LS 01 - Basic Concept - Dispersion

What is “Statistics”?
It is difficult to define statistics in a few words; since its dimension, scope, function, use and
importance are constantly changing over time. No formal definition thus has emerged so far and no
definition is perhaps beyond controversy.
According to Fisher (1947) 1, the science of statistics is essentially a branch of applied mathematics
and may be regarded as mathematics, applied to observational data.
Croston and Cowden (1948) defined statistics as the subject of collection, presentation and
analysis of numerical data.
As Yule and Kendal (1950) opined, Statistics means quantitative data, which are affected to a
marked extent by multiplicity of causes.
American Heritage Dictionary defines statistics as: “The mathematics of the collection,
organization and interpretation of numerical data especially the analysis of population
characteristics by inference form sampling.”
Types of Statistical Applications:

The field of statistics consists of two branches –
Descriptive statistics focuses on collection, summarization, presentation and analysis of the data
using suitable numerical and graphical methods to look for patterns in a data set.
Inferential statistics utilizes sample data to make estimates, decisions, predictions, or other
generalizations about a larger set of data (population).
Uses and importance of Statistics and Statisticians:

The scope and uses of statistics are so wide and universal that they can’t be enumerated instantly
in a few words. Statistics has now been recognized as a separate discipline of human knowledge in
its own right.
Statistics has it extensive application in the following fields:

1. Surveys:
o Determine which political candidate is more popular.
o Discover what foods teenagers prefer for breakfast
o Estimate the number of children living in a given school district
2. Government Operation:
1
R. A. Fisher (1890- 1962) is known as the father of STATISTICS.
STA 101_Introduction to Statistics
LS01_Basic Concept, Central Tendency and Dispersion
Government often conducts experiments to aid in the development of public policy and
social programs. Such experiments include:
o Consumer price
o Fluctuations in the economy
o Employment patterns
o Population trends
o Opinion polls.
3. Scientific research:
Statistical sciences are used to enhance the validity of inference in all the fields of science,
medical science etc. Such as:
o Radio carbon dating to estimate the risk of earthquakes.
o Clinical trials to investigate the effectiveness of new treatments.
o Field experiments to evaluate the irrigation methods.
o Measurements of water quality
4. Business and Industry:

Statisticians using statistical tools quantify the unknowns in order to optimize resources.
They:
o Predict the demand for product and services.
o Check the quality of items manufactured in a facility
o Manage investment portfolios. And so on.
Statistics in the Business World:

In the business world, statistics has four important applications:
 To summarize business data
 To draw conclusions from that data
 To make reliable forecasts about business activities
 To improve business process.
Some Basic Vocabulary of Statistics:
Population:
A set of all values or elements defined on some common characteristics is called a population.
Thus population means an aggregate of elements possessing certain characteristics of interest in

any particular investigation or enquiry. A population consists of all the items or individual about
which researcher want to draw a conclusion.
‘N’ denotes the size of population.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Assistant Professor, MNS
Example: If we want to study the average weight of the student of 1 st semester BBA then the set
that consists of all the weights of the student of 1st semester BBA will be the population in this case.
Parameter
A parameter is a numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a population.
Sample:
A small and representative (desirably) part of population is known as sample.
In many particular situations it is impossible or even impractical to study the whole population, in
such case only a small and representative part of population is taken under consideration to draw
inferences about the population by analyzing that part of population. Such a part of population is
known as sample.
Sample size is denoted by ‘n’.
Statistic:
A statistic is a numerical measure that describes a characteristic of sample.
Variable:
The measurement of elements of a population having certain characteristics may vary from
element to element either in magnitude or in quality. These measurable characteristics are called
variables.
Thus a measurable characteristic, which can vary from element to element with in its domain
called a variable. Usually we denote the variables by capital letters and their values by small
letters.
Example: Height, weight, age, SSC and HSC marks, family size, sex, etc. are some variables of 1 st
semester BBA students of BRAC University.
Types of Variables
There are two basic types of variables -
1. Qualitative variable (also known as categorical variable or attribute)
A qualitative variable is one for which numerical measurement is not possible. In other
word when the characteristic being studied is nonnumeric, it is called a qualitative variable
or an attribute.
For example: Hair color (brown, black, white etc.), religion (Muslim, Hindu, etc.), sex (male,
female), home district (Dhaka, Rajshahi, Bogra etc.), occupational status (employed,
unemployed, self-employed, others) etc.
An individual is simply assigned to any one of the several mutually exclusive categories on
the basis of observation on the individual. The qualitative observations can neither
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meaningfully ordered nor physically measured, these can only be classified and then
enumerated.
In dealing with the qualitative data, researchers are usually interested in how many or what
proportion fall in each category.
For Example:
- What percent of students of BRAC Universities of English medium background?
- What proportion of people opted in favor of construction of the new Airport?
- How many Muslims and how many Hindus are there in Bangladesh?
2. Quantitative variable (also known as numerical variable)

A quantitative variable is one for which the resulting observations have numeric value and
thus possesses a natural ordering. Quantitative (numeric) variable are further subdivided as
discrete and continuous variables.
 Discrete variable:
When a variable can assume only isolated values within a given range is called
discrete variable.
Example: Number of children in a family, number of road accident in a year,
number of phone call received in a phone booth, height of nails etc.
 Continuous variable:
A variable is said to be a continuous variable if it can theoretically assume any value
within a given range or ranges.
Example: height of a person –since it can take any value between 5.6 feet and 5.8
Qualitative variable
Variable Discrete variable
Quantitative variable
Continuous variable
feet.
Flow Chart of Types of Variables
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Exercise:
a. Classify each variable as qualitative or quantitative:
i. Marital status of nurses in a hospital
ii. Time it takes to run a marathon
iii. Weights of lobsters in a tank in a restaurant
iv. Colors of automobiles in a shopping centre parking lot
v. Ages of people living in a personal care home
b. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous:

i. Number of pizzas sold by Pizza Express each day
ii. Lifetimes (in hours) of 15 iPod batteries
iii. Weights of the backpacks of first graders on a school bus
iv. Number of students each day who make appointments with a mathematics tutor at a local
college
v. Blood pressures of runners in a marathon
Data:
Numerical facts gathered from a statistical investigation are called a data.
In a statistical analysis the first work is to collect data the raw materials of statistics after
identifying a specific problem and field of enquiry.
Data is in fact the plural form of ‘datum’. Single information of a phenomenon on any subject of
interest is called a datum. So data is called the collection of datum.
Example: If we are interested about the height of the students of 1 st semester in BBA of BU, then a
single value (that is the height of a student) is called a datum, and the set of all values of height will
be data.
Sources and Types of data:

Based on the sources data can be of two types.
Primary data:
A data is said to be primary data if it is obtained from an investigation conducted for the first
time. Thus the data collected for the first time by the investigator as original data are known
as primary data.
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Secondary data:
When a statistical analysis is conducted on a data set available from a prior investigation is
called a secondary data.
Example: National income data collected by the government are primary data but they
become secondary data for those who use them.
Raw data:
In any statistical investigation, when data first collected usually appear in raw form where,
information has been recorded merely in arbitrary order in which they happened to occur. This is
known as the raw data set.
Raw data, collected for any statistical investigation, is unable to represent the
summaryinformation, which are although preliminary but necessary for analyses with advanced
statistical method. So it is necessary to represent the raw data in such a way, which will enable us
to extract the preliminary ideas about the variable(s) under study, to get some summary measures
and also to perform further statistical analysis.
Dealing with Raw Data: How to prepare data for further Statistical operation
In the next few subsequent segments we are going to discuss on some techniques of statistics that
we usually used to condense raw data, to make the data prepared for further statistical application.
The most frequently used methods for data condensation or/and representation are
i. Classification
ii. Tabulation
iii. Graphical representation
Classification:
Classification is the process of arranging data values of a variable in groups or classes according to
their affinities or of our interest. It is the first step towards further processing of a heterogeneous
mass of data in to a number of homogeneous groups and subgroups by their respective
characteristics.
Purpose of classification:
Classification is necessary to serve the following purpose:
i. To eliminate unnecessary details.
ii. To bring out clearly point of similarity and dissimilarity.
iii. To enable one to form mental picture of the object.
iv. To enable one to make comparisons.
v. To pin point the most significant features of the data at glance.
vi. To enable a statistical treatment of the collected data.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Principles of determining the number of classes / determination of number of classes:

Usually we determine the number of classes in the light of the following conjoined considerations
i. The number of observations of a variable.
ii. The lowest and highest value of a variable.
iii. Even distribution of the values with in classes.
iv. A regular sequence of frequencies.
v. Avoidance of extremely large or small number of classes.
Do your Self
1. Write down the Limitations of Statistics.
2. Discuss the Importance / Scope / Uses of Statistics.
Tabulation:
A statistical method of data condensation by which we can represent summary information of one
or more variables, is defined as tabulation.
A statistical table is the logical listing of collected data in vertical columns and horizontal rows of
numbers with sufficient explanatory and qualifying words, terms and statements in the form of
titles, headings and notes which make clear the full meaning of data and their origin.
Principles of the constructions of a table:

Some of the most basic principles that one should consider in constructing table are as follows:
1. The table should be self-explanatory. The title describing the contents of the table should
be clear, concise and to the point.
2. The table should be as simple as possible. Two or three tables are often preferable to a
large table containing too many details and variables.
3. The specified units of measurements for the data should be given.
4. Necessary code or symbols used in table should be explained in a footnote.
5. Sources of data should be mentioned.
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Frequency distribution:
The number of times a particular value of a certain variable occurs in a set of observations is called
the frequency of that value and the manner in which the frequencies are distributed in the
different classes is known as the frequency distribution of the values of that variable.
That is frequency distribution can be defined as a summary presentation of a number of

observations of an attributes or values of a variable arrange according to their occurrence either
individually (in case of discrete data) or in a range (in case of both discrete or continuous data)
Table 01: Frequency distribution of number Table 02: Frequency distribution of height of
of children per family trees in Sundarban
Number of Number of Height of the tree Number of trees
children families (In Feet)
0 10 0-50 1000
1 27 50 – 100 2735
2 15 100 – 150 1589
3 18 150 – 200 1518
4 9 More than 200 719
Class limit:
Class limits are the highest and the lowest values that can be included in the class.
For example if we consider the class 50 – 100, here 50 is the lower limit and 100 is the upper limit.
In such case no values greater than 100 shall fall into that class. Similarly no values less than 50
shall fall into that class either.
Class interval:
The difference between the upper limit and the lower limit of a class is called the class interval.
Class interval is usually denoted by c, i , h or w.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
For example the class interval of the class ‘50 – 100’ is 50.
Class frequency:
The number of observation falling with in a particular class is called its frequency or class
frequency.
Class midpoint or class mark:

The value of the variable that lies in the middle of the upper and lower limits is called mid value or
midpoint of the class.
It can be obtained as follows:
l+ s
=
Class midpoint 2 ; Where l = Upper limit of the class, s = Lower limit of the class
Relative frequency (also known as proportion):

Instead of presenting the frequencies in absolute terms, it is sometimes convenient to express the
frequencies in percentages. The relative frequency (also known as proportion) corresponding to a
class is simply the ratio of the total number of items in that class to the total number of elements in
the total set.Multiplying relative frequency by 100 one can obtain the percentage of
observation that belongs to any particular class.
Frequency in each class
Fill up the blank Relative frequency =Proportion =
Total number of values
shadedCumulative
area frequency:
The cumulative frequency corresponding to a class is the total of all frequency up to and including
that class.
Example: let us consider the following table showing the distribution of mark of 20 students
Cumulative
Class mid Relative Cumulative
Class limit Frequency relative
value frequency frequency
frequency
0 – 10 5 4 0.148 4 0.148
10 – 20 15 8 0.296 4+8 0.444
20 – 30 5 4+8+5
30 - 40 4
40 – 50 3
50 – 60 2
60 – 70 65 1
Total
Exercise:
The following information, extracted from a survey of a Microfinance institution (MFI) represents
the amount of loan request of 50 potential borrowers from any particular branch of that MFI.
1850 9250 6100 4500 5100 1800 6100 6500 6999 6780
3100 7475 6400 4950 8789 6100 6480 7050 9900 4790
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4400 7900 6900 3865 5556 4859 6999 6780 8050 9900
5600 6600 9980 4800 8855 5550 1200 4790 6500 8050
3858 7300 8050 6200 7155 4980 8050 6480 7050 1500
For the given data construct a suitable frequency distribution table featuring the following
components
i. Class mid value ii. Tally Bars iii. Frequency
iv. Relative frequency v. Cumulative frequency vi. Cumulative relative frequency
Using the aforementioned information also answer the following

a. Determine the number of loan request between tk 4000-6000
b. Determine the proportion of loan request between 4000 – 6000.
c. Determine the number of loan request below tk. 7000.
d. Determine the proportion of loan request below tk. 7000.
Tables and Charts for categorical data

When you have categorical data, the investigators need to tally responses into categories and then
present the frequency or percentage in each category in tables and charts.
The summary Table

A summary table indicates the frequency, amount or percentage of items in a set of categories so
that you can see differences between the categories. A summary table lists the categories in one
column and the frequency, amount or percentage in a different column.
The following table illustrates a summary table that asked people where they prefer to do their
banking.
Table 1: Table of percentage distribution of banking preference of the customer of BANK XYZ
Banking Preference Percentage (%)

ATM 16
Automated or live telephone 2
Drive-through service at 17
branch
In person at branch 41
Internet 24
Example 1:
Summary table of levels of Risk of Mutual Funds.
A sample of 868 mutual funds has been selected and questions were asked to assess and categories
the risk associated with the customer’s investments in mutual funds. Of the 868 mutual funds 202
funds are classified as the low risk funds, 311 funds are classified as average-risk fund and the rest
of 355 funds are categorized as high- risk. Hence the summary table of levels of risk of mutual
funds is given below.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Table 2: Frequency and Percentage Summary Table Pertaining to Risk Level for 868 Mutual Funds
Fund Risk Level Number of funds Percentage of funds (%)

Low 202 23.37
Average 311 35.83
High 355 40.89
Total 864 100.00
The Bar Chart

In a bar chart, a bar shows each category. The length of the bar represents the amount, frequency
or percentage of values falling into a category.
Figure 1 displays the bar chart for the people’s preference to do their banking as depicted in table
1. Bar chart allows researchers to compare the percentages in different categories. In figure 1:
respondents are most likely to bank in person at a branch and on the internet, followed by drive
through service at a branch and ATM. Very few respondents mentioned automated or live
telephone.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
ATM Automated or live Drive-through In person at Internet
telephone service at branch branch
Example 2:
Bar Chart of levels of risk of Mutual Funds.
Construct a bar chart for the levels of risk of mutual funds (based on data shown in table 2) and
interpret the result.
Figure 2: Bar Chart for Level of Risk
High
Level of Risk
Average
Low
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Frequency
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The Pie Chart the Pie Chart is a Circle broken

Figure 3: Pie Chart for Banking Preferences
up into slices that represent categories. The
ATM
size of each slice of the pie varies according to Internet 16%
Automated or live
24%
the percentage in each category. telephone
2%
Drive-through
In table 1 of this lecture 16% of the service at branch
17%
respondents stated that they prefer to bank
using ATM. Thus in constructing the pie chart,
the 360 degrees that makes up a circle is
multiplied by 0.16, resulting in a slice of the pie In person at branch
41%
that takes up 57.6 degrees of the 360 degrees
of the circle. In this figure, bank in person at the
branch takes 41% of the pie and automated or live telephone takes only 2%.
In case of pie diagram –

Angle of the slice of pie for a particular
category α Frequency (or Percentage) of
that particular item.
If the frequency / value / percentage of any

component is f from the whole N then the
angle of pie for that particular component is
f
θ0= ∗3600
N
Which chart should one use – a bar chart or a

pie chart?
The selection of a particular chart often depends

on the intention of the researcher. If a comparison
of categories is most important, one should use a
bar chart. If observing the portion of the whole
that is in a particular category is most important,
one should use a pie chart.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Exercise:
Using data given in table 2 construct a pie chart for the levels of risk of mutual funds and interpret the
results.
1. Complete the following table.

Grades on
Relative
Statistics Frequency
Frequency
examination
A: 90 – 100 0.08
B: 80 – 89 36
C: 65 – 79 90
D: 50 – 64 30
F: Below 50 28
Total 200 1.00
2. A qualitative variable with three classes (X, Y and Z) is measured for each 20 randomly sampled from
a target population. The data (observed class for each unit) are listed below.
Y X X Z X Y Y Y X X
Z X Y Y X Z Y Y Y X
a. Compute the frequency for each of the three classes.
b. Compute the relative frequency for each of the three classes.
c. Display the results, part a, in a frequency bar graph.
d. Display the results, part b, in a pie chart.
3. Assume telecommunication companies in Bangladesh spent about BDT 300 million in advertising.
The spending is as follows:
Media Amount ($ millions) Percentage (%)
Radio 20 6.67
Internet 30 10.00
Cinema 5 1.67
Direct mail 15 5.00
Magazines 35 11.67
Newspapers 65 21.67
Outdoor 45 15.00
TV 35 11.67
Other 50 16.67
300 100
a. Construct a bar chart and a pie chart.
b. Which graphical method do you think is best to portray these data?
4. The international Rhino Federation estimates that there are 25280 rhinoceroses living in the wild in
Africa and Asia. A breakdown of the number of rhinos of each species is reported in the
accompanying table.
Rhino Species Population Estimate

White rhino 18000
Black rhino 4240
Greater One-horned rhino 2800
Sumatran Rhino 200
Javan Rhino 40
Total 25280
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a. Construct a relative frequency table for the data.

b. Display the frequencies in a bar graph.
c. Display the frequencies in a pie chart.
d. What proportion of the 25280 rhinos are White rhinos? Black?
5. The following data set represents the scores on intelligence quotient (IQ) examinations of 40 sixth-
grade students at a particular school:
114 122 103 118 99 105 134 125 117 106
109 104 111 127 133 111 117 103 120 98
100 130 141 119 128 106 109 115 113 121
100 130 125 117 119 113 104 108 110 102
i. Organize the data in classes such as 90 – 100, 100 – 110 and so on.
ii. Present the data set in a frequency histogram.
iii. Determine the mean scores on intelligence quotient (IQ) examinations.
iv. Determine the proportion of scores above the average scores.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Organizing Numerical Data

When the number of data values is large, one can organize data into an ordered array or a stem and
leaf display to help understand the information the researcher has.
The Ordered Array

An ordered array is a sequence of data, in rank order, from the smallest value to the largest value.
The Stem and Leaf Display

To construct a Stem and Leaf plot each numerical value is divided into two parts. The leading
digit(s) becomes the stem and the trailing digit the leaf. The stems are located along the vertical
axis and the leaf values are staked against each other along the horizontal axis
Stem and leaf plot is a graphical technique of representing quantitative data that can be used to
examine the shape of a frequency distribution, the range of the values and point of concentration of
the values. This is, in essence a display technique taken from the area of statistics called
exploratory data analysis (EDA).
Tukey (1977) first proposed the technique. It allows us to use the information contained in a
frequency distribution to show
 The range of score
 Concentration of scores
 The shape of the distribution
 Presence of any specific values or scores not represented in the entire data set
 Whether there are any stray or extreme values in the distribution.
Example:
1. The following data represented the marks obtained by 20 students in a statistics test.
84 17 78 45 47 53 76 54 75 22
66 65 55 54 51 33 39 19 54 72
Use the stem leaf plot to display the data.
The stem leaf plot for the given data After arranging the stem leaf plot we get for
the given data
Stem Leaf Stem Leaf

1 7,9 1 7,9
2 2 2 2
3 3,9 3 3,9
4 5,7 4 5,7
5 3,4,5,4,1,4 5 1,3,4,4,4,5
6 6,5 6 5,6
7 8,6,5,2 7 2,5,6,8
8 4 8 4
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2. Form an ordered array, given the following data from a sample of n=8 midterm exam scores in
math:
63 99 68 72 79 83 71 62
3. Form an stem and leaf display, given the following data from a sample of n=7 midterm exam
scores in physics:
70 44 79 88 83 73 84
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Tables and Charts for categorical data

The Histogram
A histogram is a bar chart for grouped numerical data in which the frequencies or percentages of
each group of numerical data are presented as individual vertical bars. In a histogram there are no
gaps between adjacent bars as there is in a bar chart of categorical data.
Usually in histogram
- The variable of interest is displayed or plotted along the horizontal (X) axis.
- Frequency or the percentage of the values per class is displayed or plotted along the
vertical (Y) axis.
Example::
Table 1.3: frequency distribution of male and female by age group
Age group Male Female Age Male Female

group
0-4 3243 1621 35-39 936 461
5-9 2842 1413 40-44 773 378
10-14 2398 1192 45-49 633 306
15-19 2125 1056 50-54 503 240
20-24 1776 880 55-59 391 184
25-29 1450 716 60-64 278 130
30-34 1173 580 65+ 749 208
Figure 1.3.1: Histogram of number of Male by age group

3500
3000
2500
2000
Frequency
1500
1000
500
0
25-30
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
10-15
15-20
20-25
30-35
65+
5-10
0-5
Age group
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Figure 1.3.2: Histogram of number of Female by age group

1800
1500
1200
Fre quency
900
600
300
2 5-3 0
4 0-4 5
5 5-6 0
6 0-6 5
10 -15
15 -20
20 -25
30 -35
35 -40
45 -50
50 -55
65 +
5 -10
0 -5
Age Group
The Polygon-
The Frequency Polygon
In constructing frequency polygon the mid values of the class intervals of the frequency
distribution are placed on the horizontal (X) axis and the corresponding frequencies are
represented on the vertical (Y) axis. The co-ordinates points thus obtained joined by straight line.
The left most point is to be joined with the mid value of the immediate previous interval and the
right most co- ordinate point is to be joined with the mid value of the immediate next interval.
Thus we obtain a polygon known as frequency polygon.
Figure 1.4: frequency distribution of marks obtained by students of STA 101 of section 2 Spring 2011)
8
Table 1.4: Frequency distribution of
male and female by age group
6
Marks Midvalue Frequency
40-50 45 2 4
Frequency
50-60 55 6
2
60-70 65 8
70-80 75 3
0
80-90 85 2 45 55 65 75 85 95
Midvalues of exam mark group
90-100 95 1
The Percentage Polygon

Constructing multiple histograms on the same graph to compare two or more data sets often gets
confusing. Superimposing the vertical bars of one histogram on another histogram makes
interpretation difficult. When there are two or more groups, one should use a percentage polygon.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
A percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of each class represent the data in that
class and then connecting the sequence of midpoint at their respective class percentages. The
following table 1.5 and figure 1.5 illustrates the construction of the percentage polygon.
Table 1.5: Frequency distribution of Marks obtained by students
Frequency of students Percentage of Students

Mark Mid
Group value Section 2 Section 3 Section 5 Section 2 Section 3 Section 5
40-50 45 2 1 3 9.1 4.0 8.8
50-60 55 6 8 5 27.3 32.0 14.7
60-70 65 8 6 5 36.4 24.0 14.7
70-80 75 3 5 11 13.6 20.0 32.4
80-90 85 2 3 6 9.1 12.0 17.6
90-100 95 1 2 4 4.5 8.0 11.8
Total 22 25 34 100 100 100
Figure 1.5: Comparison of percentage distribution of grades obtained by students of STA 101 (Spring 2011)
Section 5 Section 3 Section 2
40.0
Percentage of students
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
45 55 65 75 85 95
Mid values of the exam mark group
Cross Tabulations:
The study of patterns that may exist between two or more categorical variables is common in
practice. Often by cross-tabulating the data, these patterns can be explained. One can present cross
tabulations in tabular form (contingency tables) or graphical from (side by side charts).
The Contingency table

A contingency table presents the results of two categorical variables. The joint responses are
classified so that the categories of one variable are located in the rows and the categories of the
other variable are located in the columns. The values located at the intersections of the rows and
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columns are called cells. Depending on the type of contingency table constructed, the cells for each
row-column combination contain the frequency, the percentage of the overall total, the percentage
of the row total, or the percentage of the column total.
Table 1.6: Frequency distribution of students by religion and sex

Sex
Religion Total
Male Female
Muslim 25 20 45
Hindu 12 12 24
Christian 8 6 14
Buddha 5 3 8
Others 2 2 4
Total 52 43 95
The Side –by – side bar chart
Figure 1.6.1: Frequency distribution of religion by sex Figure 1.6.2: Frequency Distribution of Sex by religion
Male Female Muslim Hindu Christian Buddha Others
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
Frequency
Frequency
10 10
5 5
0 0
Muslim Hindu Christian Buddha Others Male Female
A useful way to visually display the results of cross-classification data is by constructing a side by
sidebar chart. Figure 1.6.1 and figure 1.6.2 uses the data from table 1.6.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Example& Exercise:
A sample of 500 shoppers was selected in a large metropolitan area to determine various
information concerning consumer behavior. Among the questions asked was “do you enjoy
shopping for clothing?” the results are summarized in the following cross classified table:
Table 1.7: Frequency distribution of preference of shopping for

clothing of the consumer
Enjoy Sex
shopping for Total
Male Female
clothing
Yes 136 224 360
No 104 36 140
Total 240 260 500

a. Construct contingency tables based on total percentages, row percentages and column
percentages.
b. Construct a side –by side bar chart of enjoying shopping for clothing based on gender.
c. What conclusion can you draw from these analyses?
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Exercise:
The following table represents the information of 50 individuals collected in a socio-economic
survey. Using the information given in table 1 answer question A - D
Table 1: Summary information of 50 individuals
Sl. # Sex Religion Previous month’s Division Marital Status
Income
1 M Islam 1500 Dhaka Married
2 F Hindu 3100 Rajshahi Married
3 M Buddha 4400 Sylhet Married
4 M Christian 5600 Khulna Unmarried
5 F Hindu 3858 Dhaka Divorced
6 M Islam 9250 Rajshahi Married
7 M Islam 7475 Chittagong Married
8 M Hindu 7900 Khulna Unmarried
9 F Buddha 6600 Rangpur Divorced
10 F Islam 7300 Dhaka Unmarried
11 M Islam 6100 Barishal Married
12 M Buddha 6400 Rajshahi Married
13 M Christian 6900 Sylhet Married
14 F Islam 9980 Khulna Unmarried
15 M Islam 8050 Dhaka Divorced
16 M Christian 4500 Rajshahi Married
17 M Islam 4950 Chittagong Married
18 M Hindu 3865 Dhaka Unmarried
19 F Hindu 4800 Rajshahi Divorced
20 M Buddha 6200 Sylhet Unmarried
21 F Islam 5100 Barishal Married
24 F Islam 8855 Khulna Unmarried
25 M Buddha 7155 Dhaka Divorced
27 F Islam 6100 Chittagong Married
28 M Christian 4859 Khulna Married
29 M Islam 5550 Rangpur Married
30 F Christian 4980 Dhaka Unmarried
31 M Hindu 6100 Barishal Divorced
32 F Islam 6480 Rajshahi Married
34 M Islam 1200 Khulna Unmarried
35 F Christian 8050 Dhaka Divorced
36 F Hindu 6500 Rajshahi Unmarried
37 M Christian 7050 Chittagong Married
38 F Islam 6780 Khulna Married
39 M Hindu 4790 Rangpur Married
40 M Buddha 6480 Barishal Married
Question A:
i. How many variables are listed in table I?
ii. Mention the variable name listed in Table I.
Question B:
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Construct a frequency distribution table to represent the summary information of the variable
“Division” and determine proportion of respondent from Dhaka.
Question C:
Complete the following table # 3 and answer (a) & (b)
Table 3: Frequency distribution of sex by Religion
Religion Total
Sex
Islam Hindu Christian Buddha
Male
Female
Total
a) What is the modal response for the variable “Sex”

b) What proportion of respondents are “Buddha”
Question D:
Complete the following table # 4 and answer a), b) & c)
Table 4: Frequency distribution of previous month’s income
Relative Cumulative
Income Group Tally Frequency
frequency relative frequency
Below – 2000
2000 – 4000
4000 – 6000
6000 – 8000
8000 - 10000
a) What proportion (Percentage) of people had previous month’s income between 2000 - 6000
b) What proportion (Percentage) of people had previous month’s income less than 4000
c) Construct Histogram to display the data represented in table 4
Page 23 of 56
Components of numerical measures of data

When we speak of a data set, we refer to either a sample or to a population. If statistical inference
is one’s goal, s/he will wish ultimately to use to use sample numerical descriptive measures to
make inferences about the corresponding measures for population. Although a large number of
numerical methods are available to describe quantitative data sets. Most of these methods
measures one of the two data characteristics:
Central tendency - This measures the extent to which all the values grouped around a typical
or central value.
Variation or Dispersion–This measures the amount of dispersion or scattering of values away
from a central value.
Measures of Central Tendency

Most sets of data show a distinct tendency to group around a central point. That is in a data set
(population or sample) the values have a tendency to cluster around a certain point. This tendency
of clustering the values around the center of the series is usually called central tendency. The
numerical measure of this tendency of concentration is variously known as the measure of central
tendency or measure of location or the measure of average.
Necessity of measuring the central tendency:

The necessities of measuring central tendency or average are as follows –
i. They give us an idea about the concentration of the values in the central part of the
distribution.
ii. It is the value of the variable, which is typical of the whole se.
iii. It represents all relevant information contained in the data in as few numbers as
possible.
iv. They give precise information, not information of a vogue general type.
Characteristics of a good measure of central tendency:

The following are the characteristics of an ideal measure of central tendency
i. It should be easy to understand.
ii. It should be easy to calculate.
iii. It should be based upon all observations.
iv. It should be rigidly defined.
v. It should be unduly affected by extreme values.
vi. It should be suitable for further algebraic treatment.
vii. It should be less affected by sampling fluctuation.
Different measure of central tendency:

The following are the different measure of central tendency
i. Arithmetic mean ii. Median iii. Mode
iv. Geometric mean v. Harmonic mean vi. Weighted mean
Arithmetic mean (AM):
Page 24 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
Adding the values of the observations and then dividing the sum by the number of observations
obtain the arithmetic mean of a series of observations.
Arithmetic mean (AM) for
- sample observation is denoted by x̄
- Population mean is denoted by μ .
Suppose there are n values

x 1 ,x 2 ,...,...,..., x n for a variable X, then the AM denoted by x̄ is
Formula for
Ungrouped defined as
Data
x 1+ x 2 + x 3+ …+…+ x n
x́= ; (i=1,2 , … ,n)
n
Example:
Banglatel is studying the number of minutes used by clients in a particular cell phone rate plan. A
random sample of 12 clients showed the following number of minutes used last month.
90 77 94 89 119 112
91 110 92 100 113 83
What is the mean (arithmetic mean) number of minutes used?
Answer:
Average use of the rate plan
x 1+ x 2 + x 3+ …+…+ x n 90+77+ …+91+…+113 +83
x́= = =97.5
n 12
Thus the arithmetic mean number of minutes used last month by the sample of cell phone users is
97.5 minutes.
Exercise:
1. “Dolphine Autos” employed 12 sales people. The number of new cars sold last month by the
respective sales people were as given in the following table:
15 23 10 4 18 8
10 28 13 19 14 12
Determine the average number of car sold by the sales people. Also determine the proportion
of sales people performing below average.
2. During the last month Shameem Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Company completed 129
different assignments for their clients and earned mean revenue of 13449 tk per assignment. If
the managing director wants to know the total revenue for the month can you compute the
total revenue? What it is?
3. Following data represents the battery life (in shots) for a sample of 12 three-pixel digital
cameras:
300 180 380 260 35 380
85 170 460 120 110 240
Determine the average number of shots taken for each battery. Also determine the proportion
of batteries performing above average.
Again for a group data as given in the following table
Formula for
Grouped
Data Page 25 of 56
Values: x 1 x2 … … xk
Frequencies : f 1 f2 … … fk
Such that
f 1 +f 2 +.. .+ f k =n then the AM is denoted by x̄ is defined as
f 1 x 1+ f 2 x 2 + f 3 x 3 +…+ f k x k
x́= ;(i=1,2 , … , k )
n
Example & Exercise:
Calculate the mean for the following frequency distribution for n=100:
Class interval Frequency
0-10 10
10-20 20
20-30 40
30-40 20
40-50 10
Answer:
Calculation:
Frequency
Mid values
Class interval ( f i )∗( x i) Arithmetic mean
( x i)
( f i) f 1 x 1+ f 2 x 2 + f 3 x 3 +…+ f k x k
0-10 10 5 50 x́=
n
10-20 20 15
20-30 40 50+ …+ 450
30-40 20 ¿ =¿??
100
40-50 10 45 450
Total k =5 k =5
∑ f i=¿ ∑ f i∗x i=¿=¿¿

i=1 i=1
Exercise:
1. The following data represent the distribution of the age of employees within two different
divisions of publishing company. Determine which company have relatively aged group of
employees.
Number of employees of division
Age of employees X Y
20 – 30 6 13
30 – 40 19 30
40 – 50 9 24
50 – 60 10 0
60 – 70 2 4
When to use Arithmetic Mean:

In the following cases arithmetic mean should not be used:
1. In highly - skewed distributions.
2. In distributions with open
3. When the distribution is unevenly spread. Concentration being small or large at irregular
points.
4. When an average rate of growth or change over a period of time is required.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
5. When the observation are from geometric progression.

6. When averaging rates (that is speed, fluctuations in the prices of articles, etc.)
7. When there are very large and very small values of observations.
Median (Me):
If the values of a series are arranged in an ascending or descending order of magnitude then the
middle most value in this arrangement is called the median of the series.
Median is usually denoted by Me.
Determination of Median:
Let n be the number of observations.
For ungrouped data:

n+1
Formula for
Ungrouped a. When n is odd the value of the 2 th observation will be the median.
Data
n n
( +1 )
b. When n is even the median will be the AM of the values of 2 th and 2 th
observation in the series.
Example:
The ages of a family of seven members are given as 12, 7, 2, 34, 17, 21 and 19. Find the median age.
Step 1 Count the total number of elements, n=? Here n= 7 7 is a odd number
Step 2 Arrange the values in ascending order 2, 7, 12, 17, 19, 21, 34
Step 3 n+1
Median: Me = Value of th observation
2
7+1
= Value of th observation
2
= Value of 4th observation = 17
Step 4 Median age of the family is 17 years
Example:
The ages of a family of eight members are given as 12, 7, 2, 34, 17, 40, 21 and 19. Find the median
age.
Step 1 Count the total number of elements, n=? Here n= 8 8 is a even number
Step 2 Arrange the values in ascending order 2, 7, 12, 17, 19, 21, 34, 40
Step 3 n n
( +1 )
Median: Me = AM of the values of 2 th and 2 observation
= AM of the values of _ _ _ and _ _ _ observation
__+__
= 2 =?
Step 4 Median age of the family is ? ? ? years
Page 27 of 56
For grouped data:
n
Me=L0 +
2
−F −Me
∗W Me
( )
Me is given by the formula,
f Me
Formula for
Grouped
Where
Data Me = Median f Me = Frequency of the median class
L0 = Lower Limit of the median W Me = Width of the median class
class
F−Me = Cumulative frequency of the n = Total number of observation
pre median class
n
MEDIAN CLASS is the class that contains 2 th observation of the given data.
Example: Table 1.6 displays summary information of the parent of 50 students. Compute the median age
of woman.
Hints:
Table 1.6: Income distribution of the
student’s of ECO 202 Step 1: Compute the cumulative frequencies.
Income of parent n
Frequency 2
(in thousand taka) Step2: Determine , one half of the total number of
Below 20 3
20 – 40 4
40 – 60 6
60 – 80 8
80 – 100 12
100 – 120 10
120 and over 7
Total 50
cases.
Step 3: Locate the median class.
Step 4:Determine the lower limit (

L0 ) of the median class.
Step5:Sum the frequencies of all the classes prior to the median class. This is
F−Me .
Step 6:Determine the frequency of the median class

f Me .
Step 7:Determine the width of the median class.
You got all the quantities to compute median. So compute the median. …
Exercise:
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
1. The following table gives the data pertaining to kilowatt hours of electricity consumed by 100
randomly selected flat owners of Japan garden city.
Consumption
0-100 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-500
(in K-watt hours)
No. of users 6 25 36 20 13
Calculate
i. Mean consumption of electricity ii. Median use of electricity
iii. Standard deviation of electricity iv. Skewness of electric consumption.
consumption
2. The following data represents the amount (in thousands taka) of loan requirements of the people of
two different upazilla. Using median comment on which upazilla has the greater average demand of
loans.
Upazilla 1 42 12 26 18 9 35 28 39 8
Upazilla 2 8 15 10 18 22 20 26 42 35
When to use Median:

The median is generally the best average in open – end grouped distribution, especially where if
plotted as a frequency curve one gets a J or reverse J shaped curve.
Mode:
The mode is the value of the variable that occurs most frequently; that is for which the frequency is
a maximum.
Mo denotes mode.
Determination of mode:
For ungroup data / categorical variable mode is the value of the variable for which the
frequency is highest.
For the data sets:
i. 7, 8, 6, 7, 9, 7, and 4: Here ‘7’ appears highest 3 times, hence mode is ‘7’and the data is
unimodal.
Mode for
ii. 6, 4, 8, 5, 8, 1, 2, 5, 4, 7, 5, 2, 4, and 3: here ‘5’ and ‘4’ both occur highest 3 times hence
Ungrouped
Data the mode ‘5’ and ‘4’ and the data is bimodal.
iii. 1, 5, 7, 2, 6, 9, and 4: there is no mode.
iv. Consider the following table representing the frequency distribution of religion
Religion Muslim Hindu Buddhist Christian Others
Frequency 18 75 12 4 2
Here the highest frequency ‘75’ occurs for the category ‘Hindu’. Hence mode for the given data is _ _ _ _ _ _
_.
For grouped data mode is obtained by using the following formula
( f 0 −f −1)
Mo=L0 +
{( f 0−f −1 ) +(f 0−f 1)}∗W
Page 29 of 56
Where, Mo = Mode
L0 = Lower Limit of the Modal class
f0 = Frequency of the modal class
f −1 = Frequency of the pre modal class
f1 = Frequency of post modal class
W = Width of the modal class
When to use Mode:

Generally speaking mode can be used to describe qualitative data. Mode is particularly useful
average for discrete data.
Page 30 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
Exercise:
1. The frequency distribution below represents the weights in pounds of a sample of packages carried
last month by a small airfreight company.
Class Frequency Class Frequency
10.0 – 11.0 1 15.0 – 16.0 11
11.0 – 12.0 4 16.0 – 17.0 8
12.0 – 13.0 6 17.0 – 18.0 7
13.0 – 14.0 8 18.0 – 19.0 6
14.0 – 15.0 12 19.0 – 20.0 2
Find the mean, median and mode.
2. Suppose that 100 students are enrolled in a statistics class and the following are the test scores
received by them:
77 44 49 33 38 76 68 68 39 44
29 41 32 45 83 58 73 47 40 26
34 47 66 53 55 58 49 45 61 41
54 50 51 66 80 73 57 61 56 50
38 45 51 44 41 68 45 92 43 12
59 36 55 47 61 53 32 65 51 33
59 55 43 66 44 41 25 39 72 37
55 92 83 77 45 62 45 36 78 48
45 82 71 48 46 69 38 72 56 64
37 16 44 57 63 71 40 64 57 51
i. Organize the data in classes such as 10 – 20, 20 – 30 and so on

ii. Using the above data draw histogram, frequency polygon, ogive and stem leaf plot.
iii. Find the mean median and mode for the given data.
3. The following data set represents the record high temperatures in degree Fahrenheit (℉ ) for each
of the 50 US states:
112 100 117 106 114 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 112 114 114 105 109
116 112 114 115 118 117 118 92 106 110
88 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
107 113 98 117 105 110 118 112 114 114
i. Construct a suitable frequency distribution table using interval 85 – 95, 95 – 105 and so
on.
ii. Determine the modal temperature.
iii. Determine the proportion of states having temperature that is more than modal
temperature.
4. The data given represent the ages of patients admitted to a small hospital on February 28, 2004.
85 75 66 43 40 41 88 80
56 56 67 69 89 83 65 53
75 74 87 83 52 44 48 49
i. Construct a frequency distribution table.
ii. Compute the sample mean median and mode from the frequency distribution table.
iii. Compute the sample mean, median and mode from the raw data.
5. The rate of return for 30 stocks is:
8.3 9.6 9.5 9.1 8.8 11.2 7.7 10.1 9.9 10.8
10.2 8.0 8.4 8.1 11.6 9.6 8.8 8.0 10.4 9.8
9.2 6.5 8.9 7.4 12.5 13.8 8.6 11.2 10.5 11.2
Organize this information into a stem-leaf display. Hence answer the following
a. How many rates are less than 9.0?
Page 31 of 56
b. Determine the mode.

c. Determine median.
d. What are the maximum and the minimum rates of return?
6. 168 handloom factories have the following distribution of average number of workers in various
income groups:
Income Groups: 800 - 1000 1000 - 1200 1200 – 1400 1400 – 1600 1600 – 1800
Number of firms: 40 32 26 28 42
Average Number
8 12 8 8 4
of Workers:
Find the mean salary paid to the workers.
Answer: 1228.84
J K Sharma, 91
7. A class of 50 students sits for a class test. The following table gives result of the students who
passed the examination:
Marks: 40 50 60 70 80 90
Number of Students: 8 10 9 6 4 3
If the mean marks for all the students were 51.6, find out the mean marks of the students who
failed.
Answer: 21Marks
J K Sharma, 93
8. The average declared by a group of 10 chemical companies was 18 percent. Later on it was
discovered that one correct figure, 12 was misread as 22. Find the correct average dividend.
Answer: 17 percent
J K Sharma, 93
9. A company wants to pay bonus to members of the staff. The following “Table 1” demonstrates the
amount to be paid as bonus and” table 2” represents the actual amount of salary drawn by the
employees of that company:
Table 1: Monthly Bonus Policy Table 2: Monthly Salary
Monthly salary (in tk.) Bonus 3250 3780 4200 4550 6600
3000 – 4000 1000 6200 6800 7250 3630 8320
4000 – 5000 1200 9420 9520 8000 10020 10280
5000 – 6000 1400 11000 6100 6250 7630 3820
6000 – 7000 1600 5400 4630 5780 7230 6900
7000 – 8000 1800
8000 – 9000 2200
9000 – 10000 2300
10000 - 11000 2400
For the given information determine –

i. How much would the company need to pay by way of bonus?
ii. What shall be the average bonus paid per member of the staff?
Answer: tk. 42000 and tk. 1680
J K Sharma, 99
10. The mean of 200 observations was 50. Later on, it was found that two observations were misread
as 92 and 8 instead of 192 and 88. Find the correct mean.
Answer: 50.9
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
J K Sharma, 93
11. There are two units of a garment in two different cities employing 760 and 800 persons,
respectively. The arithmetic means of monthly salaries paid to persons in these two units are tk
18750 and tk. 16950 respectively. Find the combined arithmetic mean of salaries of the
employees in both the units.
Answer: tk. 17827 (appx.)
J K Sharma, 96
12. An investor buys Tk. 12000 worth of shares of a company each month. During the first 5 months
he bought the shares at a price of tk. 100, tk. 120, tk. 150, Tk. 200 and tk. 240 per share
respectively. After 5 months what is the average price paid for the shares by the investor.
Answer: tk. 146.34 (appx.)
J K Sharma, 99
13. The mean yearly salary paid to all employees in a company is tk. 2400000. The mean yearly
salaries paid to male and female employees are tk. 2500000 and tk. 1900000 respectively.
Determine the percentage of male to female employees in the company.
Answer: Male 83.33% and Female 16.67%
J K Sharma, 97
14. The mean monthly salaries paid to 100 employees of a company were tk. 5000. The mean
monthly salaries paid to male and female employees were tk. 5200 and tk. 4200 respectively.
Determine the percentage of males and females employed by the company.
Answer: Male 80% and Female 20%
J K Sharma,127
15. A charitable organization decided to give Old-age pension to people over sixty years of age. The
scales of pension were fixed as follows (see Table 1) and the ages of persons who secured the
pension are given in table 2:
Table 1: Pension policy Table 2: Actual salary drawn by employees
Pension 74 76 60 83 67
Age Group 71 84 68 74 81
/Month
75 61 61 66 79
60 – 65 200 62 69 67 72 64
65 – 70 250 63 72 78 64 73
70 – 75 300
75 – 80 350
80 - 85 400
Determine –
i. How much money would the organization need to pay by way of pension?
ii. What shall be the average pension payable person and the standard deviation?
Page 33 of 56
Answer: x́=tk .280 .2and σ =tk .60 .765

J K Sharma, 160
16. In 2014, a person spends tk. 1800 monthly on an average for the first four months and tk. 2000
monthly for the next eight months and saves tk. 5600 in that a year. Determine the person’s
average monthly income.
17. The average of 11 results is 60. If the average of first 6 results is 58 and that of the last six is 63,
find the sixth result.
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
The Weighted Mean:

The weighted mean is a special case of the arithmetic mean. It occurs when there are several
observations of the same value.
To explain: Suppose the Shumi’s Hot Cake offers three different kinds of burger packages small,
medium and large for Tk. 100, Tk. 125 and Tk. 150. Of the last 10 burgers sold 3 were small, 4 were
medium and 3 were large. To find the mean price of the last 10 burger packages sold we can
calculate using the usual formula of the arithmetic mean as follows –
Tk . (100+100+100+125+125+125+ 125+ 150+150+150) Tk . 1250

X̄ = = =Tk . 125
10 10
The mean selling price of the last 10 burger packages sold is Tk. 125.
An easier ways to find the mean selling price is to determine the weighted mean. In this method we
multiply each observation by the number of times it happens as described below –
(3∗100 )+(4∗125 )+(3∗150) 1250

X̄ w= = =125
3+ 4+3 10
In this case the weights are frequency counts. However, any measure of importance could be used
as a weight. In general the weighted mean of a set of numbers designated

X 1 , X 2 ,. .. , X n with
the corresponding weights

W 1 ,W 2 ,...,W n is computed by:
X̄ w=
∑ ( WX ) = W 1 X 1+W 2 X 2+. ..+W n X n
∑W W 1 +W 2 +.. .+W n
Example:
Madina Construction Company pays its part time employees hourly basis. For different level of
employee the hourly rate are Tk. 50, Tk. 75 and Tk. 90. There are 260 hourly employees, 140 of
which are paid at Tk. 50 rate, 100 at Tk. 75 and 20 at the Tk. 90 rate. What is the mean hourly rate
paid to the employees?
Answer:
To find the mean hourly rate, we multiply each of the hourly rates by the number of employees
earning that rate as follows -
X̄ w=
∑ ( WX ) =140∗50+100∗75+20∗90 =16300 =Tk . 62. 69
∑ W 140+ 100+20 260 .
The weighted mean hourly wage is Tk. 62.69 or Tk. 63.00 (approximately).
Page 35 of 56
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
Example & Exercise:

Weighted Mean 1.1
The US postal service handles seven basic types of letters and cards: 3 rd class, 2nd class, 1st class,
airmail, special delivery, registered and certified. The mail volume during 2004 is given in the
following table
gm delivered
Types of mailing Price per gm
(in millions)
1st class 77600 0.13
AIR mail 19000 0.17
Special delivery 1300 0.35
Registered mail 750 0.40
Certified mail 800 0.45
What was the average revenue per gm for these services during the year?
Weighted Mean 1.2

WESTECS sold 95 Executive Men’s Suits for the regular price of TK. 4,900. For the summer sale the
suits were reduced to Tk. 3,500 and 126 were sold. At the final year end clearance, the price was
further reduced to Tk. 2,500 and the remaining 79 suits were sold.
i. What was the weighted mean price of a WESTECS suit?
ii. WESTECS paid Tk. 2000 a suit for the 300 suits. Comment on the store’s profit per suit if
a salesperson received a Tk. 150 for each one sold.
Page 37 of 56
Quartile:
If the items in a series are arranged in ascending order of their magnitudes then those values of the
variable that divide the total frequency in to four equal parts are called quartiles.
There are three quartiles denoted byQ 1 ,Q 2 ∧Q 3. The second quartile

(Q2 ) coincides with the
median. The lower quartile

(Q1 ) is the point such that one fourth of the total frequency is less
than
Q1 and three forth is greater than
Q1 .
Problem:
For the following data compute the three quartiles.
99 75 84 33 45 66 97 69 55 61
72 91 74 93 54 76 62 91 77 68
Answer:
Arrange the data
33 45 54 55 61 62 66 68 69 72
74 75 76 77 84 91 91 93 97 99
Hints:
First find the median
(Q2 )
n th n th
Median
(Q2 ) = AM of the values of ( ) ∧( +1)
2 2
= AM of the values of 10th and 11th observation
72+74
=73
= 2
1st quartile
Q1 = median of the 1st half of observations =? ? ?
3rd quartile
Q3 = median of the 2nd half of observations =? ? ?
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Iftekhar M S Kalam
- Merits and demerits of different measure of central tendency -
Merits Demerits
1. Rigidly defined. 1. Cannot be defined graphically.
2. Easy to understand and calculate. 2. Cannot be used in case of qualitative
Arithmetic mean
Arithmetic mean
3. Based upon all observation. data.

4. Most amenable to algebraic treatment. 3. Affected very much by extreme values.
5. Not based on position in the series. 4. May not occur in the series.
5. Difficult to calculate in the case of the
data with open-end class.
1. Rigidly defined. 1. In case of even number of
2. Easy to understand and calculate. observations it is not defined exactly.
3. Not affected very much by extreme 2. Not based on all observations.
Median
Median
values. 3. Not easy for algebraic treatment.
4. Can be calculated in the case of the data 4. For calculating median it is
with open-end class. necessary to arrange the data either
5. Can be defined graphically. ascending or descending order.
1. Most typical and representative value 1. Not clearly defined in case of

Mode
Mode
of a distribution. bimodal or multi modal distribution.
2. Not at all affected by extreme values. 2. Not based on all observation.
3. Can be calculated in the case of the data 3. Not suitable for further algebraic
Page 39 of 56
Measure of Dispersion or Variation

Dispersion is the spread or scatter of item values from a measure of central tendency. Dispersion is
usually measured as an average of deviations about some central value. Dispersion thus is a type of
average and is sometimes called a second order average.
Example: let us consider two groups of students with 4

Group 1 50 50 51
score in a particular examination as shown in the 9
table. The AM for each group is 50. It is clear from the Group 2 0 0 100 100
data that the first group consists of near average intelligent student and the 2 nd group is made up of very
bright and very dull students. It is evident that the distributions of both groups have the same AM. But
they differ in variation from X̄ ; such variation is usually measured by the measure of dispersion.
Characteristics of a good measure of variation or dispersion:

The following are the characteristics of an ideal measure of variation or dispersion
1. It should be easy to understand.
2. It should be easy to calculate.
3. It should be based upon all observations.
4. It should be rigidly defined.
5. It should be unduly affected by extreme values.
6. It should be suitable for further algebraic treatment.
7. It should be less affected by sampling fluctuation.
Purpose of measure of dispersion or variation:

Measure of dispersion is important for the following purpose.
1. To determine the reliability of an average.
2. To compare the variability.
3. To compare two or more series with regard to their variability.
4. To facilitate the use of other statistical measures.
5. It is one of the most important quantities used to characterize a frequency distribution.
Types of measure of dispersion:

Measure of dispersion or variation may be either absolute or relative. Absolute measure of
variation are expressed in the same statistical unit in which the original data are given such as
takas, kilograms, tones, etc. and may be used to compare the variation in two distributions,
provided the variables are expressed in the same units and of same average size.
On the other hand often it is necessary to compare the distribution in two or more different
frequency distributions having variables expressed in different units. In such a case dispersion is
calculated by dividing the absolute measure of dispersion by a measure of central tendency. The
resultant numerical value is a relative measure of dispersion.
Page 40 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
Different types of Absolute and Relative measure of dispersion are listed below:
Absolute measure of dispersion Relative measure of dispersion

1. Range 1. Coefficient of range
2. Quartile deviation 2. Coefficient of quartile deviation
3. Mean deviation 3. Coefficient of mean deviation
4. Variance and Standard deviation 4. Coefficient of variation and
standard deviation
These measures are discussed below:
Range and Coefficient of Range:

The range of a set of data values is the difference between the highest and the lowest values in the
set. If
X l ∧X s the smallest and the largest values respectively in a set then the range “R” is
defined as
R= X l− X s .
For group data the range is taken either as the difference between the lower boundary of the first
class and the upper boundary of the last class or as the difference between the highest and the
lowest mid-values.
The coefficient of dispersion corresponding to range called coefficient of range and it is obtained
by
X l− X s
Coefficient of range =
Xl+ Xs ; Where
Xl= Largest value and
X s= Smallest value
Quartile Deviation and Coefficient of Quartile Deviation:
Quartiles divide the observations in to four equal parts, when observations are arranged in order
of magnitudes median, denoted by

Q2 , is the middle most observation and
Q1 &
Q3 are
the middle most observations of the lower and upper half respectively.
Therefore
Q2 −Q1 and
Q3 −Q2 gives us some measure of dispersion. The AM of these two
measures give us the quartile deviation and is denoted by QD and is defined as

( Q 2−Q1 )+( Q 3−Q 2 ) Q 3 −Q1
QD= =
2 2
The coefficient of variation corresponding to quartile deviation is called the coefficient of quartile
deviation and is defined as
Page 41 of 56
Q3 −Q1
=
Coefficient of QD Q 3 +Q 1
Mean Deviation or Average Deviation:

Mean deviation is the arithmetic average of the variation of the value of individual items in the
series from their central tendency.
If
X 1 , X 2 ,. .. , X N denote the value of N observations then the mean deviation about an average
(or measure of central tendency) A is defined as
1 1
MD= ∑ |X i− A| ∑ |Di|
N = N
In case of frequency distribution
1 1
MD= ∑ f i|X i − A| ∑ f i|D i|
N = N
The coefficient of dispersion corresponding to mean deviation is known as coefficient of mean
deviation and is obtained by dividing mean deviation by the particular average used in computing
mean deviation.
MD
That is coefficient of mean deviation, Co. MD =
Particular Average
MD
Thus if mean deviation has been computed from AM, then the Co. MD = AM .
Variance or Standard Deviation and Coefficient of variance:

The standard deviation may be defined as the root of the mean of squares of the deviation of individual
items from the AM.
Population Variance:
The formula for computing variance of a set of sample observations is given below :
Case 1:
If
X 1 , X 2 ,. .. , X N are N values of a population of size N, then the population variance commonly
2
designated as σ , is defined as
N
∑ ( X i−μ )2
σ 2 = i=1
N , Where μ=Mean of the distribution
Problem:
Page 42 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
Let a population of 10 students got the marks in the examination as given in the table below. Find
the variance of the given data.
13 15 14 16 2 8 9 23 28 12
Answer:
For the required solution please complete the following steps and table:
Step 1: First find the AM of the given value. Population AM, μ =? ?

Step 2: Then complete the following table:
2 Step 3: Here N= total number of
Xi ( X i−μ ) ( X i−μ )
observations= 10.
13
N
15
14 ∑ ( X i−μ )2
16 σ 2 = i=1
2 Step 4: compute N =??
8
9 Case 2:
23
28 For grouped data if the values
12
∑ ( xi −μ )2 X 1 , X 2 ,. .. , X k occur with
frequencies
f 1 ,f 2 , .. ., f k respectively then the variance of the distribution will be
k k
∑ f i ( X i−μ )2 ∑ f i ( X i −μ )2
σ 2 = i=1 k
= i =1
N
∑ fi
i=1
Problem:
Let a population of 40 students got the marks in the examination as given in the table below. Find
the variance of the given data.
Xi 15 20 25 30 35
fi 6 8 15 7 4
Answer:
Step 1: First find the AM of the given value. Population AM, μ =? ?

Step 2: Then complete the attached table:
Xi fi ( X i−μ ) f i¿ ¿ Step 3: Here N = total number of

15 6 observations= 40.
20 8 Step 4: compute
… … … …
35 4
k k
∑ f i ¿¿¿ ∑ f i ( X i−μ )2
i=1
σ 2 = i=1
N =?
Page 43 of 56
Sample Variance:
The formula for computing variance of a set of sample observations is given below:
Case 1:
If
X 1 , X 2 ,. .. , X n are n values of a sample of size n, then the sample variance commonly
2
designated as s , is defined as
N
∑ ( X i − x̄ )2
s 2 = i=1
n−1 , Where x̄= Sample mean of the distribution
Problem:
Let a sample of 10 students got the marks in the examination as given in the table below. Find the
variance of the given data.
13 15 14 16 2 8 9 23 28 12
Answer:
Step 1: First find the AM of the given value. Sample Mean AM, x̄= ? ?
Step 2: Then complete the following table:
2 2
Xi ( X i− x̄ ) ( X i− x̄ ) Xi ( X i− x̄ ) ( X i− x̄ )
13 8
15 9
14 23
16 28
2 12
Step 3: Here N= total number of observations= 10.

N
∑ ( X i − x̄ )2
s 2 = i=1
Step 4: compute n−1 =???
Case 2:
For grouped data if the values

X 1 , X 2 ,. .. , X k occur with frequencies
f 1 ,f 2 , .. ., f k
respectively then the variance of the distribution will be
k k
2
∑ f i ( X i− x̄ ) ∑ f i ( X i− x̄ )2
s 2 = i=1 k
= i=1
n−1
∑ f i −1
i=1
Page 44 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
Problem:
Let a sample of 40 students got the marks in the examination as given in the table below. Find the
variance of the given data.
Xi 15 20 25 30 35
fi 6 8 15 7 4
Answer: For the required solution please complete the following steps and table:
Step 1: First find the AM of the given value. Population AM, x̄ =? ?

Step 2: Then complete the attached
Xi fi ( X i− x̄ ) f i ( X i − x̄ ) 2
table:
15 6
Step 3: Here N = total number of 20 8
25 15
observations= 40.
30 7
Step 4: compute 35 4
40 k =?
k
∑ f i ( X i− x̄ )2
i=1
∑ f i ( X i− x̄ )2
σ 2 = i=1
n−1 =
?
Standard deviation:
The standard deviation of a given data is obtained by taking the square root of the corresponding
variance value.
That is standard deviation of the variable X, SD ( X )=√ VAR ( X )

The coefficient of dispersion corresponding to variance is known as coefficient of variation
( CV ) and is obtained by dividing standard deviation by the AM.
SD( X )
That is coefficient of variation ( CV ) = AM ( X ) .
NOTE: For computational convenience we will use the following formulae
Ungroup data Group data
Page 45 of 56
N 2 k 2
Population
Population σ =21
N [ N
∑x−
i=1
2
i
(∑ )
i=1
N
N
xi
2
] 2
σ =
1
N [ ∑
k
i =1
(∑ )
f i x 2i −
i=1
f 1 x1
N ]
2
[ ]
k
( ) [ ]
Sample
Sample
2
s =
1
N
∑ x2i −
∑
i=1
xi
s2=
1
k
∑ f i x 2i −
( ∑ f 1 x1
i=1
)
n−1 n n−1 i=1 n
i=1
Ungroup data Group data
Calculation of combined Standard deviation:

The combined standard deviation of two sets of data containing n1 and n2 observaitons with means
x́ 1 and x́ 2 and standard deviations σ 1 and σ 2 respectively is given by
n1 ( σ 21 + d21 ) + n2 ( σ 22 +d 22 )
σ 12=
Where,
√ n1+ n2
σ 12=¿ combined standard deviation

d 1=x 12−x 1
d 2=x 12−x 2
And
n1 x́ 1+ n2 x́ 2
x 12=
n1 + n2
This formula combined standard deviation of two sets of data can be extended to compute the
standard deviation of more than two sets of data on the same lines
Question:
From the analysis of monthly wages paid to employees in two service organizations X and Y, the
following results were obtained:
Organization X Organization Y
Number of wage-earners 550 650
Average monthly wages 5000 4500
Variance of the distribution of wages 900 1600
a. Which organization pays a larger amount as monthly wages?
b. Determine the combined variance of all the employees taken together?
Page 46 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
Question:
For a group of 50 male workers, the mean and standard deviation of their monthly wages are tk. 6300 and
tk. 600 respectively. For a group of 40 female workers, these are tk. 5400 and tk. 600 respectively. Find
the standard deviation of monthly wages for the combined group of workers.
Answer: tk. 900
J K Sharma, 151
Page 47 of 56
Emperical Rule of Standard Deviation

For symmetrical, bell shaped frequency distribution (also called normal Curve), the range with in which a
given percentage of values of the distribution are likely to fall within a specified number of standard
deviation of the mean is determined as follows:
μ ± σ covers approximately 68.27% of values in the data set
μ ±2 σ covers approximately 95.45% of values in the data set
μ ±3 σ covers approximately 99.73% of values in the data set
These ranges are illustrtated in the following figure
Problem:
The following data give the number of passengers travelling by airplane from one city to another in
one week.
115 122 129 113 119 124 132 120 110 116
Calculate themean and standard deviation and determine the percentage of class that lie between
( i ) μ ± σ , ( ii ) μ ±2 σ and ( iii ) μ ± 3. What percentage pf cases lie outside these limits?
Solution:
The calculation for mean and standard deviation are given in the following table
x x−μ ( x−μ )2
115
122
129
…
…
110
116
2
∑ x ???? 2 ∑ ( x−μ )
μ= = =120 and σ = =? ? ?=43.6
N ?? N
Therefore, σ = √ σ 2= √ 43.3=6.60
Page 48 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
The percentage of cases that lie between a given limit are as follows:
Percentage of Percentage falling
Interval Values within Interval
population Outside
μ ± σ=120 ± 6.60 113, 115, 116, 119, 120, 122,
70% 30%
¿ 113.4 and 126.6 124
μ ±2 σ =120 ±2 ( 6.60 ) 110, 113, 115, 116, 119, 120,
100% Nil
= 106.80 and 133.20 122, 124, 129, 132
Exercise on Measure of Dispersion:
Page 49 of 56
1. An Advertising company is looking for a group of extras to shoot a sequence for a movie. The ages
of the first 20 candidates to be interviewed are
50 56 44 49 52 57 56 57 56 59
54 55 61 60 51 59 62 52 54 49
The director of the movie wants men whose ages are tightly grouped around 55 years. Being a
statistics buff of sorts, the director suggests that a standard deviation of 3 years would be
acceptable. Does this group of extras qualify?
2. The normal daily high temperatures (in degrees Fahrenheit) in January for 10 selected cities are as
follows.
50, 37, 29, 54, 30, 61, 47, 38, 34, 61
The normal monthly precipitation (in inches) for these same 10 cities is listed below:
4.8, 2.6, 1.5, 1.8, 1.8, 3.3, 5.1, 1.1, 1.8, 2.5
Which variable represents greater relative variability?
3. A collar manufacturer is considering the production of new collars to attract young men. Thus
following statistics of neck circumference are available based on measurements of a typical group
of students of a particular university:
Mid values (in inches): 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0
Number of students: 2 16 36 60 76 37 18 3 2
Compute the standard deviation and use the criterion x́ ± 3 σ , where σ is the standard deviation
and x́ is the arithmatic mean to determine the largest and smallest size of the collar he should
make in order to meet the needs of practically all the customers bearing in mind that collars are
worn average half an inch longer than the neck size.
Answer: 12.2 and 16.4 inches
J K Sharma, 155
4. ANIK Electronics is considering employing one of two training programs. Two groups
were trained for the same task. Group 1 was trained by program A, group 2 by program B.
for the first group, the times required to train the employees had an average of 32.11
hours and a variance of 68.09. In the second group, the average was 19.75 and the
variance was 71.14. Which training program has less relative variability in its
performance?
5. The administrator of a Georgia hospital surveyed the number of days 200 randomly
chosen patients stayed in the hospital following an operation. The data are:
Hospital Stay in days Number of patients
1–3 18
4–6 90
7–9 44
10 – 12 21
13 – 15 9
16 – 18 9
19 – 21 4
Page 50 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
22 – 24 5
Calculate the following:

i. Coefficient of variation (CV).
ii. Comments on the Skew ness of the distribution using the Pearson’s methods.
iii. Calculate the mean median and Mode. And hence comment.
iv. Calculate the mean deviation about mean, about median, and about mode. And also
determine the corresponding relative measure of dispersion.
6. The manager of Nando’s Chicken has just received two dozen tomatoes form her supplier,
but she is not ready to accept them. She knows from the invoice that thew average weight
is 7.5 ounces, but she insists that all be of uniform weight. She will accept them only if the
average weight is 7.5 ounces and the standard deviation is less than 0.5 ounce. Here are
the weights of the tomatoes.
6.3 7.2 7.3 8.1 7.8 6.8 7.5 7.8
7.2 7.5 8.1 8.2 8.0 7.4 7.6 7.7
7.6 7.4 7.5 8.4 7.4 7.6 6.2 7.4
What would be the manager’s decision and why?
7. Student’s ages in the regular daytime MBA program and the evening program of BRAC
University are described by these two samples:
Regular MBA 23 29 27 22 24 21 25 27 24 26
Evening MBA 27 34 30 29 28 30 34 35 28 29
If homogeneity of the class is a positive factor in learning, use a measure of relative variability to
suggest which of the two groups will be easier to teach?
8. In two factories A and B engaged in the same industry, the average monthly wages and
standard deviations are as follows:
Factory Average monthly S.D. of No. of Wage
Wages (Tk.) Wages (Tk. ) Earners
A 4600 500 100
B 4900 400 80
Determine
i. Which factory A or B pays larger amount as monthly wages?
ii. Which factory shows greater variability in the distribution of wages?
iii. What is the mean wage of all workers in two factories taken together?
Page 51 of 56
Shape characteristics of a distribution:

The study of shape characteristics of a distribution is of crucial importance in comparing a
distribution with other distributions. By shape characteristic of a distribution we refer to the
extent of its asymmetry and peakedness relative to an agreed upon standard and the study of these
two characteristics (that is asymmetry and peakedness) is accomplished through what is known as
the measures of skewness and kurtosis.
We study these two characteristics in the following section:
Skewness:
The term skewness means the lack of symmetry. The skewness may be either positive or negative.
When the skewness is positive the associated distribution is called positively skewed. When the
skewness is negative the associated distribution is negatively skewed.
Now some very simple measures of skewness is shown here:

If for a distribution
Method 1
Mean>Median>Mode ⇒ The distribution is positively skewed

Mean<Median<Mode ⇒ The distribution is negatively skewed
Pearson’s coefficient of skew ness
Method 2
Mean−Mode 3 (Mean−Median )
Sk p = =
SD SD
Kurtosis:
There is considerable variation among symmetrical distributions. For instance, they can differ
markedly in terms of peaked ness. This is what we call kurtosis. Kurtosis, as defined by Spiegel
(Spiegel: Theory and Problems of Statistics) is the degree of peaked ness of a distribution, usually
taken in relation to a normal distribution.
 A curve having relatively higher peak than the normal curve, is known as leptokurtic.
 A curve, which is neither too peaked nor too flat topped, is known as mesokurtic.
 A curve that is more flat topped than the normal curve is called platykurtic.
Question:
If for a distribution Mean=18, Median=32 and Mode=36 ⇒ the distribution is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
skewed.
a. Positively b. Symmetrically c. None d. Negatively
Merits and Demerits of different Measures of Dispersion:
Merits Demerits
Page 52 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
 Easy to understand and calculate.  It is not based on all observation.

 It is based only on extreme  Range does not give any indication of
observations and no detail in the character of the distribution with
Range
Range
formations is required. in the two extreme observations.

 It gives us a quick idea of the  Range is subject of fluctuations from
variability of a set of data. sample to sample.
 Cannot be computed in case of open-
 
deviationQuartile
It is superior to range as a measure of It ignores 50% of items that is the first
deviation
Quartile
dispersion. 25% and last 25% of observations.
 It is applicable in Open-end class.  Very much affected by sampling
 EasyItto
is understand and compute.  fluctuations.
DeviationMean
easy to calculate. Not amenable for further algebraic
Deviation
Mean
 It considers all observations. treatment.
 Less affected by extreme values.  The greatest drawback of this method
 Rigidly defined.  is that algebraic

Difficult signs are ignored
to calculate.
 Based upon all observation.  Affected by extreme values.
 Easy to understand  Difficult to calculate for open-end
Variance
Variance
 Less affected by sampling fluctuations. class.
 Suitable for further algebraic
treatment.
Merits Demerits
Box Plot:
A box plot is a graphic display that shows the general shape of a variable’s distribution. It is based
on five descriptive statistics: the minimum value, the first quartile

(Q1) , Median, third quartile
(Q3 ) and the maximum value.
Example:
Pizza Hut offers free delivery of its pizza within 15 miles. Mr. Rahman the owner wants some
information on the time it takes for delivery. How long does a typical delivery take? Within what
Page 53 of 56
range of times will most deliveries be completed? For a sample of 20 deliveries, he determined the
following information:
Minimum value = 13 minutes
Q1 = 15 minutes
Median = 18 minutes
Q3= 22 minutes
Maximum value = 30 minutes
Develop a boxes plot for the delivery times. What conclusions can you make about make about the
delivery times?
Solution:
In order to draw box plot follow the steps mentioned below:
Step 1:Create an appropriate scale along the horizontal axis.
Step 2:Draw a box that starts at

Q1 (15 minutes) and ends at
Q3 (22 minutes)
Step 3:Place a vertical line to represent the median (18 minutes)
Step 4:Extend the horizontal lines2 from the box out to the minimum value (13 minutes) and
the maximum value (30 minutes)
Interpretation of the Box Plot:

o The box plot shows that the middle 50 percent of the deliveries take between 15 minutes and 22
minutes. The distance between the ends of the box, 7 minutes, is the inter quartile range 3. That
shows the spread or dispersion of the majority of deliveries.
o The box plot also reveals that the distribution of the delivery times is positively skewed. The
guiding principle for such conclusion are
2
These horizontal lines outside of the box are sometimes called “whiskers” because the looks a bit like a cat’s
whiskers.
3
The inter quartile range is the distance between the first and the third quartile.
Page 54 of 56
Iftekhar M S Kalam
– The dashed line to the right of the box from 22 minutes

(Q3 ) to the maximum time of 30
minutes is longer than the dashed line from the left of 15 minutes
(Q1) to the minimum
value of 13 minutes.
– The median is not in the middle in the center of the box. The distance from the first quartile to the
median is smaller than the distances from the median to the third quartile.
Question:
Construct a box plot for the data given below and hence comment on the skewness of the
distribution:
99 75 84 33 45 66 97 69 55 61
72 91 74 93 54 76 62 91 77 68
Page 55 of 56
Miscellaneous Exercise
Question 1:
Average mark obtained by 15 students was 10 and the average mark obtained by 10 students was 15.
What was the average mark obtained by all students?
a. 10 b. 8 c. 12 d. 15 e. 11
Answer 11: c
Question 2:
Study the following histogram and hence determine the modal class and what proportion of students get
marks below 80.
Figure 1: Mark distribution of STA 101

10
8
8
6
Frequency
6
4 4
4
2 2
2
0
below 50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90+
Marks of the students
a. Modal class 90+ and 80.76% b. Modal class 50 – 60 and 76.9%

c. Modal class 60 - 70 and 76.9% d. Modal class below 50 and 86.9%
Question 3:
A school had 100 students aged 20 years on an average. At the end of the year, 20 students aged 22 years
on an average left and 25 students of 18 years on an average joined the school. What is the average age of
the present students of the school?
a. 20.14 b. 19.14 c. 22.14 d. 22 e. None
Answer: b
Question 4:
A group of students has hired a bus for Tk. 3000 for going to a picnic. They had an understanding that
each participant would share the charge in equal amounts. But because of 10 students not turning up, the
charge per student increased by taka 10 over the initial estimates. What is the number of students who
originally registered for the picnic?
Answer: 60
Question 5:
Salman bought 500 shares of company “X” at tk. 600 and 2 months later bought another 250 shares of the
same company at tk. 560. At what price should he purchase additional 250 shares in order to have an
average price of tk. 580 per share?
Answer: Tk. 560
Page 56 of 56

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What is “Statistics”?

Types of Statistical Applications:

Uses and importance of Statistics and Statisticians:

Statistics has it extensive application in the following fields:

4. Business and Industry:

Statistics in the Business World:

Some Basic Vocabulary of Statistics:

Thus population means an aggregate of elements possessing certain characteristics of interest in

‘N’ denotes the size of population.

Sample size is denoted by ‘n’.

2. Quantitative variable (also known as numerical variable)

Flow Chart of Types of Variables

b. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous:

Sources and Types of data:

Principles of determining the number of classes / determination of number of classes:

Principles of the constructions of a table:

That is frequency distribution can be defined as a summary presentation of a number of

Number of Number of Height of the tree Number of trees

children families (In Feet)

2 15 100 – 150 1589

3 18 150 – 200 1518

4 9 More than 200 719

Class interval is usually denoted by c, i , h or w.

Class midpoint or class mark:

Relative frequency (also known as proportion):

Using the aforementioned information also answer the following

Tables and Charts for categorical data

The summary Table

Banking Preference Percentage (%)

Fund Risk Level Number of funds Percentage of funds (%)

The Bar Chart

Figure 2: Bar Chart for Level of Risk

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

The Pie Chart the Pie Chart is a Circle broken

In case of pie diagram –

If the frequency / value / percentage of any

Which chart should one use – a bar chart or a

The selection of a particular chart often depends

1. Complete the following table.

Rhino Species Population Estimate

a. Construct a relative frequency table for the data.

Organizing Numerical Data

The Ordered Array

The Stem and Leaf Display

Stem Leaf Stem Leaf

Tables and Charts for categorical data

Table 1.3: frequency distribution of male and female by age group

Age group Male Female Age Male Female

5-9 2842 1413 40-44 773 378

10-14 2398 1192 45-49 633 306

15-19 2125 1056 50-54 503 240

20-24 1776 880 55-59 391 184

25-29 1450 716 60-64 278 130

30-34 1173 580 65+ 749 208

Figure 1.3.1: Histogram of number of Male by age group

Figure 1.3.2: Histogram of number of Female by age group

The Percentage Polygon

Table 1.5: Frequency distribution of Marks obtained by students

Frequency of students Percentage of Students