing stress in the section is obtained using Eq. (1.8)
by dividing the shear P = F by the area A of the cross section:

Example 1.3

Returning to the structure of Fig. 1.1, we will determine the normal stresses, shearing
stresses and bearing stresses. As shown in Fig. 1.22, the 20-mm-diameter rod BC has flat
ends of 20 x 40-mm rectangular cross section, while boom AB has a 30 x 50-mm rectangular
cross section and is fitted with a clevis at end B. Both members are connected at B by a pin
from which the 30-kN load is suspended by means of a U-shaped bracket. Boom AB is
supported at A by a pin fitted into a double bracket, while rod BC is connected at C to a
single bracket. All pins are 25 mm in diameter.

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Normal Stress in Boom AB and Rod BC. As found in Sec. 1.1A, the force in rod BC is
F BC =50 kN (tension) and the area of its circular cross section is A=314 x 10−6 m 2. The
corresponding average normal stress is σ BC = +159 MPa. However, the flat parts of the rod
are also under tension and at the narrowest section. Where the hole is located, we have

A=( 20 mm ) ( 40 mm−25 mm )=300 x 10−6 m 2

The corresponding average value of the stress is

3
σ BC = P = +50 x 10−6 N 2 = 167.0 MPa
A 300 x 10 m
( end)

Note that this is an average value. Close to the hole the stress will actually reach a much
larger value, as you will see in Sec. 2.11. Under an increasing load, the rod will fail near one

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of the holes rather than in its cylindrical portion; its design could be improved by increasing
the width or the thickness of the flat ends of the rod.
Recall from Sec. 1.1A that the force in boom AB is F BC =40 kN (compression). Since
the area of the boom’s rectangular cross section is A=( 30 mm )( 50 mm )=1.5 x 10−3 m 2
, the average value of the normal stress in the main part of the rod between pins A and B is
3
σ BC = P = 40 x 10−3N 2 = −26.7 x 10−6 Pa = -26.7 MPa.
A 1.5 x 10 m
( end)

Shearing Stress in Various Connections. To determine the shearing stress in a connection

such as a bolt, pin, or rivet, you first show the forces exerted by the various members it
connects. In the case of pin C (Fig. 1.23a), draw Fig. 1.23b to show the 50-kN force exerted
by member BC on the pin, and the equal and opposite force exerted by the bracket. Drawing
the diagram of the portion of the pin located below the plane DD’ where shearing stresses
occur (Fig. 1.23c), notice that the shear in that plane is P =50 kN . Since the cross sectional
area of the pin is

A= π r 2 = π ¿ = π (12.5 x 10−3 m ¿ ¿2 = 419 x 10−6 m2

the average value of the shearing stress in the pin at C is

p +50 x 10 3 N
τ ave = = = 102.0 MPa.
A 491 x 10−6 m2

Note that pin A (Fig. 1.24) is in double shear. Drawing the free body diagrams of the
pin and the portion of pin located between the planes DD’ and EE’ where shearing stresses
occur, we see that P =20 kN and

p 20 kN
τ ave = = = 40.7 MPa.
A 491 x 10−6 m2

Pin B (Fig. 1.25a) can be divided into five portions that are acted upon by forces
exerted by the boom, rod, and bracket. Portions DE (Fig. 1.25b) and DG (Fig. 1.25c) show
that the shear in section E is PG =15 kN and the shear in section G is PG =25 kN . Since the
loading
of the pin is symmetric, the maximum value of the shear in pin B is PG =25 kN , and the
largest the shearing stresses occur in sections G and H, where

PG 25 kN
τ ave = = = 50.9 MPa.
A 491 x 10−6 m 2

Bearing Stresses. Use Eq. (1.11) to determine the nominal bearing stress at A in member AB.
From Fig. 1.22, t=30 mm and d=25 mm. Recalling that ¿ F AB =40 kN , we have

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p 40 kN
σ b= = = 53.3 MPa.
td (30 mm)(25 mm)

To obtain the bearing stress in the bracket at A, use t=2 ( 25 mm )=50 mm∧d=25 mm:
p 40 kN
σ b= = = 32.0 MPa.
td (50 mm)(25 mm)

The bearing stresses at B in member AB, at B and C in member BC, and in the bracket at C
are found in a similar way.

1.3 STRESSES ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE UNDER AXIAL LOADING

Previously, axial forces exerted on a two-force member (Fig. 1.26a) caused normal stresses in
that member (Fig. 1.26b), while transverse forces exerted on bolts and pins (Fig. 1.27a)
caused shearing stresses in those connections (Fig. 1.27b). Such a relation was observed
between axial forces and normal stresses and transverse forces and shearing stresses, because
stresses were being determined only on planes perpendicular to the axis of the member or
connection. In this section, axial forces cause both normal and shearing stresses on planes
that are not perpendicular to the axis of the member. Similarly, transverse forces exerted on a
bolt or a pin cause both normal and shearing stresses on planes that are not perpendicular to
the axis of the bolt or pin.
Consider the two-force member of Fig. 1.26 that is subjected to axial forces P and P’.
If we pass a section forming an angle ϴ with a normal plane (Fig. 1.28a) and draw the free-
body diagram of the portion of member located to the left of that section (Fig. 1.28b), the
equilibrium conditions of the free body show that the distributed forces acting on the section

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must be equivalent to the force P. Resolving P into components F and V, respectively normal
and tangential to the section (Fig. 1.28c),

Force F represents the resultant of normal forces distributed over the section, and force V is
the resultant of shearing forces (Fig. 1.28d). The average values of the corresponding normal
and shearing stresses are obtained by dividing F and V by the area Aϴ of the section:

Substituting for F and V from Eq. (1.12) into Eq. (1.13), and observing from Fig. 1.28c that
A
A0 =A ϴ cos ϴor Aϴ = 0 , where A0 is the area of a section perpendicular to the axis of the
cos ϴ
member, we obtain

Note from the first of Eqs. (1.14) that the normal stress s is maximum when ϴ=¿0
(i.e., the plane of the section is perpendicular to the axis of the member). It approaches zero
as ϴ approaches 90 0. We check that the value of s when ϴ=¿0 is

The second of Eqs. (1.14) shows that the shearing stress τ is zero for ϴ=¿0 and ϴ=900. For
ϴ=900, it reaches its maximum value

1.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATION

In engineering applications, the determination of stresses is seldom an end in itself. Rather,

the knowledge of stresses is used by engineers to assist in their most important task: the
design of structures and machines that will safely and economically perform a specified
function.

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Determination of the Ultimate Strength of a Material

An important element to be considered by a designer is how the material will behave

under a load. This is determined by performing specific tests on prepared samples of the
material. For example, a test specimen of steel may be prepared and placed in a laboratory
testing machine to be subjected to a known centric axial tensile force, as described in Sec.
2.1B. As the magnitude of the force is increased, various dimensional changes such as length
and diameter are measured. Eventually, the largest force that may be applied to the specimen
is reached, and it either breaks or begins to carry less load. This largest force is called the
ultimate load and is denoted by Pυ. Since the applied load is centric, the ultimate load is
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the rod to obtain the ultimate normal stress of
the material. This stress, also known as the ultimate strength in tension, is

Several test procedures are available to determine the ultimate shearing stress or
ultimate strength in shear. The one most commonly used involves the twisting of a circular
tube (Sec. 3.2). A more direct, if less accurate, procedure clamps a rectangular or round bar in
a shear tool (Fig. 1.39) and applies an increasing load P until the ultimate load Pυ for single
shear is obtained. If the free end of the specimen rests on both of the hardened dies (Fig.
1.40), the ultimate load for double shear is obtained. In either case, the ultimate shearing
stress τ υ is

In single shear, this area is the cross- sectional area A of the specimen, while in double
shear it is equal to twice the cross-sectional area.

Allowable Load and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety

The maximum load that a structural member or a machine component will be allowed
to carry under normal conditions is considerably smaller than the ultimate load. This smaller
load is the allowable load (sometimes called the working or design load). Thus, only a
fraction of the ultimate load capacity of the member is used when the allowable load is
applied. The remaining portion of the load-carrying capacity of the member is kept in reserve
to assure its safe performance. The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable load is used to
define the factor of safety: †

An alternative definition of the factor of safety is based on the use of stresses:

These two expressions are identical when a linear relationship exists between the load and the
stress. In most engineering applications however, this relationship ceases to be linear as the
load approaches its ultimate value, and the factor of safety obtained from Eq. (1.26) does not

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provide a true assessment of the safety of a given design. Nevertheless, the allowable-stress
method of design, based on the use of Eq. (1.26), is widely used.

Factor of Safety Selection

The selection of the factor of safety to be used is one of the most important engineering tasks.
If a factor of safety is too small, the possibility of failure becomes unacceptably large. On the
other hand, if a factor of safety is unnecessarily large, the result is an uneconomical or
nonfunctional design. The choice of the factor of safety for a given design application
requires engineering judgment based on many considerations.

1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member. The composition,
strength, and dimensions of the member are all subject to small variations during
manufacture. In addition, material properties may be altered and residual stresses introduced
through heating or deformation that may occur during manufacture, storage, transportation, or
construction.
2. The number of loadings expected during the life of the structure or machine. For
most materials, the ultimate stress decreases as the number of load cycles is increased. This
phenomenon is known as fatigue and can result in sudden failure if ignored (see Sec. 2.1F).

3. The type of loadings planned for in the design or that may occur in the future.
Very few loadings are known with complete accuracy— most design loadings are
engineering estimates. In addition, future alterations or changes in usage may introduce
changes in the actual loading. Larger factors of safety are also required for dynamic, cyclic,
or impulsive loadings.

4. Type of failure. Brittle materials fail suddenly, usually with no prior indication that
collapse is imminent. However, ductile materials, such as structural steel, normally undergo a
substantial deformation called yielding before failing, providing a warning that overloading
exists. Most buckling or stability failures are sudden, whether the material is brittle or not.
When the possibility of sudden failure exists, a larger factor of safety should be used than
when failure is preceded by obvious warning signs.

5. Uncertainty due to methods of analysis. All design methods are based on certain
simplifying assumptions that result in calculated stresses being approximations of actual
stresses.

6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or

unpreventable natural causes. A larger factor of safety is necessary in locations where
conditions such as corrosion and decay are difficult to control or even to discover.
7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure. Bracing
and secondary members in many cases can be designed with a factor of safety lower than that
used for primary members.

In addition to these considerations, there is concern of the risk to life and property that
a failure would produce. Where a failure would produce no risk to life and only minimal risk
to property, the use of a smaller factor of safety can be acceptable. Finally, unless a careful
design with a no excessive factor of safety is used, a structure or machine might not perform

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its design function. For example, high factors of safety may have an unacceptable effect on
the weight of an aircraft.
For the majority of structural and machine applications, factors of safety are specified
by design specifications or building codes written by committees of experienced engineers
working with professional societies, industries, or federal, state, or city agencies. Examples of
such design specifications and building codes are

1. Steel: American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification for Structural Steel

Buildings
2. Concrete: American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirement for Structural
Concrete
3. Timber: American Forest and Paper Association, National Design Specification for
Wood Construction
4. Highway bridges: American Association of State Highway Officials, Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges.

Normal Stress

Instead of speaking of the internal force acting on some small element of area, it is
better for comparative purposes to treat the normal force acting over a unit area of the cross
section. The intensity of normal force per unit area is termed the normal stress and is
expressed in units of force per unit area, N/m2. If the forces applied to the ends of the bar are
such that the bar is in tension, then tensile stresses are set up in the bar; if the bar is in
compression we have compressive stresses. The line of action of the applied end forces
passes through the centroid of each cross section of the bar.

Load and Resistance Factor Design

The allowable-stress method requires that all the uncertainties associated with the design of a
structure or machine element be grouped into a single factor of safety. An alternative method
of design makes it possible to distinguish between the uncertainties associated with the
structure itself and those associated with the load it is designed to support. Called Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), this method allows the designer to distinguish between
uncertainties associated with the live load, PL (i.e., the active or time-varying load to be
supported by the structure) and the dead load, PD (i.e., the self-weight of the structure
contributing to the total load).
Using the LRFD method the ultimate load, Pυ, of the structure (i.e., the load at which
the structure ceases to be useful) should be determined. The proposed design is acceptable if
the following inequality is satisfied

The coefficient Φ is the resistance factor, which accounts for the uncertainties associated
with the structure itself and will normally be less than 1. The coefficients γ D and γ L are the
load factors; they account for the uncertainties associated with the dead and live load and
normally will be greater than 1, with γ L generally larger than γ D.

Units

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While the student is undoubtedly comfortable using SI units, much of the data
gathered and available for use in the United States are in English units. Table 1.1 lists units
and conversations for many quantities of interest.

When expressing a quantity in SI units, certain letter prefixes shown in Table 1.2 may
be used to represent multiplication by a power of 10. So, rather than writing 30 000 Pa
(commas are not used in the SI system) or 30 x 103 Pa, we may simply write 30 kPa.

The units of various quantities are interrelated via the physical laws obeyed by the
quantities. It follows that, no matter the system used, all units may be expressed as algebraic
combinations of a selected set of base units. There are seven base units in the SI system: m,
kg, s, K, mol (mole), A (ampere), cd (candela). The last one is rarely encountered in
engineering mechanics. Note that N (newton) is not listed as a base unit.

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VIII. Self – Evaluation

1. Two loads are applied to the bracket BCD as shown. (a) Knowing that the control
rod AB is to be made of a steel having an ultimate normal stress of 600 MPa,
determine the diameter of the rod for which the factor of safety with respect to
failure will be 3.3. (b) The pin at C is to be made of a steel having an ultimate
shearing stress of 350 MPa. Determine the diameter of the pin C for which the
factor of safety with respect to shear will also be 3.3. (c) Determine the required
thickness of the bracket supports at C, knowing that the allowable bearing stress of
the steel used is 300 MPa

2. The rigid beam BCD is attached by bolts to a control rod at B, to a hydraulic

cylinder at C, and to a fixed support at D. The diameters of the bolts used are:
3 1
d B=d D= ∈., d c = ∈¿ . Each bolt acts in double shear and is made from a steel
8 2
for which the ultimate shearing stress is τ υ = 40 ksi. The control rod AB has a
7
diameter d D= ∈¿. and is made of a steel for which the ultimate tensile stress is
16
σ υ = 60 ksi. If the minimum factor of safety is to be 3.0 for the entire unit,
determine the largest upward force that may be applied by the hydraulic cylinder at
C.

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3. A single rivet is used to join two plates as shown in Fig. 2-6. If the diameter of the
rivet is 20 mm and the load P is 30 kN, what is the average shearing stress
developed in the rivet?

IX. Review of concepts

This module was devoted to the concept of stress and to an introduction to the
methods used for the analysis and design of machines and loadbearing structures. Emphasis
was placed on the use of a free-body diagram to obtain equilibrium equations that were
solved for unknown reactions. Free-body diagrams were also used to find the internal forces
in the various members of a structure
The simplest case to consider at the start is that of an initially straight metal bar of
constant cross section, loaded at its ends by a pair of oppositely directed collinear forces
coinciding with the longitudinal axis of the bar and acting through the centroid of each cross
section. For static equilibrium the magnitudes of the forces must be equal. If the forces are
directed away from the bar, the bar is said to be in tension; if they are directed toward the bar,
a state of compression exists.
The intensity of the force (force per unit area) is called stress, when the bar is
stretched, the resulting stress are tensile stress, if the bar is compressed, the stress are
compressive stress the stress " acts in the direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is
referred as normal stress, another type of stress is called shear stress sign convention of the
normal stresses are: tensile stress as positive and compressive stress as negative. The
elongation per unit length, which is termed normal strain.
Metallic engineering materials are commonly classified as either ductile or brittle
materials. A ductile material is one having a relatively large tensile strain up to the point of
rupture (for example, structural steel or aluminum) whereas a brittle material has a relatively
small strain up to this same point. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as
the dividing line between these two classes of materials. Cast iron and concrete are examples
of brittle materials.
For any material having a stress-strain curve of the form shown in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), or
(c), it is evident that the relation between stress and strain is linear for comparatively small
values of the strain. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing it is
called Hooke’s law.

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The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to that in the axial direction is defined as
Poisson’s ratio. A homogeneous material, one with the same elastic properties (E, n) at all
points in the body. An isotropic material, one having the same elastic properties in all
directions at any one point of the body.
If a plane is passed through a body, a force acting along this plane is called a shear
force or shearing force. It will be denoted by Fs. The shear force, divided by the area over
which it acts, is called the shear stress or shearing stress. The change of angle at the corner
of an originally rectangular element is defined as the shear strain. The ratio of the shear
stress to the shear strain is called the shear modulus and is denoted by G.

X. References:

Mechanics of Materials, Adrew Pytel and Jaan Kiusalaas, Second Edition

http://ocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/8/249/Chapter_1-98.pdf
Strength of materials, Firdenand Singer and Adrew Pytel, 4th Edition.

PRE-TEST 1
Concept of Stress

Name: Score:
Course & Year: Date:

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the difference between mass and weight?

2. Define and describe the following?

a. Tension
b. Stress
c. Compression
d. Strain
e. Factor of Safety

3. What is Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)?

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