5th Sem Maths A E 2 A4

GMA S5-01
Exam. Code: MAP5A
Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis
SEMESTER - V
MATHEMATICS
Block 2
KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Subject Experts
Professor N. R. Das, Dept. of Mathematics, Gauhati University

Dr. Dilip Kumar Sarma, Former Head, Dept. of Mathematics, Cotton College
Course Co-ordinator : Harekrishna Deka, KKHSOU
SLM Preparation Team
UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
9, 10 & 11 Prof. Tarun Sarkar, Retired Vice-Principal and

Head of Department, Cotton College, Guwahati
12, 13, 14 & 15 Harekrishna Deka, KKHSOU
Editorial Team
Content : Dr. Dilip Kumar Sarma, Dept. of Mathematics, Cotton College

Structure, Format : Harekrishna Deka, KKHSOU
June, 2019 ISBN: 978-93-89123-33-3
This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State University is
made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-ShareAlike4.0 License
(International): http.//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0.
Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University.
Head Office : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati-781 017; Web: www.kkhsou.in

Sub-Head Office : Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati-781 006
The university acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC, for the preparation of this study material.
CONTENTS
UNIT 9: Sphere Pages: 205-217

Equation to a Sphere with given Centre and given Radius, General Equation
of Sphere, Diameter form of the Equation of a Sphere
UNIT 10: Cone Pages: 218-233

Equation of a Cone with a given Vertex and a given Guiding Curve, Locus of
Second Degree Homogeneous Equation in x, y, z, Right Circular Cone
UNIT 11: Cylinder Pages: 234-244

Definition, Equation of Cylinder
UNIT 12: Introduction to Vectors Pages: 245-267

Vectors and Scalars, Types of Vectors, Operation on Vectors: Additions of
Vectors, Subtraction of Vectors, Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars, Section
Formula, Components of a Vector
UNIT 13: Product of Vectors-I Pages: 268-281

Product of Two Vectors: Scalar or Dot Product, Vector (Cross) Product
UNIT 14: Product of Vectors-II Pages: 282-291

Product of Three Vectors, Scalar Triple Product, Vector Triple Product, Product
of Four Vectors, Scalar Product of Four Vectors, Vector Product of Four Vectors
UNIT 15: Vector Calculus Pages: 292-315

Scalar and Vector Point Function, Vector Differential Operator (Del), Gradient,
Divergence and Curl and their Identities, Lapalacian Operator
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This is the second block of the course “Coordinate Geometry and Vector analysis”. The block
consists of seven units.
Units 9,10 & 11, covers the basics concept of sphere,cone and cylinder.
In Unit 12, begins with introduction vectors.
In Units 13 & 14, deals with product of vectors.
In Unit 15, covers the basic concept of vector calculus.
While going through a unit, you will notice some along-side boxes, which have been included to
help you know some of the difficult, unseen terms. Again, we have included some relevant concepts in
‘‘LET US KNOW’’ along with the text. And, at the end of each section, you will get “CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS” questions. These have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It will be
better if you solve the problems put in these boxes immediately after you go through the sections of the
units and then match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PPROGRESS” given at the
end of each unit.
204 Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis

UNIT 9: SPHERE
UNIT STRUCTURE
9.1 Learning Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Sphere
9.3.1 Equation to a Sphere with given Centre and given Radius
9.3.2 General Equation of Sphere
9.3.3 Diameter form of the Equation of a Sphere
9.4 Let Us Sum Up
9.5 Further Reading
9.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
9.7 Model Questions
9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

z know about sphere and its equation.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
In unit 6, 7 and 8, we have already discussed the coordinates system

in three dimension,equation of plane and line. In this unit, we will discuss
about sphere and its equation.
9.3 SPHERE
Definition: The locus of a point which moves in space in such a

way that it is always at a constant distance from a fixed point, is called a
sphere.The fixed point is called the centre of the sphere and the constant
distance is called its radius.
9.3.1 Equation to a Sphere with given Centre and given

Radius
Let C(p, q, r) be the centre and ‘a’ the radius of a sphere. Let
P(x, y, z) be any point on the sphere. Then, CP = a.
Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis 205
Unit 9 Sphere
CP2 = a2
(x – p)2 + (y – q)2 + (z – r)2 = a2
P(x, y, z)
a
C(p, q, r)
Fig. 9.1
As this equation is satisfied by the coordinate of any point P
on the sphere, it is the equation of the sphere.
Note: The equation of the sphere whose centre is at the origin and
radius is a, is x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.
9.3.2 General Equation of Sphere
Consider the equation: x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0

Where, u, v, w and d are arbitrary constants.
The equation can be expressed as:
(x2 + 2ux + u2) + (y2 + 2vy + v2) + (z2 + 2wz + w2) = u2 + v2 + w2 – d
i.e., (x + u)2 + (y + v)2 + (z + w)2 = u2 + v2 + w2 – d
2
i.e., {x – (–u)}2 + {y – (–v)}2 + {z – (–w)}2 = u2 v 2 w 2 d
and therefore represents a sphere whose centre in the point
(–u, –v, –w) and radius is u2 v 2 w 2 d .
Note:
i) The equation x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 is called the
general equation of a sphere, it contains four independent
arbitrary constants u, v, w and d and so to know a particular
sphere four independent conditions are necessary.
ii) The sphere represented by the above equation is real if u 2 + v2
+ w2 td and imaginary if u2 + v2 + w2 > d. However in the real
situation it reduces to the point (–u, –v, –w) if u 2 + v2 + w2 = d.
iii) It is easy to see that an equation of the form:
ax2 + ay2 + az2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
Sphere Unit 9
Which is the same as:

§u· §v· §w· d
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2¨ ¸ x 2¨ ¸ y 2¨ ¸z = 0
©a¹ ©a¹ ©a¹ a
§ u v w·
represents a sphere whose centre is ¨ , , ¸ and radius
© a a a¹
u2 v 2 w 2 d
is .
a 2 a 2 a 2 a2
9.3.3 Diameter form of the Equation of a Sphere
Let A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) be the extremities of a diameter
of a sphere. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the sphere. Then APB is
a right angle.
P(x, y, z)
P(x1, y1, z1) B(x2, y2, z2)
Fig. 9.2
Now, AP has direction ratios x – x1, y – y1, z – z1 and BP has direction
ratios: x – x2, y – y2, z – z2.
As AP and BP are at right angles, we have,
(x – x1)(x – x2) + (y – y1)(y – y2) + (z – z1)(z – z2) = 0
Which is the required equation of the sphere.
Equation of a sphere passing through a given circle: It is easy
to see that the section of a sphere by a plane is a circle. If S = 0 is
the equation of a sphere and L = 0 is that of a plane, then the two
equations S = 0 & L = 0 taken together represent a circle, viz, the
circle in which the plane L = 0 cuts the sphere S = 0. Given a circle
represented by the equations S = 0 and L = 0, then the equation S +
OL = 0 represents a sphere passing through the circle. For different
Unit 9 Sphere
values of the arbitrary constant O, we get different spheres passing

through the circle.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
Example 1: Find the equation of the sphere whose centre is(–1, 3, 2)
and radius is 5.
Solution: The equation of the sphere,whose centre is (p, q, r) and
radius is a, is: (x – p)2 + (y – q)2 + (z – r)2 = a2.
Hence the required equation of the sphere whose centre is (–1, 3, 2)
and radius is 5, is:
{x – (–1)}2 + (y – 3)2 + (z – 2)2 = 52
i.e., (x + 1)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z – 2)2 = 25
i.e., (x2 + 2x + 1) + (y2 – 6y + 9) + (z2 – 4z + 4) = 25
i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x – 6y – 4z – 11 = 0
Example 2: Find the centre and radius of the sphere given by
2(x2 + y2 + z2) – 2x + 4y – 6z – 15 = 0.
Solution: The equation of the sphere is:
2(x2 + y2 + z2) – 2x + 4y – 6z – 15 = 0
15
i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 – x + 2y – 3y – =0
2
Comparing with the general equation of a sphere viz., x2 + y2 + z2 +
2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0, we have,
15
2u = –1, 2v = 2, 2w = –3, d = –
2
1 3 15
u=– , v = 1, w = – , d = –
2 2 2
The centre of the sphere has coordinates (–u, –v, –w)
§ 1 3·
i.e., ¨ , 1, ¸ and its radius = u2 v 2 w 2 d
© 2 2¹
1 9 15
= 1
4 4 2
1 4 9 30
=
4
= 11

Sphere Unit 9
Example 3: Show that the point P(–2, 5, 7) doesnot lie on the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x – 4y – 6z + 10 = 0. Determine whether P lies inside
or outside the sphere.
Solution: When x = –2, y = 5 , z = 7, we have,
x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x – 4y – 6z + 10
= 4 + 25 + 49 + 4 – 20 – 42 + 10
= 92 – 62 = 30 z 0
So the equation is not satisfied and hence the point P(–2, 5, 7)
doesnot lie on the sphere.Now the centre of the sphere:
x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x – 4y – 6z + 10 = 0 is the point C(1, 2, 3) and its
radius is: r = 12 22 3 2 10 = 14 10 = 4 =2
2 2 2
We have, CP = 1 2 2 5 3 7
= 9 9 16
= 34 ! 2
i.e., CP > r; it follows that P lies outside the sphere.
Example 4: Find the equation of the sphere standing on the join of
(2, –3, 1) and (3, –1, 2) as diameter.
§5 1·
Show that the point P¨ , 2, ¸ lies inside the sphere.
©2 2¹
Solution: The sphere stands on the join of (2, –3, 1) and (3, –1, 2)
as diameter. Its equation is:
(x – 2)(x – 3) + {y – (–3)}{y – (–1)} + (z – 1)(z – 2) = 0
i.e., (x – 2)(x – 3) + (y + 3)(y + 1) + (z – 1)(z – 2) = 0
i.e., (x2 – 5x + 6) + (y2 + 4y + 3) + (z2 – 3z + 2) = 0
i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 – 5x + 4y – 3z + 11 = 0
§5 3·
Its centre is the point C¨ , 2, ¸ and radius is:
©2 2¹
2 2
§ 5· 2 § 3·
¨ ¸ 2 ¨ ¸ 11
© 2¹ © 2¹
17 3
i.e., 7 i.e., .
2 2

Unit 9 Sphere
§5 1·
Consider the point P¨ , 2, ¸ , we have,
©2 2¹
2 2
§5 5· 2 §3 1·
CP = ¨ ¸ 2 2 ¨ ¸
2
©2 2¹ ©2 2¹
3
= 1
2
3
So that, CP >
2
i.e., CP < radius of the sphere.
§5 1·
? P¨ , 2, ¸ lies inside the sphere.
©2 2¹
Example 5: Find the equation of the sphere cutting off intercepts a,
b, c on the coordinate axes and passing through the origin. Find its
centre and radius.
Solution: According to the question,we have to find the equation of
the sphere passing through the four points (0, 0, 0), (a, 0, 0), (0, b,
0) and (0, 0, c).
Let the equation of the sphere be:
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ... ... ...(i)
As the sphere passes through the points (0, 0, 0), (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0)
and (0, 0, c), their coordinates must satisfy the equation (i).
Then we get,
d = 0, a2 + 2ua + d = 0, b2 + 2vb + d = 0, c2 + 2wc + d = 0
d = 0, 2ua = –a2, 2vb = –b2, 2wc = –c2 (using d = 0)
a b c
u= ,v= ,w= ,d=0
2 2 2
Hence (i) becomes: x2 + y2 + z2 – ax – by – cz = 0
Which is the required equation of the sphere.
§a b c·
The centre of the sphere is the point (–u, –v, –w) i.e., ¨ , , ¸ and
©2 2 2¹
its radius = u2 v 2 w 2 d
1 2
= a b2 c 2 .
2
Sphere Unit 9
Example 6: Find the equation of the sphere passing through the

circle x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 11 = 0, 2x – 3y + 5z + 4 = 0 and the point
(1, 1, 1).
Solution: The equation of any sphere passing through the circle
x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 11 = 0, 2x – 3y + 5z + 4 = 0 is:
x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 11 + O(2x – 3y + 5z + 4) = 0
If it passes through the point (1, 1, 1), then we have,
1 + 1 + 1 – 4 + 6 – 11 + O(2 – 3 + 5 + 4) = 0
8O = 6
6 3
O=
8 4
Therefore the required equation of the desired sphere is:
3
x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 11 + (2x – 3y + 5z + 4) = 0
4
i.e., 4x2 + 4y2 + 4z2 – 16x + 24y – 44 + 6x – 9y + 15z + 12 = 0
i.e., 4x2 + 4y2 + 4z2 – 10x + 15y + 15z – 32 = 0
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Find the equation of the sphere whose centre

is (2, 0, –5) and radius is 11.
Q.2: Find the centre and radius of the sphere:
i) x2 + y2 + z2 – 16x – 6y = 0
ii) 3(x2 + y2 + z2) + x – 5y – 2z + 1 = 0
Q.3: Determine whether the point P(1,2,-1) lies inside,on or outside
of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 3 = 0.
Q.4: Find the equation of the sphere described on the join of
(2, –3, 4) and (–2, 1, –5) as a diameter.
Q.5: The plane x – 2y + 3z = 12 cuts the axes in A, B, C. Find the
equation of the sphere OABC.
Q.6: Find the equation of the sphere passing the points (1, 0, 0),
(0, 1, –1), (–1, 2, 0) and (1, 2, 3).

Unit 9 Sphere
Q.7: Find the equation of the sphere on which the circle given by
2x + y + z + 3 = 0 and x2 + y2 + z2 = 9 is a great circle.
[The circle in which a plane passing through the centre of a
sphere intersects the sphere is called a great circle of the
sphere.]
9.4 LET US SUM UP
z The equation of the sphere whose centre is at the origin and radius is a,
is: x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.
z The equation x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 represents a sphere
whose centre is the point (–u, –v, –w) and radius is u2 v 2 w 2 d .
z The equation of the sphere on the join of (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) as
diameter is (x – x1)(x – x2) + (y – y1)(y – y2) + (z – z1)(z – z2) = 0.
9.5 FURTHER READING
1) Jain, P. K. & Ahmad, Khalil. Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three

Dimensions. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited.
2) Khan, R. M. Analytical Geometry of Two & Three Dimensions & Vector
Analysis. New Central Book Agency (P) Limited.
3) Kishan, Hari. Coordinate Geometry of Two Dimensions. New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.
4) Pal, Sat & Pal, Harbans. A Textbook of Two Dimensional Geometry.
New Age International Publishers.
5) Sharma, G. C. & Jain, Madhu. Coordinate Geometry (2D and 3D).
Galgotia Publications Pvt Lid.
6) Sharma, A. K. Coordinate Geometry (2D). New Delhi: Discovery
Publishing House.
7) Vasistha, A. R. & Agrawal, D. C. Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions (Coordinate of Solid Geometry).

Sphere Unit 9
9.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Ans. to Q. No. 1: The equation of the sphere is:

(x – 2)2 + (y – 0)2 + (z + 5)2 = 112
i.e., x2 – 4x + 4 + y2 + z2 + 10z + 25 = 121
i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 10z – 92 = 0
Ans. to Q. No. 2: i) Equation of the sphere is: x2 + y2 + z2 – 16x – 6y = 0
Comparing with the general equation of a sphere viz.,
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0, we have,
2u = –16, 2v = –6, 2w = 0, d = 0
u = –8, v = –3, w = 0, d = 0
? The centre of the sphere is the point (–u, –v, –w)
i.e., (8, 3, 0) and its radius = u2 v 2 w 2 d = 73
ii) The equation of the sphere is:
3(x2 + y2 + z2) + x – 5y – 2z + 1 = 0
1 5 2 1
i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 + x – y – z + =0
3 3 3 3
Here, in usual notations,
1 5 2 1
2u = , 2v = – , 2w = – , d =
3 3 3 3
1 5 1 1
u= ,v= ,w= ,d=
6 6 3 3
§ 1 5 1·
? Coordinates of the centre are (–u, –v, –w) i.e., ¨ , , ¸ .
© 6 6 3¹
Also radius = u2 v 2 w 2 d
2 2 2
§ 1· § 5 · § 1· 1
= ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
©6¹ © 6¹ © 3¹ 3
1 25 4 12
=
36
18 1 1
= = =
36 2 2

Unit 9 Sphere
Ans. to Q. No. 3: For the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 3 = 0

We have, 2u = –4, 2v = 6, 2w = 0, d = –3
u = –2, v = 3, w = 0, d = –3
? Its centre C(say) has coordinates (–u, –v, –w)
i.e., (2, –3, 0) and its radius is: r = u2 v 2 w 2 d
= 4903
= 16
=4
The given point is P(1, –2, 1)
2 2 2
Now CP = 1 2 2 3 1 0
= 1 1 1
= 34
i.e., CP < r.
? P(1, –2, 1) lies inside the sphere.
Ans. to Q. No. 4: The required equation of the sphere is:
(x – 2)(x + 2) + (y + 3)(y – 1) + (z – 4)(z + 5) = 0
i.e., (x2 – 4) + (y2 + 2y – 3) + (z2 + z – 20) = 0
i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 + 2y + z – 327 = 0
Ans. to Q. No. 5: The plane is x – 2y + 3z = 12
x 2y 3 z 12
i.e.,
12 12 12 12
x y z
i.e., 1
12 6 4
This plane cuts the axes at A, B, C, so A, B, C have coordinates
(12, 0, 0), (0, –6, 0), (0, 0, 4) respectively.
Let the equation of the sphere OABC be
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ... ... ...(1)
As it passes through the points O(0, 0, 0), A(12, 0, 0), B(0, –6, 0)
and C(0, 0, 4), their coordinates must satisfy (1). So we get,
d = 0, 144 + 24u + d = 0, 36 – 12v + d = 0, 16 + 8w + d = 0
i.e., d = 0, 144 + 24u = 0, 36 – 12v = 0, 16 + 8w = 0
i.e., d = 0, 24u = –144, –12v = –36, 8w = –16
i.e., d = 0, u = –6, v = 3, w = –2
Sphere Unit 9
Putting the values u, v, w and d in (1), we get,

x2 + y2 + z2 – 12x + 6y – 4z = 0, which is the required equation of the
sphere.
Ans. to Q. No. 6: Let the equation of the sphere be
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ... ... ...(1)
As this sphere passes through the points
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, –1), (–1, 2, 0) and (1, 2, 3), we get,
1 + 2u + d = 0
1 + 1 + 2v – 2w + d = 0
1 + 4 – 2u + 4v + d = 0
1 + 4 + 9 + 2u + 4v + 6w + d = 0
1 + 2u + d = 0 ... ... ...(2)
2 + 2v – 2w + d = 0 ... ... ...(3)
i.e., 5 – 2u + 4v + d = 0 ... ... ...(4)
14 + 2u + 4v + 6w + d = 0 ... ... ...(5)
(3) – (2), (4) – (2) , (5) – (2) give us respectively
–2u + 2v – 2w + 1 = 0
–4u + 4v + 4 = 0
4v + 6w + 13 = 0
2u – 2v + 2w = 1
i.e., u – v + 0.w = 1
0.u + 4v + 6w = –13
From the above system, we get by Cramer’s rule,
u v w 1
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
13 4 6 0 13 6 0 4 13 0 4 6
u v
=
1 6 0 1 12 8 13 0 2 2 6 0 1 6 26
w
=
2 13 4 1 26 4
1
=
2 6 0 1 12 8
Unit 9 Sphere
u v
=
6 20 26 12 32
w
=
18 22
1
=
12 20
u v w 1
= = =
12 20 4 8
3 5 1
u= ,v= ,w=
2 2 2
§ 3·
Hence (2) 1 + 2 × ¨ ¸ + d = 0
© 2¹
1 – 3 + d = 0
d = 2
On putting the values of u, v, w and d (1) becomes
x2 + y2 + z2 – 3x – 5y – z + 2 = 0
This is the required sphere.
Ans. to Q. No. 7: As the required sphere passes through the circle given
by 2x + y + z + 3 = 0 and x2 + y2 + z2 – 9 = 0, its equation is of the
form (x2 + y2 + z2 – 9) + k(2x + y + z + 3) = 0.
i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 + 2kx + ky + kz + (3k – 9) = 0 ... ... ...(1)
§ k k·
The centre of the sphere is ¨ k, , ¸ .
© 2 2¹
As the given circle is a great circle of the above sphere,the plane of
the circle viz.,
2x + y + z + 3 = 0 passes through the centre of the sphere;
So we get,
§ k· § k·
2(–k) + ¨ ¸ + ¨ ¸ + 3 = 0
© 2¹ © 2¹
–3k + 3 = 0
–3k = –3
k=1
Putting k = 1 in (1), we get, x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x + y + z – 6 = 0
This is the required equation of the sphere.
Sphere Unit 9
9.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q.1: Find the equation of the sphere whose centre is (2, –3, 1) and radius
6.
Q.2: Find the equation of the sphere with centre (2, –2, 3) and passing
through (7, –3, 5).
Q.3: Find the centre and radius of the sphere
i) x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x – 4y – 6z + 5 = 0
ii) 2x2 + 2y2 + 2z2 – 2x + 4y + 2z + 3 = 0
Q.4: Find the equation of the sphere through the four points (1, 2, 3),
(0, –2, 4), (4, –4, 2) and (3, 1, 4).
Q.5: Obtain the equation of the sphere passing through the points (3, 0, 2).
(–1, 1, 1), (2, –5, 4) and having its centre on the plane 2x + 4y + 2z
= 6.
Q.6: Find the equation of the sphere through the circle through the points
(4, –1, 2), (0, –2, 3), (1, 5, –1), (2, 0, 1).
Q.7: Find the equation of the sphere through the circle x2 + y2 + z2 = 9,
2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and passing through the origin.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 10: CONE
UNIT STRUCTURE

10.2 Introduction
10.3 Cone
10.3.1 Equation of a Cone with a given Vertex and a given Guiding
Curve
10.3.2 Locus of Second Degree Homogeneous Equation in x, y, z
10.3.3 Right Circular Cone
10.4 Let Us Sum Up
10.5 Answers to check your progress
10.6 Further Reading
10.7 Model Questions

z know about cone and its equation.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
In unit 9, we discussed the sphere and its equation. In this unit, we

will discuss about cone and its equation.
10.3 CONE
Definition: A cone is a surface generated by a straight line which

always passes through a fixed point and satisfies another condition, say
intersects a given curve. The moving line is called a generator, the fixed
point is called the vertex and the given curve is called the guiding (or base)
curve of the cone.

Cone Unit 10
10.3.1 Equation of a Cone with a given Vertex and a given

Guiding Curve
To find the equation of the cone whose vertex is (D, E, J) and base
is the curve z = 0, f(x, y) = 0.
The equations to any line through the point (D, E, J) are:
xD y E zJ
... ... ...(1)
l m n
This line meets the plane z = 0, when,
xD y E J

l m n
lJ mJ
x= D , y = E
n n
Thus the line (1) meets the plane z = 0 at the point
§ lJ mJ ·
¨D , E , 0¸
© n n ¹
If the line (1) meets the curve z = 0, f(x, y) = 0 ... ... ...(2)
§ lJ mJ ·
We must have f ¨ D , E ¸ =0 ... ... ...(3)
© n n ¹
If we eliminate l, m, n between (1) and (3) , we obtain the equation
to the locus of the variable line (1) always passing through (D, E, J)
and intersecting the curve (2), i.e., the equation of the cone whose
vertex is the point (D, E, J) and base is the curve (2).
To eliminate l, m, n from (1) and (3), we see that from (1)
l xD m y E
and ;
n zJ n zJ
l m
Substituting these values of and in (3), we get,
n n
§ J xD J y E ·
f ¨¨ D ,E ¸¸ = 0
© zJ zJ ¹
§ Dz Jx Ez Jy ·
i.e., f ¨¨ , ¸ =0
© zJ z J ¸¹
Which is the required equation of the cone.

Unit 10 Cone
10.4.2 Locus of Second Degree Homogeneous Equation

in x, y, z
The most general homogeneous equation of 2nd degree in x, y and

z is:
ax2 + by2 + cz2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0 ... ... ...(1)
Clearly origin 0 is a point on the surface represented by this equation.
If P(x/, y/, z/) be any point on the surface represented by (1), then we
2 2 2
have, ax/ + by/ + cz/ + 2fy/z/ + 2gz/x/ + 2hx/y/ = 0
2 2 2
Whence, k2(ax/ + by/ + cz/ + 2fy/z/ + 2gz/x/ + 2hx/y/) = 0
i.e., a(kx/)2 + b(ky/)2 + c(kz/)2 + 2f(ky/)(kz/) + 2g(kz/)(kx/) + 2h(kx/)(ky/) = 0
for all values of k; this shows that the point (kx/, ky/, kz/) is also a
point on the surface (1) for all values of k. But (kx/, ky/, kz/) is an
arbitrary point on the variable line OP (whose equations are:
x y z
/ / ).
x y z/
So if P is any point on the surface (1), every point of the line OP is
also a point on the surface (1) i.e., the entire line OP lies on the
surface (1). In other words (1) represents a cone generated by the
variable line OP which always passes through the fixed point O so
that O is the vertex of the cone. Thus the locus of the equation (1) is
a cone whose vertex is at the origin.
10.4.3 Right Circular Cone
If the generator of a cone in all its positions, makes a constant

angle with a fixed line through the vertex of the cone, then the fixed
line is called the axis and the constant angle is called the semi-
vertical angle of the cone. The cone is known as the Right circular
cone.
xD y E zJ
Let A(D, E, J) be the vertex, the line be the axis
l m n
and T be the semi-vertical angle of a right circular cone; to find its
equation.

Cone Unit 10
P(x, y, z)
A(D, E, J) axis
Fig. 10.1
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the right circular cone. The generator
AP makes constant angle T with the axis of the cone; as the line AP
has direction ratios x – D, y – E, z – J and the axis has direction
ratios l, m, n, we have,
l x D m y E n z J
cos T
2 2 2
l m 2 n2
2
x D y E z J
So that,
[l(x – D) + m(y – E) + n(z – J)]2 = (l2 + m2 + n2){(x – D)2 + (y – E)2 + (z – J)2}cos2T
This is true for the coordinates (x, y, z) of any point on the cone and
hence this is the equation of the right circular cone.
Corollary: The equation of the right circular cone whose semi-vertical
angle is T , vertex at the origin and axis has direction ratios l, m, n is:
(lx + my + nz)2 = (l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2) = T
This follows at once from the main result because (D, E, J) = 0, 0, 0.
Example 1: Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is (0, 0, 3)
and base is the curve x2 – y2 = 5, z = 0.
Solution: Any line through the vertex (0, 0, 3) is:
x y z3
... ... ...(1)
l m n
and it intersects the plane z = 0 at the point where z = 0 and

Unit 10 Cone
x y 3
l m n
3l 3m
x= ,y=
n n
§ 3l 3m ·
Thus the line (1) intersects the plane z = 0 at the point ¨ , , 0¸.
© n n ¹
The line (1) will be a generator of the required cone if the above
point lies on the base curve z = 0, x2 – y2 = 5 i.e., if
2 2
§ 3l · § 3m ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ =5
© n¹ © n ¹
ª§ l · 2 § m · 2 º
i.e., if 9 «¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ » = 5 ... ... ...(2)
¬«© n ¹ © n ¹ ¼»
Eliminating l, m and n from (1) and (2), we shall get the equation of
the cone whose vertex is (0, 0, 3) and base is the curve x2 – y2 = 5,
z = 0.
l x m y
Now from (1) = , = ;
n z3 n z3
Substituting these in (2), we get,
ª§ x ·2 § y · 2 º
9 «¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ » =5
¬«© z 3 ¹ © z 3 ¹ ¼»
i.e., 9(x2 – y2) = 5(z – 3)2 as the required equation of the cone.
Example 2: Find the equation of the cone with vertex at the origin
which passes through the curve given by
ax2 + by2 = 2z, lx + my + nz = p.
Solution: The curve is given by ax2 + by2 = 2z ... ... ...(1)
lx + my + nz = p ... ... ...(2)
lx my nz
(2) can be written as = 1 and with its help we make (1)
p
§ lx my nz ·
homogeneous: ax2 + by2 – 2z ¨¨ ¸¸ ... ... ...(3)
© p ¹
Now the equation (3) is homogeneous and so it represents a cone
with vertex at the origin. Also (3) is satisfied if both (1) and (2) are

Cone Unit 10
satisfied; this means that every point on the curve given by (1) and
(2) lies on the surface (3), i.e., the cone given by (3), whose vertex
is at the origin, passes through the given curve .
Hence the required equation of the cone is:
p(ax2 + by2) = 2z(lx + my + nz).
Example 3: Show that the equation of the cone whose vertex is the
§ xk yk ·
origin and base the curve z = k, f(x, y) = 0 is f ¨ , ¸ = 0.
© z z ¹
Solution: Any line through the vertex (0, 0, 0) of the cone is given
by
x y z
... ... ...(1)
l m n
The line intersects the plane z = k at the point where z = k and
x y k
l m n
kl km
x= ,y=
n n
§ kl km ·
Thus the line (1) intersects the plane z = k at the point ¨ , , k¸.
©n n ¹
The line (1) will be a generator of the cone if it intersects the base
§ kl km ·
curve z = k, f(x, y) = 0 for which the point ¨ , , k ¸ must be on
©n n ¹
§ kl km ·
that curve i.e., if f ¨ , ¸ =0 ... ... ...(2)
©n n ¹
The required equation of the cone will be obtained by eliminating l,
m and n from (1) and (2), which is done below.
l x m y
From (1) and ;
n z n z
l m
Putting these expressions for and in (1), we get,
n n
§ xk yk ·
f¨ , ¸ = 0
© z z ¹
Example 4: Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex
is the origin, axis is the z-axis and semi-vertical angle is D.
Unit 10 Cone
Solution: The origin O is the vertex and OX is the axis of the right
circular cone. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the right circular cone.
Z
T
X
X
Fig. 10.2
Then OP is a generator having direction ratios x y, z and OX has
direction cosines 1, 0, 0. As D is the semi-vertical angle of the right,
circular cone, OP makes angle D with OX. So we get,
x.1 y.0 z.0 x
cos D
x y z
2 2 2
1 0 0
2 2 2
x y2 z2
2
x2
cos D
2
x2 y 2 z2
x2
x +y +z =
2 2 2
= x2sec2D
cos 2 D
y2 + z2 = x2(sec2D – 1)
y2 + z2 = x2tan2D
Thus the required equation of the right circular cone is:
y2 + z2 = x2tan2D
Alternative Method: Let O be the vertex and OX be the axis of the
right circular cone. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the right circular
cone and PN A OX. Then ON = x and XOP = D as D is the semi-
vertical angle of the cone. Now from the right angled triangle OPN.

Cone Unit 10
P(x, y, z)
N
X
Fig. 10.3
OP
We have, = secD
ON
x2 y2 z2
= secD
x
x2 + y2 + z2 = x2sec2D
y2 + z2 = x2(sec2D – 1)
y2 + z2 = x2tan2D
Thus the required equation of the right circular cone is:
y2 + z2 = x2tan2D.
Example 5: Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex
is at (1, –2, –1), semi-vertical angle 600 and axis is the line,
x 1 y2 z 1
3 4 5
Solution: We know that the right circular cone whose vertex is at
(D, E, J), semi-vertical angle is T and axis is the line,
xD y E zJ
has equation,
l m n

Unit 10 Cone
For the given right circular cone vertex is at (1, –2, –1), semi-vertical
x 1 y2 z 1
angle 600 and axis is the line, ;
3 4 5
hence the equation of the cone is:
[3(x – 1) + (–4)(y + 2) + 5(z + 1)]2
= [32 + (–4)2 + 52][(x – 1)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z + 1)2]cos2600
2
i.e., (3x – 4y + 5z – 6)2 × [(x – 1)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z + 1)2] × §¨ 1 ·¸
© 2¹
i.e., 2(3x – 3y + 5z – 6)2 = 25[(x – 1)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z + 1)2]
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is

(D, E, J) and the guiding curve is the conic z = 0,
ax2 + by2 = 1.
Q.2: Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is (D, E, J) and
base is the parabola y = 0, x2 = 4az.
Q.3: Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is
x y z
the origin, axis is the line and semi-vertical angle
2 3 4
is 450.
Q.4: Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is
x 1 y z 1
(1, 0, –1), axis is the line and semi-vertical
2 1 2
angle is 30 0 .
Q.5: Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is at the origin
and which passes through the curve:
i) ax2 + by2 = 1, z = k
ii) 8yz + 7zx – 3y + 2 = 0, 3z – 2y – 5 = 0.
Q.6: Find the equation of the right circular cone:
i) whose vertex is at the origin,axis is OY and semi-vertical
angle is 450.
ii) whose vertex is at the origin, axis is OZ and semi-vertical
angle is D.
Cone Unit 10
10.4 LET US SUM UP
z The second degree homogeneous equation ax2 + by2 + cz2 + 2fyz +

2gzx + 2hxy = 0 represents a cone whose vertex is the origin.
z The equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is at (D, E, J), semi-
vertical angle T, and axis the line,
xD y E zJ
is:
l m n
z The equation of the right circular cone whose semi-vertical angle is T,
vertex at the origin and axis has direction ratios l, m, n is:
(lx + my + nz)2 = (l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2)cos2T.
10.5 FURTHER READING

Publishing House.

Unit 10 Cone
Ans. to Q. No. 1: The vertex of the cone is (D, E, J) and the guiding curve
is the conic z = 0, ax2 + by2 = 1 ... ... ...(1)
Any line through the vertex (D, E, J) is:
xD y E zJ
... ... ...(2)
l m n
xD y E J
It intersects the plane z = 0 where,
l m n
lJ mJ
xD , y E
n n
lJ mJ
x D , y E .
n n
Thus the line (2) intersects the plane z = 0 at the point
§ lJ mJ ·
¨D , E , 0 ¸ . In order that the line (2) may intersect the curve
© n n ¹
§ lJ mJ ·
(1), the point ¨ D , E , 0 ¸ must lie on it ; so we must have,
© n n ¹
2 2
§ lJ · § mJ ·
a¨ D ¸ b¨ E ¸ 1 ... ... ...(3)
© n¹ © n ¹
So the variable line (2) will be a generator of the required cone if the
condition (3) is satisfied.Eliminating l, m and n from (2) and (3), we
shall obtain the equation of the cone.
l xD m y E
From (2), we have and ;
n zJ n zJ
l m
substituting these expressions for and in(3), we get,
n n
2 2
J xD ½ J y E ½
a®D ¾ b®E ¾ =1
¯ zJ ¿ ¯ zJ ¿
2 2
§ Dz Jx · § Ez Jy ·
i.e., a¨¨ ¸¸ b¨¨ ¸¸ = 1
© zJ ¹ © zJ ¹
i.e., a(Dz – Jx)2 + b(Ez – Jy)2 = (z – J)2
This is the required equation of the cone.
Cone Unit 10
Ans. to Q. No. 2: A variable line through the vertex (D, E, J) of the cone is:
xD y E zJ
... ... ...(1)
l m n
It intersects the plane y = 0 at the point where,
xD E zJ

l m n
lE nE
xD , zJ
m m
lE nE
x D , z J
m m
Thus the line (1) meets the plane y = 0 at the point
§ lE nE ·
¨ D , 0, J ¸.
© m m¹
If this line intersects the curve y = 0, x2 = 4az
2
§ lE · § nE ·
We must have, ¨ D ¸ 4a¨ J ¸ ... ... ...(2)
© m¹ © m¹
Eliminating l, m and n from (1) and (2), we shall get the equation of
the cone whose vertex is (D, E, J) and base is the parabola y = 0,
x2 = 4az.
l xD n zJ
Now from (1), we have, and ;
m y E m y E
Substituting these in (2), we get,
2
§xD· ½ §zJ· ½
®D ¨¨ ¸¸E¾ 4a®J ¨¨ ¸¸E¾
¯ © y E ¹ ¿ ¯ © y E¹ ¿
2
Dy E x ½ Jy Ez ½
i.e., ® ¾ 4a® ¾
¯ y E ¿ ¯ y E ¿
i.e., (Dy – Ex)2 = 4a(y – E)(Jy – Ez)
Ans. to Q. No. 3: If a right circular cone has vertex at the origin, its axis is
x y z
the line and its semi-vertical angle is T, then we know
l m n
that its equation is: (lx + my + nz)2 = (l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2)cos2T.

Unit 10 Cone
Hence the required equation of the right circular cone, whoseaxis is

x y z
and semi-vertical angle is 450, is:
2 3 4
(2x + 3y + 4z)2 = (22 + 32 + 42)(x2 + y2 + z2)cos2450
2
§ 1 ·
i.e., (2x + 3y + 4z) = 29(x + y + z ) ¨
2 2 2 ¸ 2
© 2¹
i.e., 2(4x2 + 9y2 + 16z2 + 12xy + 24yz + 16zx) = 29(x2 + y2 + z2)
i.e., 29x2 + 29y2 + 29z2 – 8x2 – 18y2 – 32z2 – 24xy – 48yz – 32zx = 0
i.e., 21x2 + 11y2 – 3z2 – 24xy – 48yz – 32zx = 0
xD y E zJ
Ans. to Q. No. 4: If (D, E, J) is the vertex, the line is
l m n
the axis and T is the semi-vertical angle of a right circular cone, then
its equation is:
For the given right circular cone vertex is (1, 0, –1), the axis is the
x 1 y z 1
line and the semi-vertical angle is 300; hence the
2 1 3
required equation of the cone is:
[2(x – 1) + (–1)y + 3(z + 1)]2 = {22 + (–1)2 + 32}{(x – 1)2 + y2 + (z + 1)2}cos2300
2
§ 3·
i.e., (2x –y + 3z + 1)2 = 14{(x – 1)2 + y2 + (z + 1)} ¨¨ ¸
¸
© 2 ¹
i.e., 2(2x – y + 3z + 1)2 = 21{(x – 1)2 + y2 + (z + 1)2}
Ans. to Q. No. 5: i) We have to find the cone whose vertex is at the origin
and which passes through the curve represented by the pair of
equations:
ax2 + by2 = 1 ... ... ...(1)
and z = k ... ... ...(2)
z
We write(2) as 1 and with the help of it we make (1) homogeneous;
k
2
§z·
thus we get, ax2 + by2 = ¨ ¸
©k¹
i.e., k2(ax2 + by2) = z2
This is the required equation of the cone.
Cone Unit 10
ii) We have to find the cone whose vertex is the origin and which
passes through the curve given by
8yz + 7zx – 3y + 2 = 0 ... ... ...(1)
3z – 2y – 5 = 0 ... ... ...(2)
We rewrite (2) as: 3z – 2y = 0
3z 2y
or 1 ... ... ...(3)
5
and make the equation (1) homogeneous with the help of (3);
thereby we get,
2
§ 3z 2 y · § 3z 2 y ·
8yz + 7zx – 3y ¨ ¸ 2¨ ¸ =0
© 5 ¹ © 5 ¹
i.e., 200yz + 175zx – 15y(3z – 2y) + 2(3z – 2y)2 = 0
i.e., 200yz + 175zx – 45yz + 30y2 + 18z2 – 24yz + 8y2 = 0
i.e., 38y2 + 18z2 – 131yz + 175zx = 0
This is the required cone.
Ans. to Q. No. 6: i)
Z
D
X
Fig. 10.4
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the right circular cone. The line OP is
a generator of the cone and it has direction ratios x, y, z. Line OP
being a generator of the cone, it makes an angle of 450 with OY, the
axis of the cone. But OY has direction cosines 0, 1, 0. So we get,

Unit 10 Cone
0.x 1.y 0.z

cos450 =
x y 2 z 2 0 2 12 02
2
1 y

2 x y2 z2
2
1 y2

2 x2 y2 z2
x2 + y2 + z2 = 2y2
x2 + z2 = y2
Hence the required equation of the right circular cone is x2 + z2 = y2.
ii) X
N P(x, y, z)
X
Y Fig. 10.5
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the right circular cone whose vertex is
at the origin O, axis is OZ and semi-vertical angle is D. Then the line
OP is a generator of the cone and so makes angle D with OZ.
Now OP has direction ratios x, y, z; So its direction cosines are:
x y z
, , .
x 2 y 2 z2 x 2 y 2 z2 x 2 y 2 z2
z
So we get, = cosD
x y 2 z2
2
z2
x +y +z =
2
= z2sec2D
2 2
cos 2 D
x2 + y2 = z2(sec2D – 1) = z2tan2D

Cone Unit 10
As this holds for every point P on the cone,the required equation of

the cone is x2 + y2 = z2tan2D.
10.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q.1: Find the equation of the cones with vertex at the origin and which
pass through the curves given by:
i) x2 + y2 = 4, z = 2
ii) x2 + y2 + z2 = 9, x + y + z = 1.
Q.2: Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is (1, –1, 2),
x 1 y 1 z2
axis the line and semi-verticl angle 450.
2 1 2
Q.3: Find the equation of the cones whose vertex is at the point (3, 1, 2)
and whose guiding curve is the ellipse 2x2 + 3y2 = 1, z = 0.
Q.4: Find the equation of the cones whose vertex is (D, E, J) and base y2
= 4ax, z = 0.
Q.5: Find the equation of the cones whose vertex is at the point (0, 0, 5)
and whose guiding curve is x2 + 2xy + 3y2 = 1, z = 3.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 11: CYLINDER
UNIT STRUCTURE

11.2 Introduction
11.3 Cylinder
11.4 Let Us Sum Up

z know about cylinder and its equation.
11.2 INTRODUCTION
In unit 9 and 10, we discussed about sphere and cone. In this unit,
we will discuss about cylinder and its equation.
11.3 CYLINDER
Definition: A cylinder is a surface generated by a line which moves

always remaining parallel to itself and intersects a given curve. The moving
line is called a generator and the given curve is called the guiding curve of
the cylinder.Each particular position of the moving line is also called a
generator.
A cylinder whose guiding curve is a circle and the generators are
perpendicular to the plane of the guiding circle is called a right circular
cylinder. The normal to the plane of the guiding circle through its centre is
called the axis of the right circular cylinder.Any normal section of such a
cylinder, i.e., any section by a plane perpendicular to the generators (and
so perpendicular to the axis) of the cylinder is a circle,parallel and congruent

Cylinder Unit 11
to the guiding circle. The radius of any normal section,which is the same as
the radius of the guiding circle,is called the radius of the right circular cylinder;
clearly it is the perpendicular distance of any point on the cylinder from its
axis.
Surfaces represented by the equations of the forms f(x, y) = 0,
f(y, z) = 0, f(z, x) = 0: Consider the equation f(x, y) = 0 in which z is absent.
This equation is satisfied by the coordinates of all points of the curve in the
xy-plane whose two dimensional equation is f(x, y) = 0. Let P, any point on
this curve, have coordinates (x0, y0, 0) so that we have f(x0, y0) = 0. Through
P(x0, y0, 0) draw a line parallel to OZ and let Q be any point on it. Then the
coordinates of Q are (x0, y0, z) where, PQ = z; clearly z varies as Q moves
on this line.
As f(x0, y0) = 0, the coordinates (x0, y0, z) of Q satisfy the equation
f(x, y) = 0 whatever be the value
Z of z.
Q(x0, y0, z)
P(x0, y0, z)
X
Fig. 11.1
Therefore the coordinates of every point on the line PQ satisfy f(x, y)
= 0 and so every point on PQ lies on the surface represented by f(x, y) = 0.
In other words the entire line PQ lies on the surface represented by f(x, y) =
0. But P is any point of the curve whose two dimensional equation is f(x, y)
= 0. Therefore the locus of the equation f(x, y) = 0 is the cylinder generated
by straight lines drawn parallel to the z-axis through all the points of the
curve in the z-plane whose two dimensional equation is f(x, y) = 0.
Thus an equation of the form f(x, y) = 0, which does not contain z,
represents a cylinder whose generators are parallel to z-axis and whose
guiding curve is given by z = 0, f(x, y) = 0. Similarly f(y, z) = 0 and f(z, x) = 0
Unit 11 Cylinder
respectively represent cylinders whose generators are parallel to x-axis

and y-axis respectively.
Equation of the cylinder generated by lines parallel to a fixed
x y z
line and having the conic z = 0, ax2 + by2 = 1 as its guiding
l m n
curve: Let (D, E, J) be any point on the cylinder. Through this point there is
x y z
a generator of the cylinder which is parallel to the given line .
l m n
The equations to this generator are:
xD y E zJ
... ... ...(1)
l m n
As this is a generator it intersects the guiding curve given by
z = 0, ax2 + by2 = 1 ... ... ...(2)
xD y E J
Putting z = 0 in (1) we get,
l m n
lJ mJ
x D , y E .
n n
§ lJ mJ ·
So the line meets the plane z = 0 at the point ¨ D , E , 0¸ ,
© n n ¹
and as this line intersects the curve (2), we must have,
2 2
§ lJ · § mJ ·
a¨ D ¸ b¨ E ¸ 1.
© n¹ © n ¹
Thus the coordinates (D, E, J) of any point on the cylinder satisfy the
equation:
2 2
§ lz · § mz ·
a¨ x ¸ b¨ y ¸ 1
© n¹ © n ¹
i.e., a(nx – lz)2 + b(ny – mz)2 = n2
Hence the required equation of the cylinder is:
a(nx – lz)2 + b(ny – mz)2 = n2
Equation of the right circular cylinder whose axis and radius
are given: Suppose that a right circular cylinder has radius r and its axis is
xD y E zJ
the line ; To find its equation.
l m n

Cylinder Unit 11
axis
r
N P(x, y, z)
Q P
A(D, E, J)
Fig. 11.2
A(D, E, J) is a point on the axis. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the
right circular cylinder. Draw PN perpendicular to the axis; then PN = r, r
being the radius of the right circular cylinder. If AP = U, the direction cosines
x D y E z J
of the line AP are , , . Also,as given, l, m, n are direction
U U U
ratios of the line AN (axis of the cylinder) so that AN has direction cosines
l m n
, , where, k2 = l2 + m2 + n2.
k k k
So, if T be the angle between AP and AN, we have,
x D l y E m z J n
cosT = . . .
U k U k U k
l x D m y E n z J
=
Uk
From 'APN right-angled at N, we get,
PN = APsinT
r = UsinT
r2 = U2sin2T= U2(1 – cos2T)
2
ªl x D m y E n z J º
r =U –U «
2 2 2
»
¬ Uk ¼
2
l x D m y E n z J
r2 = U2 –
k2
2
l x D m y E n z J
(x – D) + (y – E) + (z – J) –
2 2 2
= r2
l2 m 2 n 2
Unit 11 Cylinder
as: U2 = (x – D)2 + (y – E)2 + (z – J)2 and k2 = l2 + m2 + n2

As this is satisfied by the coordinates (x, y, z) of any point P on the
cylinder, it follows that the equation of the given right circular cylinder is:
2
l x D m y E n z J
(x – D)2 + (y – E)2 + (z – J)2 – . = r2
l2 m 2 n 2
Corollary: The equation of the given right circular cylinder of radius
x y z
r whose axis is the line (which passes through the origin) is:
l m n
2
2
lx my nz
2 2
x +y +z – 2 = r2
l m2 n2
i.e., (l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2) – (lx + my + nz)2 = (l2 + m2 + n2)r2
i.e., (l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2 – r2) = (lx + my + nz)2.
Example 1: Find the equation of the cylinder generated by the lines
x y z
parallel to the line , the guiding curve being the parabola x = 0,
1 2 5
y2 = 8z.
Solution: Let (D, E, J) be any point on the cylinder. The equations to
x y z
its generator through (D, E, J), which is parallel to the line , are:
1 2 5
xD y E z J
... ... ...(1)
1 2 5
This generator intersects the plane x = 0 at the point where, x = 0
D y E zJ
and giving y = E + 2D and z = J – 5D.
1 2 5
Thus the generator (1) intersects the plane x = 0 at (0, E + 2D, J –
5D). As this generator must intersect the base curve x = 0, y2 = 8z, this point
must lie on it; hence, (E + 2D)2 = 8(J –5D)
As (D, E, J) is any point on the cylinder, it follows that the required
equation of the cylinder is (y + 2x)2 = 8(z – 5x).
Example 2: Find the equation of the right circular cylinder of radius
5 if its axis passes through the point (3,1,5) and has direction ratios 2, –1, 2.
Solution: If a right circular cylinder of radius r has the line,
xD y E zJ
as its axis, then the equation of the cylinder is:
l m n
Cylinder Unit 11
2
l x D m y E n z J
(x – D) + (y – E) + (z – J) –
2 2 2
= r2
l2 m 2 n 2
Hence the axis of the right circular cylinder is the line
x3 y 1 z5
and its radius is 5; hence the equation of the
2 1 2
right circular cylinder is:
2
2 x 3 1 y 1 2 z 5
(x – 3)2 + (y – 1)2 + (z – 5)2 – 2 = 52
2 2 1 22
i.e., 9[(x – 3)2 + (y – 1)2 + (z – 5)2] – (2x – y + 2z – 15)2 = 225
i.e., 9(x2 + y2 + z2 – 6x – 2y – 10z + 35) –
(4x2 + y2 + 4z2 + 225 – 4xy + 8zx – 60x – 4yz + 30y – 60z) = 225
i.e., 5x2 + 8y2 + 5z2 + 4yz + 4xy + 6x – 48y – 30z – 135 = 0
Example 3: Find the equation of the right circular cylinder of radius
x y z
7 whose axis is the line 1 0 2
.
Solution: We know that the equation of a right circular cylinder,

x y z
whose radius is r and whose axis is the line , is:
l m n
(l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2 – r2) = (lx + my + nz)2.
x y z
Here the radius is 7 and the axis is the line 1 ;
0 2
Hence the required equation of the right circular cylinder is:
{12 + 02 + (–2)2}{x2 + y2 + z2 – ( 7 )} – {1.x + 0.y + (–2).z}2
i.e., 5(x2 + y2 + z2 – 7) = (x – 2z)2 = x2 + 4z2 – 4zx
i.e., 4x2 + 5y2 + z2 + 4zx – 35 = 0.
Example 4: Find the equation of the cylinder whose generators are
parallel to the x-axis and which passes through the curve of intersection of
the plane 2x – 3y + z = 1 and the surface 3y2 – 5z2 = 12x.
[Observe that the generators are parallel to the x-axis and so the
equation of the cylinder will be of the form f(y, z) = 0 which is free from x.]
Solution: The generators of the cylinder pass through the curve of
intersection of the plane 2x – 3y + z = 1 ... ... ...(1)
and the surface 3y2 – 5z2 = 12x ... ... ...(2)

Unit 11 Cylinder
1 3y z
We eliminate x from (1) and (2); from (1) we have, x =
2
and putting this in (2), we get,
§ 1 3y z ·
3y2 – 5z2 = 12 ¨ ¸ = 6(1 + 3y –z)
© 2 ¹
i.e., 3y2 – 5z2 – 18y + 6z – 6 = 0 ... ... ...(3)
(3) is an equation without x and so it represents a cylinder whose
generators are parallel to x-axis.Moreover it is satisfied whenever the
equations (1) and (2) are simultaneously satisfied. In other words (3) is
satisfied by the coordinates of every point of the curve of intersection of the
plane (1) and the surface (2).
In other words the cylinder (3), whose generators are parallel to the
x-axis, passes through the said curve and hence it is the required cylinder.
Remarks: In the above solution we have given reasons in detail so
that the learner can understand the principle involved. However we can
shorten the solution as shown in the following example.
Example 5: Find the equation of the cylinder generated by the lines
parallel to the z-axis and passing through the curve of intersection of the
plane lx + my + nz = p and the surface ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 1.
Solution: The cylinder is generated by the lines parallel to the z-
axis and it passes through the curve of intersection of the plane:
lx + my + nz = p ... ... ...(1)
and the surface ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 1 ... ... ...(2)
The equation of the cylinder will be obtained by eliminating z from
(1) and (2).
p lx my
From (1) we have, z =
n
and putting this for z in (2), we get,
2
§ p lx my ·
ax + by + c ¨
2 2 ¸ =1
© n ¹
Which is the required equation of the cylinder.

Cylinder Unit 11
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Find the equation of the cylinder whose

generators are parallel to the y-axis and intersect
the curve given by 4x + y – z = 2 and x2 – 3y2 + 2z2 = 5.
x y z
Q.2: A right circular cylinder of radius a has the line
l m n
as its axis. Find its equation.
Q.3: The axis of a right circular cylinder passes through the point
(1, –2, 0) and has direction ratios 2, 3, 6. If the radius of the
right circular cylinder is 5, Find its equation.
11.4 LET US SUM UP
z The equation of the right circular cylinder whose radius is r and axis is
xD y E zJ
the line is:
l m n
2
l x D m y E n z J
(x – D)2 + (y – E)2 + (z – J)2 – = r2
l2 m 2 n 2
z The equation of the right circular cylinder of radius r whose axis is the
x y z
line (which passes through the origin) is:
l m n
(l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2 – r2) = (lx + my + nz)2.

Unit 11 Cylinder

Publishing House.
Ans. to Q. No. 1: We have to find the equation of the cylinder whose

generators are parallel to the y-axis and intersect the curve given by
4x + y – z = 2 ... ... ...(1)
and x2 – 3y2 + 2z2 = 5 ... ... ...(2)
This equation will be obtained by eliminating y from the equations(1)
and (2).
From (1) y = 2 + z – 4x and putting this expression for y in (2), we get,
x2 – 3(2 + z – 4x)2 + 2z2 = 5
x2 – 3(4 + z2 + 16x2 + 4z – 16x – 8zx) + 2z2 = 5
–47x2 – z2 + 24zx + 48x – 12z – 17 = 0
47x2 + z2 – 24zx – 48x + 12z + 17 = 0
Which is the required equation of the cylinder.
Ans. to Q. No. 2:
P(x, y, z)
w a
O N axis
Fig. 11.3

Cylinder Unit 11
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the right circular cylinder of radius a

x y z
whose axis is the line . The axis passes through the origin.
l m n
If PN is dropped perpendicular from P to the axis of the cylinder, we
have PN = radius of the cylinder = a.
Let PON = T; clearly from the figure,
ON OP2 PN2
cosT =
OP OP
x 2 y 2 z 2 a2
and so, cosT =
x 2 y 2 z2
But OP has direction ratios x, y, z and ON (the axis) has direction

ratios l, m, n. As T is the angle between OP and ON, we have,
lx my nz
cosT =
l2 m 2 n 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
lx my nz
Hence we get,
l m 2 n2 x 2 y 2 z 2
2
x 2 y 2 z2 a2
=
x2 y2 z2
Whence, on squaring and multiplying crosswise, we get,
(lx + my + nz)2 = (l2 + m2 + n2)(x2 + y2 + z2 – a2)
This is the required equation of the right circular cylinder.
Ans. to Q. No. 3: The axis of the right circular cylinder is the line,
x 1 y2 z
and its radius is 5.
2 3 6
So the equation of the right circular cylinder is:
2
l x D m y E n z J
(x – D) + (y – E) + (z – J) –
2 2 2
= r2
l2 m 2 n 2
(formula in usual symbols)
2
2 x 1 3 y 2 6z
i.e., (x – 1)2 + (y + 2)2 + z2 – = 52
22 3 2 6 2
i.e., 49[(x – 1)2 + (y + 2)2 + z2] – (2x + 3y + 6z + 4)2 = 1225
This is the required equation of the right circular cone.
Unit 11 Cylinder
Q.1: Find the equation of the cylinder whose generators are parallel to
y z
the line x = and whose guiding curve is the ellipse
2 3
x2 + 2y2 = 1, z = 3.
Q.2: Find the equation of the right circular cylinderof radius of radius 2
whose axis passes through (12, 2, 3) and has direction cosines
proportional to 2, –3, 6.
Q.3: Find the equation of the right circular cylinder of radius 3 and axis
x 1 y3 z5
.
2 2 1
*** ***** ***

UNIT 12: INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS
UNIT STUCTURE
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Vector and Scalar Quantity
12.4 Types of Vectors
12.5 Operation on Vectors
12.5.1 Additions of Vectors
12.5.2 Subtraction of Vectors
12.5.3 Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars
12.6 Section Formula
12.7 Components of a Vector
12.8 Let Us Sum Up
12.10 Answers to check Your Progress

z know the terms scalar quantity and vector quantity
z classify different types of vectors
z define position vector of a point;
z find direction cosines and direction ratios of a vector
z find addition of vectors
z find difference of two vectors
z multiply a vector by a scalar
z write a vector in component form
z know section formula.
12.2 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, physics and engineering, we frequently come across

with two types of quantities, namely scalar quantities and vector quantities.
Unit 12 Introduction to Vectors
In this unit, we will discuss vector and its different types. We will also discuss
different operations on vectors.
12.3 VECTOR AND SCALAR QUANTITY
We define scalar and vector quantities with examples.

Scalar:
Definition: The quantities which have magnitude only are called
scalar quantities
Examples: mass, volume, area, density, temperature etc.
Vector:
Definition: The quanities which have both magnitude and direction
are called vector quantities.
Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, weight,
force etc.
Representation of Vectors: A vector is represented by a directed
line segment such that the length of the line segment is the magnitude of
the vector and the direction of arrow marked at one end emphasizes the
direction of the vector.
A vector whose magnitude is the length PQ and whose direction is
o
from P to Q is denoted by PQ . The point P is called the initial point and Q
o
is called the terminal point of PQ .
o o o
Note: 1) Vectors are denoted by a , b , c etc.
o o
2) The magnitude of PQ is denoted by | PQ | or PQ.
Q
P Fig. 12.1
o o
3) The sense of AB is from A to B and that of BA is from B to A.
Thus the sense of a directed line segment is from its initial point to
the terminal point.
Introduction to Vectors Unit 12
Position Vector: Consider a point P(x, y, z) in space with respect to

o
the origin O(0, 0, 0). Then, the vector OP with O and P as it initial and
terminal points is called the position vector of P with respect to O.
o o o
The magnitude of OP (or r ) is given by | OP | = x2 y2 z2 .
12.4 TYPES OF VECTORS
i) Zero or Null Vector: A vector whose magnitude is zero and direction

o
is indeterminate is called the zero or null vector.It is denoted by 0 .
o o
In this case, the initial and terminal points coincide. Thus, AA , BB
etc. are zero vectors.Vectors other than the null vector are called
proper vectors.
ii) Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called
o
a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction of a given vector a is
o
o o
a
denoted by a and defined as, a o
i.e., a = | a | a
|a|
i.e., Vector = (Magnitude)(Unit Vector)
o o

b c
Similarly, b o
, c o
and so on.
|b| |c|
iii) Co-initial Vectors: Vectors having the same initial point are called
co-initial vec tors.
iv) Co-terminus Vectors: Vectors having the same terminal point are
called co-terminus vectors.
v) Collinear or Parallel Vectors: Vectors are said to be collinear or
parallel if they have the same line of action or have the lines of
action parallel to one another.
vi) Coplanar Vectors: Vectors are said to be coplanar if they are parallel
to the same plane or they lie in the same plane.
vii) Negative Vector: The vector which has the same magnitude as
o o
that of a but opposite direction is called the negative of a and is
o o o o o
denoted by – a . Thus if AB = a then, BA = – a .
o o o o
Thus, AB = – BA = PQ = – QP and so on.
o o
viii) Equal vectors: Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, written
o o
as a = b , if they have the (i) same magnitude (ii) same direction.
Example 1: State which of the following are scalars and which are
vectors. Give reasons: (a) time period, (b) distance, (c) velocity, (d) Mass,
(e) Temperature, (f) Force.
Solution:
a) Time period is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude.
b) Distance is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude.
c) Velocity is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude as well as
direction.
d) Mass is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude.
e) Temperature is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude.
f) Force is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude as well as direction.
Example 2: Represent graphically:
a) a force 50N in a direction 600 north of east.
b) a displacement of 30km in a direction 300 north of west.
Solution:
N N
(a) (b)
50N
30N
600 300
W E W E
S S
Fig 12.2 Fig 12.3
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: State which of the following are scalars and

which are vectors. Give reasons.
a) Density b) Weight c) Momentum
d) Work done e) volume f) Acceleration
Q.2: Represent graphically:

a) a force 100N in a direction 450 west of north.
b) a displacement 50 km in a direction 600 south of east.
12.5 OPERATION ON VECTORS
12.5.1 Addition of Vectors
o o o o
Let OA = a , OB = b be the two given vectors. Now, we join OB.
o o o
Then OB represents the addition (sum) of the vectors a and b .
B
o o
a+ b
o
b
o
O A
a
Fig. 12.4
o o o
This is written as OA + AB = OB
o o o o o
Thus, OB = OA + AB = a + b .
This is known as the triangle law of addition of vectors.
Applying the triangle law of addition of vectors in 'ABC, we have,
A
B C
Fig. 12.5
o o o
BC + CA = BA
o o o
or, BC + CA = – AB
o o o o
or, BC + CA + AB = 0
o o
Parallelogram law of Addition of Vectors: If two vectors a and b
are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides
o
of a parallelogram, then their sum c is represented by the diagonal
of the parallelogram as shown in the figure.
o o o
We have, OP + PR = OR
R
o
b
O o P
a
Fig. 12.6
Properties of Addition of Vectors:
o o
Property 1: Vector addition is commutative i.e., if a and b are any
o o o o
two vectors then, a + b = b + a .
C B
o
b o
b
O o A
a
Fig. 12.7
o o o o
Let, a = OA , b = AB
o o o
In triangle 'OAB, OA + AB = OB (by triangle law of addition)
o o o
a + b = OB ... ... ...(1)
We complete the paralleogram OABC
o o o o o o
CB = OA = a , OC = AB = b
o o o
In 'OCB, we have, OC + CB = OB
o o o
b + a = OB ... ... ...(2)
o o o o
From (1) and (2), we have, a + b = b + a
? Vector addition is commutative.
Property 2: Vector addition is associative i.e., for any three vectors
o o o
a, b, c.
§o o· o o
§o o·
¨ a b ¸ c a ¨ b c ¸
© ¹ © ¹
B
o
c
C
o
b
O
o
a A
Fig. 12.8
o o o o o o
Let, OA = a , AB = b , BC = c
We join O and B, O and C and A and C.
o o o
In 'OAB, OA + AB = OB
o o o
a + b = OB ... ... ...(1)
o o o
In 'OBC, OB + BC = OC
§o o· o o
¨ a b ¸ + c = OC ... ... ...(2) [using (1)]
© ¹
o o o
In 'ABC, AB + BC = AC
o o o
b + c = AC ... ... ...(3)
o o o
In 'OAC, OA + AC = OC
o §o o
· o
a + ¨ b c ¸ = OC ... ... ...(4) [using (2)]
© ¹
§o o· o o §o o·
From (2) and (4), we have, ¨ a b ¸ + c = a + ¨ b c ¸
© ¹ © ¹
? Vector addition is associative.

o
Property 3: Existence of additive identity: For every vector a ,
o o o o o
a + 0 = 0 + a where, 0 is the null vector
o o
Let, OA = a
o o o o o o o o o
Then, a + 0 = OA + AA = OA = a ? a+ 0= a
o o o o o o
Also, 0 + a = OO + OA = OA = a
o o o
? 0+ a= a
o o o o
? a+ 0= 0+ a
o
Property 4 : Existence of additive inverse: For every vector a , there
o o o o o o
corresponds a vector – a , such that, a + (– a ) = 0 = (– a ) + a
o o o o
Let, OA = a , then, OA = – a
o o o o o o
? a + (– a ) = OA + AO = OO = O
o o o o o o
(– a ) + a = AO + OA = AA = O
o o o o o
Hence, a + (– a ) = 0 = (– a ) + a
12.5.2 Subtraction of Vectors
o o o o
Let a and b are any two vectors,then the subtraction of b from a is
o o o o
defined as the vector sum of a and – b and is denoted by a – b .
o o o
a –b = a + B
o
b
O o A
a
o
o
§ o· –b
a + ¨ b¸
© ¹
Fig. 12.9
o o o o
Let, a = OA , b = AB
o o o o o
Then, OB = OA + AB = a + b
We produce BA to B/, such that, AB = AB/

o o o
? AB / = – BA = – b
By Triangle law of vector additon
o o o o o o o
OB / = OA + AB / = a + (– b ) = a – b
12.5.3 Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars

o o
Let m be a scalar and a be a vector, then m a is defined as a vector
o
having the same support as that of a such that its magnitude is |m|
o
times the magnitude of a and its direction is same as or opposite to
o
the direction of a according as m is positive or negative.
o o
If a is a vector then 5 a is a vector whose magnitude is 5 times the
o o o
magnitude of a and whose direction is same as that of a . But –5 a
o
is a vector whose magnitude is 5 times the magnitude of a and
o
whose direction is opposite to a .
Properties of Multiplication of vectors by a scalar
o o
For vectors a , b and scalars m, n we have,
o o o o o
i) m(– a ) = (–m) a = –(m a ) ii) (–m)(– a ) = m a
o o o o o o
iii) m(n a ) = (mn) a = n(m a ) iv) (m + n) a = m a + n a
o o o o
v) m( a + b ) = m a + n b
m P n
A B
o
o r o
a b
O
Fig. 12.10
12.6 SECTION FORMULA

o o
Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b respectively
and let P be a point dividing AB internally in the ratio m : n. Then the position
o o
m b n a
o
vector of P is given by OP =
mn
Proof: Let O be the origin

o o o o
Then, OA = a , OB = b
o o o
Let the position vector of P with respect to O be r i.e., OP = r
Let P divide AB internally in the ratio m : n.
AP m
Then, =
PB n
nAP = mPB
o o
n AP = m PB
o o o o
n( OP – OA ) = m( OB – OP )
o o o o
n( r – a ) = m( b – r )
o o o o
n r – na = mb – m r
o o o o
n r + m r = mb + na
o o o
(m + n) r = m b + n a
o o
o m b n a
r =
mn
Note: If P is the mid point of AB, then it divides AB in the ratio 1 : 1.
o o o o
o 1 . b 1. a a b
OP =
1 1 2
Section Formula-External Division: Let A and B be two points
o o
with position vectors a and b respectively and let P be a point dividing AB
externally in the ratio m : n.
o o
m b n a o
Then the position vector of P is given by OP =
mn
Proof: Let O be the origin
o o o o
Then, OA = a , OB = b
o o o
Let the position vector of P with respect to O be r i.e., OP = r
Let P divide AB externally in the ratio m : n
AP m
Then, =
PB n
nAP = mPB
o o o o
n AP = –m PB [ AP and PB are in opposite direction]
o o o o
n( OP – OA ) = –m( OB – OP )
o o o o
n( r – a ) = m( r – b )
o o o o
mb – na = m r – n r
o o o
m b – n a = (m – n) r
o o
o m b n a
r =
mn
B B
A
o
o b o
a r
O
Fig. 12.11
o
Example 1: i) Let P and Q be two points with position vectors OP =
o o o o o
3 a – 2 b and OQ = a + b . Find the position vector of a point R which
divides the line joining P and Q in the ratio 2 :1. (i) internally, and (ii) externally.
Solution:
§o o· § o o·
o o 2¨ a b ¸ ¨ 3 a 2 b ¸ o
o 2 OQ OP © ¹ © ¹ 5a
i) OR =
2 1 3 3
§ o o· § o o·
o o 2¨ a b ¸ ¨ 3 a 2 b ¸
o
2 OQ OP © ¹ ©
o o
¹ = –a + 4b
ii) OR =
2 1 1

12.7 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
Vector in the rectangular coordinate system:

Theorem 12.7.1: If P is a point in a two dimensional plane which
o
has coordinates (x, y) then, OP = x i + y j , where, i and j are unit vectors
along x-axis and y-axis respectively.
Proof: Y
j P(x, y)
O i L X
Fig. 12.12
Let P(x, y) be a point in a plane with reference to OX and OY as co-
ordinate axes as shown in the figure.
Draw PL perpendicular to OX.
Then OL = x and LP = y

Let i , j be the unit vectors along OX and OY respectively
o o
Then OL = x i and LP = y j .
o o o
Vectors OL and LP are known as the components of OP along x-
axis and y-axis respectively.
Now by triangle law of addition
o o o o
OP = OL + LP = x i + y j = r (say)
o
? r = x i + y j
Now, OP2 = OL2 + LP2 = x2 + y2
OP = x2 y2
o
| r | = x2 y2
Thus, if a point P in a plane has coordinates (x, y) then,

o o
i) r = OP = x i + y j
o o
ii) | r | = | OP | = |x i + y j | = x2 y2
o
iii) The component of OP along x-axis is a vector x i and the component
o
of OP along y-axis is a vector y j .
o
Components of a Vector AB in terms of coordinates of A and B

Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be any two points in XOY plane.Let i and

j be unit vectors along x-axis and y-axis repectively..
AN = x2 – x1, BN = y2 – y1
o o
? AN = (x2 – x1) i , BN = (y2 – y1) j
Now by triangle law of addition,
o o o
AB = AN + BN = (x2 – x1) i + (y2 – y1) j
o
Component of AB along x-axis = (x2 – x1) i
o
Component of AB along y-axis = (y2 – y1) j
o
2 2
Magnitude of AB = x 2 x1 y 2 y1 .
Y
B(x1, y1)
A(x1, y1) N
O X
Fig. 12.13
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication of a vector by a scalar and
equality of vectors in terms of components:
o o
Let, a = a1 i + a2 j and b = b1 i + b2 j , then,
o o
i) a + b = (a1 i + a2 j ) + (b1 i + b2 j ) = (a1 + b1) i + (a2 + b2) j
o o
ii) a – b = (a1 i + a2 j ) – (b1 i + b2 j ) = (a1 – b1) i + (a2 – b2) j

o
iii) m a = m(a1 i + a2 j ) = ma1 i + ma2 j , where m is a constant
ant
o o
iv) a = b a1 i + a2 j = b1 i + b2 j a1 = b1 and a2 = b2.
Theorem 12.7.2: If a point P in space has coordinate (x, y, z) then
o
its position vector r is x i + y j + z k and r = x 2 y 2 z 2 where, i , j and

k are unit vectors along OX, OY and OZ repectively..
Proof: Z
k
T
V
P
U
o
r
O S
j Y
R
Q
i
X Fig. 12.14

Let OX, OY, OZ be three mutually perpendicular axes. i , j , k are
unit vectors along OX, OY, OZ respectively. Let P be any point (x, y, z) in
o o
space and let OP = r .
Draw PQ perpendicular to XOY plane and QR perpendicular to OX.
Then, OR = x; RQ = y; QP = z.
o o o
? OR = x i , RQ = y j , QP = z k
o o o o o o
Now, OP = OQ + QP = OR + RQ + QP
o
Thus if P is a point (x, y, z) and r is the position vector of P, then,
o
r = x i + y j + zk .
From the right angled triangle OQP, OP2 = OQ2 + QP2
From the right angled triangle ORQ, OQ2 = OR2 + RQ2

?OP2 = OR2 + RQ2 + QP2

OP2 = x2 + y2 + z2
OP = x2 y 2 z2
r = x2 y 2 z2
o
?r = | r | = x 2 y 2 z2
Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
and equality in terms of components:
o o
Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k be any two vectors,
then,
o o
i) a + b = (a1 + b1) i + (a2 + b2) j + (a3 + b3) k
o o
ii) a – b = (a1 – b1) i + (a2 – b2) j + (a3 – b3) k
o
iii) k a = k(a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) = ka1 i + ka2 j + ka3 k , where, k is scalar..
o o
iv) a = b a1 i + a2 j + a3 k = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
a1 = b1, a2 = b2, a3 = b3.
o o
v) Two vectors a and b are collinear if and only if there exists a non
o o
zero scalar O such that, b = O a .
o o
If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , then the two vectors
are collinear if and only if,

b1 i + b2 j + b3 k = O(a1 i + a2 j + a3 k )
b1 = Oa1, b2 = Oa2, b3 = Oa3
b1 b2 b3
a a2 a3 = O
1
Vector joining two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2):
Let A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) be any two points.
o o o
Then, AB = OB – OA

= (x2 i + y2 j + z2 k ) – (x1 i + y1 j + z1 k )

= (x2 – x1) i + (y2 – y1) j + (z2 – z1) k

o o
2 2 2
Magnitude of AB = | AB | = x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1 .
Example 1: Let O be the origin and let P(4, –3) be a point in the xy-
o o
plane. Express OP in terms of vectors i and j . Also, find | OP |.

Solution: The position vector of P is: –4 i + 3 j .
o
? OP = –4 i + 3 j
o
| OP | = 2
4 32 = 5
o
Example 2: Find the vector PQ where, P(2, 3) and Q(5, –3). Also
o
find the magnitude of PQ .
o
Solution: PQ = P.V. of Q – P.V. of P

= (5 i – 3 j ) – (2 i + 3 j )

= 3i – 6 j.
o
Also, | PQ | = |3 i – 6 j | = 2
32 6 = 45
o o o
Example 3: If a = 2 i – 3 j , b = 3 i – 2 j , and c = i + j ; find the
o o o
components of the vector a – 2 b + c .
o o o
Solution: Here, a – 2 b + c = (2 i – 3 j ) – 2(3 i + 2 j ) + ( i + j )

=3i–6j
o o o
? Components of a – 2 b + c are –3, –6.
o o
Example 4: If a = i – 2 j and b = 2 i – 2 j ; find a unit vector parallel
o o
to the vector 3 a – 2 b .
o o o
Solution: Let, v = 3 a – 2 b = 3( i – 2 j ) – 2(2 i – 2 j )

=3i –6j –4i –4j

= – i – 10 j
o
?| v | = 2
1 10
2
= 101

o
o i 10 j
v
Now, v = o =
|v| 101

i 10 j o o
? A unit vector parallel to v is ± v i.e., r .
101
o o o o
Example 5: If | a | = 2, find |4 a |, |0 a | and |(–5) a |.
o
Solution: Given | a | = 2
o o
? |4 a | = 4| a | = 4 × 2 = 8,
o o o o
|0 a | = | 0 | = 0 and |(–5) a | = |(–5)|| a | = 5 × 2 = 10.
Example 6: Find the position of a point which divides the join of two
o o
points, whose position vectors are given by x and y in the ratio 2 : 3 internally..
o
Solution: Let r be the position vector of the point.
o o
o 3 x 2 y
? r =
32
1 § o o·
= ¨3 x 2 y ¸
5© ¹
Example 7: Find a vector of magnitude 5 units which is parallel to

the vector 2 i – j .
o o
Solution: Let, a = 2 i – j , Then, | a | = 22 1
2
= 5
o 1 o 1 2 1
?Unit vector parallel to a = a = o
a= (2 i – j ) = i– j
|a| 5 5 5
§ 2 1 ·
So, required vector = 5 a = 5¨ i j¸ 2 5 i 5 j .
© 5 5 ¹
o o
Example 8: Let a = i + 2 j + 3 k and b = – i + j . Find a vector in the
o o
direction of a + b that has magnitude 7 units.
s.
o o o
Solution: Here, a + b = i + 2 j + 3 k + (– i + j ) = 3 j + 3 k = c
o o o
The unit vector in the diretion of c = a + b is:

o
c 1
c= o = (3 j + 3 k )
18
|c|

3 3
= j k
3 2 3 2
1 1
= j k
2 2
Therefore, the vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction
§ 1 1 · 7 7
of c is: 7¨ j k¸ = j k.
© 2 2 ¹ 2 2
o o
Example 9: If a and b are position vectors of the points (1, –1) and
o o
(–2, m) respectively, then find the value of m for which a and b are collinear..
o o
Solution: Let, a = i – j , b = –2 i + m j
o o
Two vectors a and b are collinear if there exists a non zero scalar
o o
O, such that, b = O a i.e., i – j = O(–2 i + m j ) = –2O i + mO j
Comparing the component on both sides, we get,
1 = –2O, –1 = mO
1 1
O=– ,m=–
2 O
1
O=– ,m=2
2
Example 10: Find the position vector of a point R which divides the

line joining two points P and Q whose position vectors are 2 i + j – k and

i + 2 j + k in the ratio 2 : 1 (i) internally (ii) externally..
Solution: i) Position vector of R which divides PQ in the ratio 2 : 1
internally is:
§ · § ·
2¨ i 2 j k ¸ 1¨ 2 i j k ¸
o © ¹ © ¹
OR =
2 1

4 i 5 j k 4 5 1
= = i j k
3 3 3 3
ii) Position vector of R which divides PQ in the ratio 2 : 1 externally is:
§ · § ·
o 2¨ i 2 j k ¸ 1¨ 2 i j k ¸
OR = © ¹ © ¹
2 1

= 3 j + 3k
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
o o o o o o o o
Q.3: Given a = i – j + k and b = 2 i – 4 j – 3 k ,
find the magnitudes of:
o o o o o o
(i) a , (ii) b , (iii) a + b , (iv) a – b .
o o o
Q.4: Find the unit vector in the direction of 3 i – 6 j + 2 k .
o o
Q.5: Show that vectors a = 2 i + 3 j – k and b = 4 i + 6 j – 2 k
are collinear.
12.8 LET US SUM UP
z A quantity which has magnitude only is called a scalar.

z A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector.
z A vector whose magnitude is the length PQ and whose direction is from
o o
P to Q is denoted by PQ and its magnitude is denoted by | PQ | = PQ.
z A vector whose magnitude is zero and direction is indeterminate is called
o
the zero or null vector.It is denoted by 0 .
z A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector.
o
The unit vector in the direction of a given vector a is denoted by a and
o
a
defined as, a = o
.
|a|
o
z A vector whose magnitude is equal to another vector a but of opposoite
o
direction is called negative of the given vector and is denoted by – a .
o o o o
z Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, written as a = b , if they have
the (i) same magnitude (ii) same direction.
z If the vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
then diagonal of the parallelogram will represent the sum of the vectors.
o o
z Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b respectively
and let P be a point dividing AB internally in the ratio m : n. Then the
o o
om b n a
position vector of P is given by OP =
mn
o o
z Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b respectively
and let P be a point dividing AB externally in the ratio m : n.
o o
m b n a
o
Then the position vector of P is given by OP =
mn
o
z If a point P in space has coordinate (x, y, z) then its position vector r is

x i + y j + z k and r = x 2 y 2 z 2 where, i , j and k are unit vectors
along OX, OY and OZ repectively.
o o
z Two vectors a and b are collinear if and only if there exists a non zero
o o
scalar O such that, b = O a .
1) Kishan, Hari. Vector Algebra and Calculus. New Delhi: Atlantic

Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd.
2) Narayan, Shanti. A Textbook of Vector Calculus.
3) Pandey, R. K. Vector Analysis. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing
House.
4) Sharma, Anil Kumar. Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi:
Discovery Publishing House.
5) Tallack, J. C. Introduction to Vector Analysis. Cambridge University
Press.
6) Vector Algebra. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications(P) Ltd.
Ans. to Q. No. 1: a) Density is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude.

b) Weight is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude as well as
direction.
c) Momentum is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude as well
as direction.
d) Work done is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude.
e) Volume is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude.
f) Acceleration is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude as
well as direction.
Ans. to Q. No. 2:
N N
(a) (b)
W E W E
S S
Fig 12.15 Fig 12.16
o o o o
2
Ans. to Q. No. 3: i) | a | = | i – j + k | = 12 1 12 = 3
o o o o
ii) | b | = |2 i – 4 j – 3 k | = 22 4 3
2 2
= 38
o o
iii) a + b = ( i – j + k ) + (2 i – 4 j – 3 k ) = 3 i – 5 j – 2 k
o o
?| a + b | = |3 i – 5 j – 2 k |
2 2
= 32 5 2
= 38
o o
iv) a – b = ( i – j + k ) – (2 i – 4 j – 3 k ) = i + 3 j + 4 k
o o
?| a – b | = |– i + 3 j + 4 k |
2
= 1 32 42
= 26
o
Ans. to Q. No. 4: Let, a = 3 i – 6 j + 2 k
o
Then, | a | = |3 i – 6 j + 2 k |
2
= 3 2 6 22
=7
o
? Unit vector in the direction of a is given by
o
a
a = o
|a|

3 i 6 j 2k
=
7
3 6 2
= i j k
7 7 7
o o
Ans. to Q. No. 5: Here a = 2 i + 3 j – k and b = 4 i + 6 j – 2 k
o o
Now, b = 2(2 i + 3 j – k ) = 2 a
o o
? b is a scalar multiple of a .
o o
Hence, a and b are collinear vectors.

Q.1: Find a unit vector parallel to i – j + k .

Q.2: If the position vectors of A and B are 2 i + 3 j – 7 k and 4 i – 3 j + 4 k
o o
repectively, find AB and | AB |. Also determine direction cosines of
o
AB .

Q.3: Prove that the vectors 2 i + 3 j – 6 k , 6 i – 2 j + 2 k and 3 i + 6 j – 2 k
form the sides of an equilateral triangle.
Q.4: Find the magnitude of each of the following vectors :

o
i) a = 3 i – 2 j + 6 k
o
ii) b = i + j + k
o 1 1 1
iii) c = i j k
3 3 3
o
Q.5: Find the unit vector in the direction of vector PQ where,P and Q are
the points (1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6) respectively.
Q.6: Find the position vectors of the points which divide the join of the
o o o o
points 2 a – 3 b and 3 a – 2 b internally and externally in the ratio 2 : 3.
Q.7: Find the position vector of the mid-point of the vector joining the
points P(2, 3, 4) and Q(4, 1, –2).
Q.8: Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining

points P and Q whose position vectors are i + 2 j – k and – i + j – k
respectively in the ratio 2 : 1 (i) internally (ii) externally.
Q.9: Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A(1, 2, –3)
and B(–1, –2, 1) directed from A to B.
o
Q.10: Let A be a point (–3, 2) and O the origin of xy plane.Express OA in
o
terms of i and j and find | OA |.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 13: PRODUCT OF VECTORS–I
UNIT STUCTURE

13.2 Introduction
13.3 Product of Two Vectors
13.3.1 Scalar or Dot Product
13.3.2 Vector (Cross) Product
13.6 Let Us Sum Up

z define scalar (or dot) and vector (or cross) product of two vectors
z find angle between two vectors
z find projection of a vector on another vector
z use cross product to find area of a triangle and parallelogram.
13.2 INTRODUCTION
In unit 12, we learnt how to add and subtract two vectors, and how
to multiply a vector by a scalar. In this unit, we will study the notion of another
operation ‘product’. We will discuss scalar and vector product of two vectors.
13.3 PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
The product of two vectors is defined in two ways, viz, scalar product
(or dot product) and vector (or cross) product. The result of a scalar product
of two vectors is a scalar and vector product of two vectors is a vector.

Product of Vectors–I Unit 13
13.3.1 Scalar or Dot Product
o o
Let a and b be two non zero vectors and T be is the angle between
o o o o o o
a and b . Then the scalar product a and b is denoted by a . b
and is defined by
o o o o
a . b = | a || b |cosT, 0 dTdS
Geometrical Interpretation of scalar product:
o o o o o o
Let, OA = a , OB = b . Let T be the angle between a and b . We
e
o o
draw BL perpendicular to OA.OL is called the projection of b on a .
OL
From 'OLB, cosT =
OB
OL = (OB)cosT
o
OL = | b |cosT ... ... ...(1)
o o o o
By definition, a . b = | a || b |cosT
o
= | a |OL [using (1)]
o o
B
a.b o
? OL = o b
|a|
o
O L A
a
o o o Fig 13.1
o o a.b a o o
Projection of b on a = o = o .b = a.b
|a| |a|
o o o
o o a.b o b o
Also,projection of a on b = o = a. o
= a .b
|b |b
Important Observations:
o o o o o o
1) Let a and b be two non-zero vectors, then, a . b = 0 a A b .
2) Dot product of two equal vectors,
o o o o o o o o
a . a = | a || a |cosT = | a || a |= | a |2 = a
o o o o
Also, ( a )2 = a . a = | a |2 = a2.
Unit 13 Product of Vectors–I
o o
3) The dot product a . b may be positive, negative or zero.
i) If the angle between the two vectors is acute (i.e., 0 < T<
900), then cosT is positive.In this case, dot product is positive.
ii) If the angle between the two vectors is obtuse (i.e., 90 0 < T <
1800), then cosT is negative.In this case, dot product is
negative.
iii) If the angle between the two vectors is 900 (i.e., T= 900) then,
cosT = cos900 = 0. In this case,dot product is zero.
4) Scalar product of collinear vectors:
o o
i) when the vectors a and b are collinear and in the same
direction, then, T = 00.
o o o o o o o o
Thus, a . b = | a || b |cosT = | a || b |(1) = | a || b | = ab.
o o
ii) when the vectors a and b are collinear and in the opposite
direction, then, T= S.
o o o o o o o o
Thus, a . b = | a || b |cosT = | a || b |cosS = –| a || b | = –ab.
Properties of Scalar Product of Two Vectors:
1) The scalar product of two vectors is commutative
o o o o o o
i.e., a . b = b . a for any two vectors a and b .
2) The scalar product is distributive over addition.
o o o o o o o o o o
i.e., a .( b + c ) = a . b + a . c for any three vectors a , b and c .
o o
3) If ‘m’ is any scalar and a , b are two vectors, then,
o o o o o o
(m. a ). b = m( a . b ) = a .(m b )
o o
4) If m, n are scalars and a , b are two vectors, then,
o o o o o o o o
m a .n b = mn( a . b ) = (mn a ). b = a .(mn b )

Note: 1) i . i = j . j = k . k = 1

We have, i . i = | i || i |cos0 = (1)(1)(1) = 1

Similarly, j . j = k . k = 1.

2) i . j = j . k = k . i = 0


We have, i . j = | i || j |cos90 = (1)(1)(0) = 0.

Similarly, j . k = k . i = 0.
o o
3) For any two vectors a and b
o o o o o o o o
i) ( a + b )2 = ( a )2 + 2 a . b + ( b )2 = a2 + 2 a . b + b2
o o o o o o o o
ii) ( a – b )2 = ( a )2 + 2 a . b + ( b )2 = a2 – 2 a . b + b2
o o o o o o
iii) ( a + b )( a – b ) = ( a )2 – ( b )2 = a2 – b2
o o
4) If a . b = 0, we have three possibilities
o o o
i) | a | = 0 i.e., a is a zero vector and b any vector..
o o o
ii) | b | = 0 i.e., b is a zero vector and a any vector..
o o o o
iii) cosT = 0 T= 900 a A b , a z 0, b z 0
Scalar Product in Terms of Components:
o o
Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
then their scalar product is given as:
o o
a . b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ).(b1 i + b2 j + b3 k )

= a1 i .(b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ) + a2 j .(b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ) +

a3 k .(b1 i + b2 j + b3 k )

= a1b1( i . i ) + a1b2( i . j ) + a1b3( i . k ) + a2b1(j. i ) + a2b2( j . j ) +

a2b2( j . k ) + a3b1( k . i ) + a3b2( k . j ) + a3b3( k . k )
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

o o
Thus, a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3.
The scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the products
of their corresponding components.
o o
Angle Between Two Vectors: Let a , b be two vectors inclined at
angle T.
o o o o
Then, a . b = | a || b |cosT
ª o o º
o o
a.b
a .b
cosT = o o T = cos–1 « o o »
« »
| a || b | ¬| a || b | ¼
o o
If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
o o
Then, a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3.
o o
2 2 2 2 2 2
|a | = a1 a 2 a 3 ; | b | = b1 b 2 b 3
ª a1b1 a 2b 2 a3b 3 º
?T= cos « –1 ».
« a12 a 2 2 a3 2 b12 b 2 2 b 3 2 »
¬ ¼
o o
Examples 1: Find a . b when,
o o
i) a = i – 2 j + k and b = 4 i – 4 j + 7 k
o o
ii) a = j + 2 k and b = 2 i + k
o o
iii) a = j – 2 k and b = 2 i + 3 j – 2 k
o o
Solution: i) a . b = ( i – 2 j + k ).(4 i – 4 j + 7 k )
= (1).(4) + (–2).(–4) + (1).(7)
= 19
o o
ii) a . b = ( j + 2 k ).(2 i + k )
= (0).(2) + (1).(0) + (2).(1)
=2
o o
iii) a . b = ( j – 2 k ).(2 i + 3 j – 2 k )
= (0).(2) + (1).(3) + (–2).(–2)
=7
o
Example 2: Find angle ‘T’ between the vectors a = i + j – k and
o
b = i– j+ k.
o o
Solution: The angle ‘T’ between two vectors a and b is given by
o o
a.b
cosT = o o
| a || b |
o o
Now, a . b = ( i + j – k ).( i – j + k ) = 1 – 1 – 1 = –1

o o
2 2
|a | = 12 12 1 = 3 , |b | = 12 1 12 = 3
1
Therefore, we have cosT =
3
§ 1·
?T = cos–1 ¨ ¸ .
© 3¹
o o
Example 3: For what values of ‘m’ the vectors a and b are
perpendicular to each other?
o o
i) a = m i + 2 j + k and b = 4 i – 9 j + 2 k
o o
ii) a = 5 i – 9 j + 2 k and b = m i + 2 j + k
o o
Solution: i) Given a . b = 0

(m i + 2 j + k ).(4 i – 9 j + 2 k ) = 0
4m – 18 + 2 = 0
4m – 16 = 0
4m = 16
m = 4
o o
ii) Given a . b = 0
5m – 18 + 2 = 0
5m – 16 = 0
16
m =
5

Example 4: Find the projection of the vector 7 i + j – 4 k on

2 i + 6 j + 3k .
o o
Solution: Let, a = 7 i + j – 4 k , b = 2 i + 6 j + 3 k
§
·§
·
¨ 7 i j 4 k ¸.¨ 2 i
o o
6 j 3 k ¸
o o a.b
? Projection of a on b = o = ©
¹© ¹
|b| 2 6 3
2 2 2
14 6 12
=
4 36 9
8
= .
7
o o
Example 5: If a and b are unit vectors inclined at an angle T, then,
T 1
prove that sin = | a – b |.
2 2
2 2 2
Solution: | a – b | = a + b – 2 a . b = 1 + 1 – 2| a || b |cosT
= 2 – 2cosT
= 2(1 – 2cosT)
§ T·
= 2 ¨ 2 sin 2 ¸
© 2¹
T
?| a – b | = 2sin
2
T 1
sin = |a –b |
2 2
o o o o o o o
Example 6: If a + b + c = 0 , | a | = 3, | b | = 5 and | c | = 7, find the
o o
angle between a and b .
o o o o
Solution: Given a + b + c = 0
o o o
a + b = – c
o o 2 o 2
( a + b ) = (– c )
o 2 o 2 o o o 2
(a ) + (b ) + 2a .b = (c )
o 2 o 2 o o o 2
| a | + | b | + 2| a || b |cosT = | c |
32 + 52 + 2(3)(5)cosT = 72
1
cosT =
2
S
T= .
3
o o o o o o o o
Example 7: Find | a | and | b | if ( a – b ).( a + b ) = 27 and | a | = 2| b |.
o o o o
Solution: We have, ( a – b ).( a + b ) = 27
o 2 o 2
4| b | – | b | = 27
o 2
3| b | = 27
o 2
|b | = 9
o
|b |= 3
o o
| a | = 2| b | = 2 × 3 = 6
o o
Thus, | a | = 6 and | b | = 3.
o o o
Example 8: Find the projection of a on b where, a = 3 i – 5 j + 2 k
o
and b = 7 i + j – 2 k .
Solution:
§
·§
·
o o
¨ 3 i 5 j 2 k ¸.¨ 7 i j 2 k ¸
o o a.b © ¹© ¹
? Projection of a on b = o = 2
|b| 7 2 12 2
3.7 5 1 2. 2
=
54
12
=
54
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Find the angle between the vectors:

o o
i) a = 3 i – j + 2 k , b = –4 i + 2 k
o o
ii) a = i – j + 2 k , b = –2 i + 2 j + 4 k
o o o o o o o
Q.2: If a + b + c = 0 and | a | = 3, | b | = 5, | c | = 7. Find the angle
o o
between a and b .
13.3.2 Cross or Vector Product
o o o o
The vector product of two vectors a and b is denoted by a × b
o o o o o o
(read as a cross b ) and is defined as a × b = | a || b |sinT n , where,
o o
T is the angle between a and b and n is a unit vector perpendicular
o o o o
to the plane of a and b such that a , b and n form a right handed
system.

Properties of the Vector Product:

1) Vector product is not commutative:
o o
If n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b such
o o
that a , b and n form a right-handed system,then – n is a unit
o o o o
vector perpendicular to the plane of b and a such that b , a , – n
form a right handed system.
o o o o
a × b = | a || b |sinT n
o o o o o o o o
b × a = | b || a |sinT(– n ) = –| b || a |sinT n = – a × b
o o o o
? a × b z b × a .
2) Vector product is distributive with repect to vector addition i.e.,
o o o o o o o
a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c
o o o o o o o
and ( b + c ) × a = b × a + c × a
3) Vector product of two parallel vectors is zero vector.
o o
If two vectors a and b are parallel, then T, the angle between
them is 0 or Sso that sinT = 0.
o o o o
? a × b = | a || b |sinT n = 0
Conversely, if the vector product of two non zero vectors is zero
vector, then the two vectors are parallel.
o
4) i × i = | i || i |sinT k = 0
o
Similarly, j × j = k × k = 0
o o o
In particular, a × a = 0

5) We have, i × j = | i || j |sin900 k = k , Since i , j , k form a right
handed system.

? j × i = – k

Similarly, j × k = i ? k × j = – i

and k × i = j ? i × k = – j
o o
6) Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k then their vector
product is given as:
o o
a × b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) × (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k )

= a1b1 i × i + a1b2 i × j + a1b3 i × k + a2b1 j × i + a2b2 j × j +

a2b3 j × k + a3b1 k × i + a3b2 k × j + a3b3 k × k

= 0 + a1b2 k – a1b3 j – a2b1 k + 0 + a2b3 i + a3b1 j – a3b2 i + 0

= (a2b3 – a3b2) i + (a3b1 – a1b3) j + (a1b2 – a2b1) k

i j k
= a1 a 2 a3
b1 b 2 b3
7) Relation between scalar and vector product

o o 2 o o 2 o 2 o 2
( a × b ) = | a × b | = | a | | b | sin2T
o 2 o 2
= | a | | b | (1 – cos2T)
o 2 o 2 o o
= | a | | b | – (| a || b |cos2T)2
o o 2
= a2b2 – ( a . b )
o o 2 o o 2
?( a × b ) = a2b2 – ( a . b )
o o
8) If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then itss area
1 o o
is given as | a × b |.
2
o o o o
Let AC = a and AB = b
o
Also, CD = | a |sinT
1
Area of triangle ABC = AB.CD
2
1 o o
= | b || a |sinT
2
1 o o
= |a × b |
2
o o
9) If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then
o o
its area is given by | a × b |.
o o o o
Let, AD = a and AB = b
o
Also DE = | a |sinT
Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB.DE.
o o
= | b || a |sinT
o o
= |a × b |
o o o o
a b a i j k b i j k

i j k
o o
Solution: We have, a × b = 1 1 1
1 2 3

= (3 – 2) i – (3 – 1) j + (2 – 1) k

= i – 2 j+ k
Example 2: Find a unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors
o o
a = 4 i + j + 3 k and b = –2 i + j – 2 k .
o o
Solution: A vector perpendicular to both a and b is:

i j k
o o
a × b = 4 1 3 = (–1 – 3) i – (–8 + 6) j + (4–2) k
2 1 2

= –5 i + 2 j + 6 k
o o
?| a × b | = 2
5 12 62 = 62
o o
au b 1 §
·
?required unit vector = o o = ¨ 5 i 2 j 6 k ¸ .
62 © ¹
| au b |
o o 2 o o o o o o 2
Example 3: Show that | a × b | = ( a . a )( b . b ) – ( a . b )
o o o o
Solution: We know that a × b = | a || b |sinT n
o o o o
?| a × b | = | a || b |sinT
o o 2 o o 2
| a × b | = (| a || b |sinT)
o o 2 o 2 o 2
| a × b | = | a | | b | sin2T

o o 2 o 2 o 2
| a × b | = | a | | b | (1 – cos2T)
o o 2 o 2 o 2 o 2 o 2
| a × b | = | a | | b | – (| a | | b | cos2T)
o o 2 o 2 o 2 o o 2
| a × b | = | a | | b | – (| a || b |cosT)
o o 2 o o o o o o 2
?| a × b | = ( a . a )( b . b ) – ( a . b )
o o o o o o
Example 4: Find | a × b | if | a | = 10, | b | = 2, a . b = 12.
o o o o
Solution: Given | a | = 10, | b | = 2, a . b = 12
o o
a.b 12 3
? cosT = o o = =
10.2 4
| a || b |
2
§3· 4
sinT = 1 cos T 2
1 ¨ ¸
©5¹ 5
o o o o 4
Now, | a × b | = | a || b |sinT = 10 × 2 × = 16
5
13.6 LET US SUM UP
o o o
z Let a and b be two non zero vectors and T be the angle between a and
o o o o o
b . Then the scalar product a and b is denoted by a . b and is defined
o o o o
by a . b = | a || b |cosT, 0 d T d S.
o o o
a.b o
o o a o
z Projection of b on a = o = o
.b = a . b
|a| |a|
o o o
o
o o o b
z Projection of a on b = a . b = a o = a . b
|b| |b|
o o o o o o
z Let, a and b be two non-zero vectors, then, a . b = 0 a A b .
o o
z Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , then,
o o
a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
i.e.,The scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the products
of their corresponding components.
o o
z Let a , b be two vectors inclined at angle T, then,
ª o o º
a.b
T = cos–1 « o o »
« »
¬| a || b | ¼
o o o o
z The vector product of two vectors a and b is denoted by a × b and
o o o o o
defined as a × b = | a || b |sinT n , where, T is the angle between a and
o o o
b such that a , b and n form a right handed system.
o o
z Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , then,

i j k
o o
a × b = a1 a 2 a3 .
b1 b 2 b3
13.7 FURTHER READINGS

3) Pandey, R. K. Vector Analysis. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
Press.
o o
Ans. to Q. No. 1: i) Here a . b = 3.(–4) + (–1).0 + 2.2 = –8
o
2
|a | = 32 1 22 = 14
o
2
|b | = 4 22 = 20
o o
a.b 8 4
? cosT = o o = =
| a || b | 20 14 70
§ 4 ·
? T = cos–1 ¨ ¸.
© 70 ¹
ii) Try yourself.
o o
Ans. to Q. No. 2: Let T be the angle between a and b . then,
o o o o
a .b a.b 1 § o o·
cosT = o o = ¨ a.b ¸ ... ... ...(1)
| a || b | 3u5 15 © ¹
o o o o
Since, a + b + c = 0
o o o
a + b = – c
o o 2 o2
( a + b ) = c
o o o o2 o2
a + 2 a . b + b = c
o o
32 + 2 a . b + 52 = 72
o o 49 34 15
a . b = =
2 2
1 § 15 · 1
From (1), cosT = ¨ ¸ = T = 600
15 © 2 ¹ 2
o o 2 o o 2 o 2 o 2
Q.1: Show that | a × b | + | a . b | = | a | | b | .
o o o o o o
Q.2: If a = 2 i – 3 j – k , b = i + 4 j – 2 k , find a × b and b × a .
Q.3: Find the area of the parallelogram having

i) the adjacent sides as i + 2 j – 3 k and 3 i – 2 j + k .

ii) the diagonals as 3 i + j – 2 k and i – 3 j + 4 k .
o o o o
Q.4: Prove that: i) | a + b | d | a | + | b |
o o 2 o 2 o 2
ii) ( a . b ) d | a | | b | .
*** ***** ***

UNIT 14: PRODUCT OF VECTORS–II
UNIT STUCTURE

14.2 Introduction
14.4 Product of Three Vectors
14.4.1 Scalar Triple Product
14.4.2 Vector Triple Product
14.5 Product of Four Vectors
14.5.1 Scalar Product of Four Vectors
14.5.2 Vector Product of Four Vectors
14.6 Let Us Sum Up
14.8 Answers to check Your Progress

z define product of three vectors
z know scalar and vector triple product
z define product of four vectors.
14.2 INTRODUCTION
In unit 13, We will discuss scalar and vector product of two vectors.
In this unit, we shall discuss the scalar triple product and the vector triple
product also. Finally, we will discuss about the product of four vectors.
14.4 PRODUCT OF THREE VECTORS

o o o o o o
The products of the type a .( b × c ) and ( a × b ). c are called triple
products of vectors.

Product of Vectors–II Unit 14
14.4.1 Scalar Triple Product
o o o
Definition: Let a , b and c be three vectors. Then the product
o o o o o o
a .( b × c ) is called the scalar triple product of a , b and c and is
o o o
denoted by [ a b c ].
o o o o o o
?[ a b c ] = a .( b × c ).
o o o
Note: [ a b c ] is a scalar quantity..
Geometrical interpretation of scalar triple product : The scalar
o o o
triple product [ a b c ] represents numerically the volume of a
o o o
rectangular parallelopiped having a , b , c as coterminous edges.
Scalar Triple Product in Terms of Components:
o o
Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , and
o
c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k ,

o o
i j k
then, b × c = b1 b 2 b3
c1 c 2 c3

= (b2c3 – b3c2) i – (b1c3 – b3c1) j + (b1c2 – b2c1) k
o o o
? a .( b × c ) = (b2c3 – b3c2)a1 – (b1c3 – b3c1)a2 + (b1c2 – b2c1)a3
a1 a 2 a2
= b1 b 2 b3
c1 c 2 c3
Properties of Scalar Triple Product:
o o o
1) If a , b and c be three vectors, then,
o o o o o o o o o
[a b c ] = [b c a ] = [c a b ]
2) The value of the scalar triple product remains same in magnitude
o o o
but changes in sign, if cyclic order of a , b and c is changed.
o o o o o o
i.e., [ a b c ] = –[ b a c ]
Unit 14 Product of Vectors–II
3) The scalar triple product is zero if any two of the given vectors
are equal.
o o o o o o
i.e., [ a a c ] = ( a × a ). c = 0
o o o
4) For any three vectors a , b and c and scalar O, we have,
o o o o o o
[O a b c ] = O[ a b c ]
5) The scalar triple product is zero if any two of them is parallel or
collinear.
o o o o o o o o
i.e., [ a b c ] = [O b b c ] if a is parallel to b .
o o o
= O[ b b c ]
= O.0 = 0
o o o
Example 1: If a = i + j + k , b = – i + j + 2 k and c = 3 i + j + 2 k .
o o o
Find a .( b × c ).

i j k
o o
Solution: We have, b × c = 1 1 2
3 1 1

= i (1 – 2) -– j (–1 – 6) + k (–1 –3)

= – i + 7 j – 4k
o o o
Now, a .( b × c ) = ( i + j + k ).(– i + 7 j – 4 k )
= 1.(–1) + 1.7 + 1.(–4)
= –1 + 7 – 4 = 2
Example 2: Find the volume of a parallelopiped whose edges are
o o o
represented by a = i – 3 j + 4 k , b = 2 i – j + k and c = 3 i + j + k
1 3 4
o o o
Solution: We have, a .( b × c ) = 2 1 1
3 1 1
= 1(1 + 1) + 3(2 – 3) + 4(2 + 3)

= 2 – 3 + 20 = 19
o o o
? Required Volume of parallelopiped (V) = [ a b c ] = 19.
o o o o o o o o o
Example 3: Prove that [ a + b b + c c + a ] = 2[ a b c ]
o o o o o o
Solution: LHS = [ a + b b + c c + a ]
o o o o o o
= ( a + b ).[( b + c ) × ( c + a )]
o o o o o o o o o o
= ( a + b ).[ b × c + b × a + c × c + c × a ]
o o o o o o o o o o
= ( a + b ).[ b × c + b × a + c × a ] Q c × c = 0
o o o o o o o o o
= a .( b × c ) + a .( b × a ) + a .( c × a ) +
o o o o o o o o o
b .( b × c ) + b .( b × a ) + b .( c × a )
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
=[a b c ]+ [a b a ]+ [a c a ]+ [b b c ]+ [b b a ]
o o o
+ [b c a ]
o o o o o o
= [a b c ] + [b c a ]
o o o o o o
= [a b c ] + [a b c ]
o o o
= 2[ a b c ] = RHS
14.4.2 Vector Triple Product
o o o o o o
Let a , b and c be any three vectors. Then, the vectors ( a × b )× c
o o o
and a × ( b × c ) are called vector triple products.
s.
Properties of Vector Triple Product:
1) Vector triple product is not associative
o o o o o o
i.e., ( a × b ) × c z a × ( b × c ).
o o o
2) If a , b and c be any three vectors, then,
o o o o o o o o o
( a × b )× c = ( a . c ) b – ( c . a ) c
o o o o o o o o o
Similarly, a × ( b × c ) = ( a . c ) b – ( a . b ) c
Example 1: Prove that
o o o o o o o o o o
i) ( a × b ) × c + b × ( c × a ) + c × ( a × b ) = 0
o o o o
ii) i × (a × i ) + j× (a × j) + k × (a × k ) = 2a
Solution:
o o o o o o o o o
i) L.H.S.= a × ( b × c ) + b × ( c × a ) + c × ( a × b )
o o o o o o o o o o o
= ( a . c ) b – ( a . b ) c + ( b . a ) c – ( b .c) a +
o o o o o o o
(c .b )a – (c .a )b = 0
o
ii) Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
o o o o
i × ( a × i ) = ( i . i ) a – ( i . a ) i = a – a1 i
o o o o
Similarly, j × ( a × j ) = a – a2 j and k ×( a × k ) = a – a3 k
o o o
i × ( a × i ) + j × ( a × j ) = k ×( a × k )
o o o
= ( a – a1 i ) + ( a – a2 j ) + ( a – a3 k )
o
= 3 a – (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k )
o o
= 3a – a
o
= 2a
Example 2: Show that:
o o o o o o o o o o o o
a × { b × ( c × d )} = ( b , d )( a × c ) – ( b . c )( a × d )
Solution: a × { b × ( c × d )} = a × {( b . d ) c – ( b . c ) d }
o o o o o o o o
= ( b . d )( a × c ) – ( b . c )( a × d )
14.4 PRODUCT OF FOUR VECTORS
14.4.1 Scalar Product of Four Vectors
o o o o
The scalar product ( a × b ).( c × d ) is called scalar product of four
vectors.
o o o
Let, c × d = e , then,
o o o o o o o
( a × b ).( c × d ) = ( a × b ). e
o o o
= a .( b × e )
o o o o
= a .{ b × ( c × d )}

o o o o o o o
= a .{( b . d ) c – ( b . e ) d }
o o o o o o o o
= ( a . c )( b . d ) – ( a . d )( b . c )
o o o o
a.c b .c
= o o o o
a. d b. d
Example 1: Show that:
( b × c ).( a × d ) + ( c × a ).( b × d ) + ( a × b ).( c × d ) = 0
Solution:
( b × c ).( a × d ) = ( b . a )( c . d ) – ( b . d )( c . a ) ... ... ...(1)
( c × a ).( b × d ) = ( c . b )( a . d ) – ( c . d )( a . b ) ... ... ...(2)
( a × b ).( c × d ) = ( a . c )( b . d ) – ( a . d )( b . c ) ... ... ...(3)
Adding (1), (2) and (3), we have,
( b × c ).( a × d ) + ( c × a ).( b × d ) + ( a × b ).( c × d ) = 0
14.4.2 Vector Product of Four Vectors
o o o o
The vector product ( a × b ) × ( c × d ) is called vector product of
four vectors.
o o o o o o
Vector product ( a × b ) × ( c × d ) in terms of a and b
o o o
Let, c × d = e
o o o o o o o
then, ( a × b ) × ( c × d ) = ( a × b ) × e
o o o o o o
= (a .e )b – (b .e )a
o o o o o o o o
= (a .c × d )b – (b .c × d )a
o o o o o o o o
= [a c d ]b – [b c d ]a
o o o o o o
Vector Product ( a × b ) × ( c × d ) in terms of c and d
o o o
Let, a × b = e ,
o o o o o o o
then, ( a × b ) × ( c × d ) = e ×( c × d )
o o o o o o
= (e .d)e – (e .c )d

o o o o o o o
= ( a × b . d ) c – ( a × b . c )d
o o o o o o o o
= [a b d ]c – [a b c ]d
o o o o o o o o o 2
Example: Show that: [ b × c , c × a , a × b ] = [ a b c ]
Solution: [ b × c , c × a , a × b ] = ( b × c ).( c × a ) × ( a × b )
o o o o o o o o o o
= ( b × c ).{[ c a b ] a – [ c a a ] b }
o o o o o o o
= ( b × c ).{[ c a b ] a – 0 }
o o o o o o
= [ a b c ]( b × c . a )
o o o o o o
= [ a b c ][ b c a ]
o o o 2
= [a b c ]
o o o
Example 1: If a = 2 i + j + k , b = i – 3 j + k , c = – i + j + k and
o o o o o o o o o
d = 2 i – j + 3 k , then find (i) ( a × b ).( c × d ), (ii) ( a × b ) × ( c × d )
Solution: We know that,

i j k
o o
a ×b = 2 1 1
1 3 1

= i (1 + 3) – j (2 –1) + k (–6 –1)

= 4 i – j – 7k

i j k
o o
Also c × d = 1 1 1
2 1 3

= i (3 + 1) – j (–3 – 2) + k (1 – 2)

= 4i+ 5 j– k
o o o o
Now, i) ( a × b ).( c × d ) = (4 i – j – 7 k ).(4 i + 5 j – k )
= 4 × 4 + (–1).5 + (–7).(–1)
= 18
ii) We know that,

(a ×b ) × (c ×d ) = [a b d ]c – [a b c ]d
2 1 1
o o o
Now, [ a b d ] = 1 3 1
2 1 3
= 2(–9 + 1) – 1(3 – 2) + 1(–1 + 6)

= –12
2 1 1
o o o
and [ a b c ] = 1 3 1
1 1 1
= 2(–3 – 1) – 1(1 + 1) + 1(1 – 3)

= –12
o o o o
?( a × b ) × ( c × d ) = –12(– i + j + k ) – (–12)(2 i – j + 3 k )

= 12 i – 12 j – 12 k + 24 i – 12 j + 36 k

= 36 i – 24 j + 24 k
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
o o
Q.1: If a = 7 i – 2 j + 3 k , b = i – 2 j + k and
o o o o
c = 2 i + 8 j + k , find [ a b c ].
o o o
Q.2: If a = i + 2 j – k , b = i – 2 j + k , c = i – j + k and
o
d = 3 i + j + 2 , and then evalute.
o o o o o o o o
i) ( a × b ).( c × d ) ii) ( a × b ) × ( c × d )

14.6 LET US SUM UP
o o o o o o
z Let a , b and c be three vectors.then the product a .( b × c ) is called
o o o o o o
the scalar triple product of a , b and c and is denoted by [ a b c ].
o o o
z The scalar triple product [ a b c ] reprsents numerically the volume of a
o o o
rectangular parallelopiped having a , b , c as coterminous edges.
o o
z Let, a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , and
o
c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k
a1 a 2 a 2
o o o
then, a .( b × c ) = b1 b 2 b3 .
c1 c 2 c3
o o o o
z The scalar product ( a × b ).( c × d ) is called scalar product of four vectors
o o o o
o o o o
a.c b.c
and ( a × b ).( c × d ) = o o o o
a.d b.d
o o o o
z The vector product ( a × b )×( c × d ) is called vector product of four
vectors.
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
z ( a × b )×( c × d ) = [ a c d ] b – [ b c d ] a = [ a b d ] c – [ a b c ] d

Press.
7 2 3
o o o
Ans. to Q. No. 1: [ a b c ] = 1 2 2
2 8 0
= 7(0 – 16) + 2(0 – 4) + 3(8 + 4)

= –112 – 8 + 36
= –84
o
Ans. to Q. No. 2: i) –38, ii) – 17 i – 19 j – 8 k
o o o o o o
Q 1: Evaluate a .( b × c ) if a = 2 i – 3 j , b = i + j – k , and c = 3 i – k .
Q 2: Find the volume of the paralellopiped three of whose coterminuous

edges are represented by the vectors i + j + k , i – j + k , i + 2 j – k .
o o o
Q 3: If a = i – 2 j – 3 k , b = 2 i + j – k , and c = i + 3 j – k , find
o o o o o o o o o o
(i) a ×( b × c ) (ii) ( a × b ) × c (iii) ( a × b ) × ( b × c ).
o o o o o o o o
Q 4: Prove that i) {( a + b + c ) × ( b × c )}.c = a .( b × c )
o o o o o o o o o
ii) ( a × b ).( b × c ) × ( a × c ) = 2 a . b × c
o o o o o o o o o
Q 5: Prove that i) ( a × b ).( b × c ) × ( c × a ) = ( a . b × c )
o o o o o o o o
ii) ( a × b ) × ( a × c ) = ( a . b × c ) a
o o o o o o
Q 6: If a = 2 i – 3 j – k , b = i + 4 j – 2 k , find ( a × b ) × ( a – b ).
*** ***** ***

UNIT 15: VECTOR CALCULUS
UNIT STUCTURE
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Scalar and Vector Point Function
15.4 Vector Differential Operator (del)
15.5 Gradient, Divergence and Curl and their Identities
15.6 Lapalacian Operator
15.7 Let Us Sum Up

z define scalar and vector point function
z define vector differential operator(del)
z define gradient, divergence and curl and their identities
z know about Lapalacian operator.
15.2 INTRODUCTION
In unit 12, we have already discussed about the concept of

vectors.We also discuss the product of vectors in unit 13 and 14. In this
unit,we deal with the theory of vector calculus. With the help of a standard
vector differential operator, we introduce concepts like gradient of a scalar
valued function, divergence and curl of a vector valued function. In this unit,
we also discuss the properties of gradient, divergence and curl.
15.3 SCALAR AND VECTOR POINT FUNCTION
If corresponding to each point p of a region R in space,there

corresponds a scalar denoted by I(p), then I is said to be a scalar point
function for the region R.
Vectors Calculus Unit 15
If the coordinates of p be (x, y, z), then I(p) = I.

Examples:
a) The temperature I(p) at any point p of a fluid occupying a certain
region is a scalar point function.
b) The density I(p) at any point p of a body occupying a certain region
is a scalar point function.
If corresponding to each point p of a region R in space,there
o o
corresponds a vector denoted by f (p), then f is called a vector point function
for the region R.
If the coordinates of p be (x, y, z), then,
o o
f (p) = f (x, y, z) = f1(x, y, z) i + f2(x, y, z) j + f3(x, y,, z) k
Examples:
o
a) The velocity f (p) of a particle at any time t occupying the position p
in a certain region is a vector point function for that region.
o
b) The acceleration f (p) of a particle at any time t occupying the position
p in a certain region is a vector point function for that region.
15.4 VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR (DEL)
The vector differential operator (read as del or nabla) is defined

w w w
as { i j k where, i , j , k are unit vectors along the three
wx wy wz
rectangular axes OX,OY and OZ.The symbol (del) is called ‘nabla’.
15.5 GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL AND THEIR

IDENTITIES
Gradient: Let I(x, y, z) be a scalar point function and continuously

differentiable,then the vector,
§ w w w ·
I { ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ I
© wx wy wz ¹

wI wI wI
= i j k
wx wy wz
Unit 15 Vectors Calculus
is called the gradient of the scalar function Iand is written as grad I.

That is grad I = I.
Note: 1) grad I = Iis a vector whose three components are,
wI wI wI
, , .
wx wy wz

w w w
2) The operator { i j k acts on I. Imay be
wx wy wz
assumed to be the multiplication of a vector

w w w
{ i j k by a scalar..
wx wy wz
3) I z I. There will be no ‘.’ or ‘×’ between I and .

Properties of gradient.
Property 1: If f and g are any two scalar point functions then,
(f + g) = f + g.
§ w w w ·
Proof: (f + g) = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ (f + g)
© wx wy wz ¹

w
w
w
= i f g j f g k f g
wx wy wz

§ wf wg · § wf wg · § wf wg ·
= i¨ ¸ j ¨¨ ¸¸ k¨ ¸
© wx wx ¹ © wy wy ¹ © wz wz ¹
§ wf wf wf · § wg wg wg ·
= ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ ¨¨ i j k ¸¸
© wx wy wz ¹ © wx wy wz ¹
§ w w w · § w w w ·
= ¨¨ i j k ¸¸f ¨¨ i j k ¸¸
?(f + g) = f + g.
Note: Similarly, we can easily prove that, (f – g) = f – g.
The above results can also be expressed as:
grad (f ± g) = grad f ±grad g
Property 2: If f and g are any two scalar point functions then,
fg = fg + g.

§ w w w ·
Proof: fg = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ fg
© wx wy wz ¹

w
w
w
= i fg j fg k fg
wx wy wz

§ wg wf · § wg wf · § wg wf ·
= i ¨ f g ¸ j ¨
¨ f g ¸¸ k¨ f g ¸
© wx wx ¹ © wy wy ¹ © wz wz ¹

wg wf wg wf wg wf
= if ig jf jg kf kg
wx wx wy wy wz wz
§ wg wg wg · § wf wf wf ·
= f ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ g¨¨ i j k ¸¸
= f + g.
Note: The above result can also be expressed as:
grad(fg) = f grad g + g grad f
Property 3: Gradient of a constant is zero vector.
wI wI wI
Proof: Let I(x, y, z) be a constant. Then, , , are zero.
wx wy wz

wI wI wI o
?I= i j k 0.
wx wy wz
ILLUSTRATIVES EXAMPLES:
Example 1: If I= x2 + y – z – 1, find grad Iat (1, 0, 0).
Solution: grad f = I

wI wI wI
= i j k
wx wy wz

w 2
w
w 2
= i (x + y – z – 1) + j (x2 + y – z – 1) + k (x + y – z – 1)
wx wy wz

= i (2x) + j (1) + k (–1)

? gradI(1, 0, 0) = 2 i + j – k .
Example 2: Find gradI if I= xyz at (1, 1, 1).
Solution: Given I= xyz

wI wI wI
grad f = I = i j k
wx wy wz


w
w
w
= i (xyz) + j (xyz) + k (xyz)
wx wy wz

= i (yz) + j (xz) + k (xy)

? gradI(1, 1, 1) = i + j + k .
Example 3: If I= log(x2 + y2 + z2), find I.
Solution: Given I= log(x2 + y2 + z2)

wI wI wI
I = i j k
wx wy wz

w
w
w
= i log(x2 + y2 + z2) + j log(x2 +y2 + z2) + k log(x2+y2+ z2)
wx wy wz
§ · § · § ·
2x 2y 2z
= i ¨¨ 2 ¸ j ¨¨ 2
2 ¸
¸ k¨¨ 2
2 ¸
¸
2 ¸
©x y z ¹ ©x y z ¹ ©x y z ¹
2 2 2
2 §
·
= 2 ¨
x i y j z k ¸
x y z ©
2
2
¹
o
2 o
= . r ( r = x i + y j + zk )
x y z
2
2 2
o
2r
= 2
r
Normal to the Surface: Let I(x, y, z) be a scalar valued function
having continuous partial derivatives.Let P(x0, y0, z0) be any point. Let I(x0,
y0, z0) = c. Then the equation I(x, y, z) = c represents a surface. Obviously
(x0, y0, z0) lies on this surface.
Along this surface dI = 0
wI wI wI
i.e., dx dy dz = 0
wx wy wz
o o
i.e., I.d r = 0 where, d r = i dx + j dy + k dz
o
?I is perpendicular to d r .
?I is normal to all the tangents to the surface at P(x0, y0, z0).
Hence I represents the normal to the surface I(x, y, z) = c.

Hence the unit normal n to the surface I(x, y, z) = c is given by
I
n= .
I

Directional Derivatives: Let n be a unit vector.The component of

the vector I in the direction n is given by I. n and is called the directional

derivative of I in the direction n .
Hence directional derivative of a scalar function Iat a point is defined
by the dot product of gradI and the unit normal vector through that point.

i.e., directional derivative = gradI n
Example 1: Find the directional derivative of f = xyz at (1, 1, 1) in

the direction of i + j + k .

Solution: Unit normal vector n in the direction of i + j + k is:

i j k
.
3

wf wf wf
Now, gradf = f = i j k
wx wy wz

w
w
w
= i (xyz) + j (xyz) + k (xyz)
wx wy wz

= i (yz) + j (xz) + k (xy)

? (gradf)(1, 1, 1) = i + j + k .

Directional derivatives = gradI n

= ( i + j + k ).
i j k

3
1 1 1
=
3
3
=
3
= 3
Note: 1) Normal derivative of I at a point = |gradI| = |I|
I gradI
2) Unit normal vector to the surface I = I =
gradI
Example 1: Find the normal derivative of I = xy + yz + zx at (-1, 1, 1).
Solution: Normal derivative of I at a point = |gradI| = |I|

Given I = xy + yz + zx
?gradI = I

wI wI wI
= i j k
wx wy wz

w xy yz zx w xy yz zx w xy yz zx
= i j k
wx wy wz

= i (y + z) + j (z + x) + k (x + y)

?(gradI)(–1, 1, 1) = 2 i + 0 j + 0 k
Normal derivative at (–1, 1, 1) is |gradI| = 22 0 2 02 = 2.
Example 2: Find the unit normal vector to the surface I = x3 – xyz +
z3 – 1 at the point (1, 1, 1).
Solution: Given, I = x3 – xyz + z3 – 1
?gradI = I

wI wI wI
=i j k
wx wy wz

w x3 xyz z3 1 w x3 xyz z3 1 w x3 xyz z3 1
= i j k
wx wy wz

= i (3x2 – yz) + j (–xz) + k (–xy + 3z2)

?(gradI)(1, 1, 1) = 2 i + j + 2 k
I
Unit normal vector to the surface I =
I
gradI
=
gradI

2 i j 2k
=
4 1 4

2 i j 2k
= .
3
Example 3: Find the unit normal vector to the surface of the
paraboloid of revolution z = x2 + y2 at the point (1, 2, 5).
Solution: Given, I= x2 + y2 – z

?gradI = I

wI wI wI
= i j k
wx wy wz
w x2 y2 z w x2 y2 z w x2 y2 z
= i j k
wx wy wz

= 2x i + 2y j – k

(I)(1, 2, 5) = 2 i + 4 j – k
|I| = 4 16 1 = 21

I 2 i 4 j k
? unit normal vector = n = = .
I 21
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Find grad I when, I is given by I = 3x2y – y3z2

at the point (1, –2, –1).
o
o o
r
Q.2: If r = x i + y j + z k , prove that (i) r = , (ii) rn = nrn–2 r ,
r
o
where, r = | r |.
Q.3: Find the directional derivatives of I = x2yz + 4xz2 at (1, 1, 1)

in the direction of i + j – k .
Q.4: Find the directional derivative of I = 3x2 + 2y – 3z at (1, 1, 1)

in the direction of 2 i + 2 j – k .
Q.5: Find a unit vector to the surface x2 + y2 – z = 10 at (1, 1, 1).
Q.6: Find a unit vector to the surface x2 + xy + z2 = 4 at the point
(1, –1, 2).
o
Divergence: Let, F (x, y, z) be a vector function which is continuously
differentiable at each point (x, y, z). Let F1(x, y, z), F2(x, y, z) and F3(x, y, z)
be its components along the coordinates axes.
o
Then, F (x, y, z) = F1(x, y, z) i + F2(x, y, z) j + F3(x, y, z) k

o
The divergence of the vector function F is defined as:
o § w w w ·§
·
. F = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸.¨ F1 i F2 j F3 k ¸
© wx wy wz ¹ © ¹
wF1 wF2 wF3
=
wx wy wz
o o o
Divergence of a vector function F is denoted by . F or div F .
o o
Note: 1) . F or div F is a scalar quantity..
o wF1 wF2 wF3
2) div F = .
wx wx wx
o
Definition: Solenoidal vector: A vector F is said to be solenoidal if
o o
its divergence is zero. i.e., if div F = 0, then F is said to be solenoidal. i.e.,
o
. F = 0.
o
Curl: The curl of F (x, y, z) is defined by
o § w w w · §
·
¨
× F = ¨ i j k ¸
¸ u ¨ F1 i F2 j F3 ¸
k
© wx wy wz ¹ © ¹

i j k
w w w
=
wx wy wz
F1 F2 F3
§
wF wF · § wF wF · § wF wF ·
= i ¨¨ 3 2 ¸¸ j ¨ 1 3 ¸ k¨¨ 2 1 ¸¸
© wy wz ¹ © wz wx ¹ © wx wy ¹
o
Definition: Irrotational: A vector F is said to be irrotational if its curl
o o o
is zero vector. i.e., if curl F = 0 , then F is said to be irrotational.
o
Note: 1) curl F is a vector quantity..
2) If Iis a scalar function of x, y, z then, 2I = (.)I.
§ w w w · § wI wI wI ·
.(I) = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸.¨¨ i j k ¸¸
w 2I w 2I w 2I
=
wx 2 wy 2 wz 2
i.e., div(gradI) = 2I.

15.6 LAPLACIAN OPERATOR
w2 w2 w2
The operator 2 {. is defined as 2 { and is
wx 2 wy 2 wz 2
called the Laplacian Operator.
Laplacian Operator can be operated on scalars as well as vector
point functions.
w 2F w 2F w 2F
1) When F is a scalar point function, then, F = 2
which
wx 2 wy 2 wz 2
is a scalar quantity.
o o o
o w2 F w2 F w2 F o
2) When F is a vector point function, then, F = 2
wx 2 wy 2 wz 2
which is a vector quantity.
o
Laplace Equation: 2F = 0 or, 2 F = 0 is called Laplace’s Equation.
Properties of Divergence:
o o o o o o o o
I) .( F ± G ) = . F ± . G or, div( F ± G ) = div F ± div G
o § w w w · §o o ·
o
Proof: .( F ± G ) = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸.¨ F r G ¸
© wx wy wz ¹ © ¹

w §o o · w §o o · w §o o ·
= i. ¨ Fr G ¸ j . ¨ Fr G ¸ k . ¨ Fr G ¸
wx © ¹ wy © ¹ wz © ¹
§ o o o · § o o o ·
¨ wF wF wF ¸ ¨ wG wG wG¸ Pierre – Simon
= ¨i. j. k. ¸ r ¨ i . j. k.
¨ wx wy wz ¸ ¨ wx wy wz ¸¸ Laplace (1749-1827)
© ¹ © ¹
o o was a French
= . F ± . G Mathematician and
o o o o
?.( F ± G ) = . F ± . G Astronomer.
o o o
II) .(I F ) = (I). F + I(. F )
o
Proof: Let, F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k
o
Now, .(I F ) = .(IF1 i + IF2 j + IF3 k )
§ w w w ·
= ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ .(IF i + IF j + IF k )
© wx wy wz ¹ 1 2 3

w w w
= IF1 IF2 IF
wx wy wz
wI wF wI wF wI wF
= F1 I 1 F2 I 2 F3 I 3
wx wx wy wy wz wz
§ wI wI wI · § wF1 wF2 wF3 ·

= ¨¨ F1 F2 F3 ¸¸ I¨¨ ¸
© wx wy wz ¹ © wx wy wz ¸¹
§ wI wI wI ·
= ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ .(F i + F j + F k ) +
© wx wy wz ¹ 1 2 3
§ w w w ·
I¨¨ i j k ¸¸ .(F i + F j + F k )
© wx wy wz ¹ 1 2 3
o o
= (I). F + I(. F )
o o o
?.(I F ) = (I). F + I(. F )
o o o o o o o o
III) ×( F ± G ) = × F ± × G or, curl( F ± G ) = curl F ± curl G
o § w w w · §o o ·
o
Proof: ×( F ± G ) = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ u ¨ F r G ¸
© wx wy wz ¹ © ¹

w §o o · w §o o · w §o o ·
= iu ¨ F r G ¸ ju ¨ F r G ¸ k u ¨ F r G ¸
wx © ¹ wy © ¹ wz © ¹
§ o o o· § o o o ·
¨ wF wF wF ¸ ¨ w G wG w G¸
= ¨¨ iu wx ju wy ku wz ¸¸ r ¨¨ iu wx ju wy ku wz ¸¸
© ¹ © ¹
o o
= × F ± × G
o o o o
?×( F ± G ) = × F ± × G
o o o o o o
IV) ×(I F ) = (I)× F + I(× F ) or, curl(I F ) = gradI× F + Icurl F
o o
Proof: Let, F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k , I F = IF1 i + IF2 j + IF3 k

o § w w w ·
Now, ×(I F ) = ¨ i j k ¸ × (IF1 i + IF2 j + IF3 k )
¨ wx wy wz ¸¹
©
i j k
w w w
=
wx wy wz
IF1 IF2 IF3

ªw w º ª w w º
= i« IF3 IF2 » + j « IF1 IF3 » +
¬ wy wz ¼ ¬ wz wx ¼
ª º
w w
k« IF2 IF1 »
¬ wx wy ¼
ª wF3 wI wF2 wI º ª wF1 wI wF wI º
i
= « I F3 I F2 » + j «I F1 I 3 F3 »
¬ wy wy wz wz ¼ ¬ wz wz wx wx ¼
ª
wF2 wI wF wI º
+ k «I F2 I 1 F1 »
¬ wx wx wy wy ¼
ª§ wF3 wF2 · § wF1 wF3 · § wF2 wF1 · º

= «¨¨
I ¸i ¨ ¸ j ¨ ¸ k»
¬© wy wz ¸¹ © wz wx ¹ ¨© wx wy ¸¹ ¼ +
ª§ wI wI · § wI wI · § wI wI · º
«¨¨ F3 F2 ¸¸ i ¨ F1 F3 ¸ j ¨¨ F2 F1 ¸¸ k »
¬© wy wx ¹ © wz wx ¹ © wx wy ¹ ¼

i j k i j k
w w w wI wI wI
= I
wx wy wz wx wy wz
F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3
o o o
?×(I F ) = (I)× F + I(× F )
V) .( F × G ) = G .(× F ) – F .(× G ) or,, div( F × G ) = G curl F . curl G
o o o
wF wF wF o
Proof: By definition, we have, . F = i . j. k.
wx wy wz
o o
w o o
w o o
w o o
Hence, .( F × G ) = i . (F × G ) + j. (F × G ) + k. (F × G )
wx wy wz
ªo o o
oº ªo
o o
oº ªo
o o
oº

« w G w F » « w G w F » « w G w F »
= i . Fu u G j . Fu u G k . Fu u G
« wx wx » « wy wy » « wz wz »
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼ ¬ ¼
o o o o o o
o
wG wF o o wG wF o o wG wF o
= i . Fu i. u G j . Fu j. u G k . Fu k. uG
wx wx wy wy wz wz
o o o o o o
wG o wF o wG o wF o wG o wF o

= i. u F i . u G j . u F j . u G k . u F k . uG
wx wx wy wy wz wz

By interchanging the dot and cross products, we get,

o o o o o o
wG o wF o wG o wF o wG o wF o
= iu . F i u . G ju . F ju . G ku . F ku .G
wx wx wy wy wz wz
§ o o o · o § o o o
·
¨ wF wF wF ¸ ¨ wG wG wG¸ o
= ¨ iu ju ku . G i u j u k u .F
¨ wx wy wz ¸¸ ¨¨ wx wy wz ¸¸
© ¹ © ¹
o o o o
= curl F . G – curl G . F
o o o o o o
?div( F × G ) = curl F . G – curl G . F
o o o o o o
VI) ×(× F ) = (. F ) – 2 F or, curlcurl F = graddiv F – Laplacian F
o
o § w w w ·
× F = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ × (F i + F j + F k )
© wx wy wz ¹ 1 2 3

i j k
w w w
=
wx wy wz
F1 F2 F3
§ wF wF · § wF wF · § wF wF ·
= i ¨¨ 2 ¸¸ j ¨ 1 3 ¸ k¨¨ 2 1 ¸¸
3

i j k
o w w w
curl(curl F ) =
wx wy wz
wF3 wF2 wF1 wF3 wF2 wF1

wy wz wz wx wx wy
ª w § wF2 wF1 · w § wF1 wF3 ·º

= ¦ « wy ¨¨ wx ¸ ¨ ¸» i
wy ¸¹ wz © wz wx ¹¼
¬ ©
ª w 2F2 w 2F3 § w 2F1 w 2F1 · º

= ¦ « wywx wzwx ¨¨ wy 2
¸» i
wz 2 ¸¹ ¼
¬ ©
ª§ w 2F1 w 2F2 w 2F3 · § w 2F1 w 2F1 w 2F1 ·º

= ¦ «¨¨ wx 2 wywx wzwx ¸¸ ¨¨ wx 2 wy 2 wz 2 ¸¸» i
¬© ¹ © ¹¼

ª w § wF1 wF2 wF3 · § w 2 w2 w2 · º

= ¦ wx ¨ wx wy wz ¸ ¨ wx 2 wy 2 wz 2 ¸¸F1 » i
« ¨ ¸ ¨
¬ © ¹ © ¹ ¼
ªw § o
· º
= ¦ «¬ wx ¨© . F ¸¹ F »¼ i 2
1
ª w § o· w § o· w § o·º 2 ª
º
= « i ¨ . F ¸ j ¨ . F ¸ k ¨ . F ¸» «F1 i F2 j F k
3 »
¬ wx © ¹ wy © ¹ wz © ¹¼ ¬ ¼
o o
= .(. F ) – 2 F
o o o
?×(× F ) = .(. F ) – 2 F
o o
VII) .(× F ) = 0 or, divcurl F = 0
o
o § w
w
w ·
× F = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ × (F i + F j + F k )
© wx wy wz ¹ 1 2 3

i j k
w w w
=
wx wy wz
F1 F2 F3
§ wF wF · § wF wF · § wF wF ·
= i ¨¨ 2 ¸¸ j ¨ 1 3 ¸ k¨¨ 2 1 ¸¸
3
o o
Now, divcurl F = .(× F )
w § wF3 wF2 · w § wF1 wF3 · w § wF2 wF1 ·

¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
wx ¨© wy wz ¸¹ wy © wz wx ¹ wz ¨© wx wy ¸¹
=
w 2F3 w 2F2 w 2F1 w 2F3 w 2F2 w 2F1

=
wxwy wxwz wywz wywx wzwx wzwy
=0
o
? divcurl F = 0
Important properties (without proof):
o o o o o o o o o o
VIII) ( F . G ) = F × (× G ) + G × (× F ) + ( F .) G + ( G .) F or,,
o o o o o o o o o o
grad( F . G ) = F × curl G + G × curl F + ( F .) G + ( G .) F
o o o o o o o o o o
IX) × ( F × G ) = F (. G ) – G (. F ) + ( G .) F + ( F .) G or,,
o o o o o o o o o
curl( F × G ) = F div G – G div F + ( G .) F + ( F .)v
o o o
Example1: If F = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k , then find . F and × F .
o § w w w · 2 2 2
Solution: . F = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ .(x i + y j + z k )
© wx wy wz ¹
w 2 w 2 w 2
= x y z
wx wy wz
= 2x + 2y + 2z
= 2(x + y + z)

i j k
o w w w
× F =
wx wy wz
x2 y2 z2
ª
w 2 w 2 º ª w 2 w 2 º ª w 2 w 2 º
= i« z y » j« z x » k« y x »
¬ wy wz ¼ ¬ wx wz ¼ ¬ wx wy ¼

= 0 i + 0 j + 0k
o
= 0
Example 2: Find the divergence and curl of the vector point function

xy2 i + 2x2yz j – 3yz2 k .
o
Solution: Let, F = xy2 i + 2x2yz j – 3yz2 k
o o
div F = . F
§ w w w ·
= ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ .(xy2 i + 2x2yz j – 3yz2 k )
© wx wy wz ¹
w w w
= xy 2 2x 2 yz 3 yz 2
wx wy wz
= y2 + 2x2z – 6yz
o o
curl F = × F

i j k
w w w
=
wx wy wz
xy 2 2x yz 3 yz 2
2

ª º ª w
w w w 2 º
= i« 3 yz 2 2x 2 yz » j « wx 3 yz wz xy » +
2
¬ wy wz ¼ ¬ ¼
ª º
w w
k« 2x 2 yz xy 2 »
¬ wx wy ¼

= i (–3z2 – 2x2y) – j (0) + k (4xyz – 2xy)
o o o o
Example 3: If r = x i + y j + z k , prove that div r = 3 and curl r = 0 .
o o
Solution: div F = . F
§ w w w ·
= ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ .(x i + y j + z k )
© wx wy wz ¹
w w w
= x y z
wx wy wz
=1+1+1=3

i j k
o o w w w
curl F = × F =
wx wy wz
x y z
ªw

w º ª w w º ª w w º
i
= « z y » j z x » + k« y x
¬ wy wz ¼ ¬ wx « wz ¼ ¬ wx wy »¼

= i (0 – 0) – j (0 – 0) + k (0 – 0) = 0
o o
Example 4: If F = xz3 i – 2x2yz j + 2yz4 k , find curl F at (1, –1, 1).

i j k
o o w w w
Solution: curl F = × F =
wx wy wz
xz3 2x yz 2yz 4
2
ª º ª w
w w w º
= i« 2yz 4 2x 2 yz » – j « 2yz 4 xz 3 » +
¬ wy wz ¼ ¬ wx wz ¼
ª º
w w
k« 2x 2 yz xz3 »
¬ wx wy ¼

= i (2z4 + 2x2y) + j (3z2x) + k (–4xyz)
o
curl F at (1, –1, 1) = i (0) + 3 j + 4 k = 3 j + 4 k
o o
Example 5: If F = x2y i + y2z j + z2x k , find curlcurl F .
i j k
o o w w w
Solution: curl F = × F =
wx wy wz
x 2y y 2z z2x
ªw w 2 º ª w w 2 º
= i« xz 2 y z » – j « xz 2 x y» +
ª
w 2 w 2 º
k« y z x z»
¬ wx wy ¼

= i (0 – y2) – j (z2 – 0) + k (0 – x2)

= –y2 i – z2 j – x2 k

i j k
o o w w w
curlcurl F = × curl F =
wx wy wz
y2 z2 z2
ªw w º ª w w º
= i« x2 z2 » – j « x2 y2 » +
ª º
w w
k« z2 y2 »
¬ wx wy ¼

= i (0 + 2z) – j (–2x) – k (–2y)

= 2x i + 2x j + 2y k
o
Example 6: Prove that curl(gradI) = 0
Solution: curl(gradI) = curl(I) = × (I)
§ w w w · § wI wI wI ·
= ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ u ¨¨ i j k ¸¸
i j k
w w w
= wx wy wz
wI wI wI
wx wy wy

ª w 2I w 2I º ª w 2 I w 2I º ª w I w 2I º
2
= i« » – j « » + k « »
¬ wywz wzwy ¼ ¬ wxwz wxwz ¼ ¬ wxwy wywx ¼
o o o o
= 0+ 0+ 0= 0.

Example 7: Check whether the vector x2 i + y2 j + z2 k is a solenoidal
at the point (1, 1, 2)?
o
Solution: Let, F = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k
o § w w w ·
. F = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ .(x2 i + y2 j + z2 k )
© wx wy wz ¹
wx 2 wy 2 wz 2
=
wx wy wz
= 2x + 2y + 2z
o
(. F )(1, 1, 2) = 2 + 2 + 4 = 8 z 0
? The given vector is not solenoidal at the point (1, 1, 2).
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.7: Find the divergence and curl of the vector:

o
V = xyz i + 3x2y j +(xz2 – y2z) k at the point (2,–1,1).
o o o
Q.8: Find div F and curl F where, F = grad(x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz).
Q.9: Determine the constant a, so that the vector:
o
F = (x + 3y) i + (y – 2z) j + (x + az) k is solenoidal.
15.7 LET US SUM UP
z The vector differential operator (read as del or nabla) is defined as

w w w
{ i j k where, i , j , k are unit vectors along the three
wx wy wz
rectangular axes OX, OY and OZ.
z Let I(x, y, z) be a scalar point function and continuously differentiable,

wI wI wI
then the vector I= i j k is called the gradient of I.
wx wy wz
z Properties of gradient:
i) grad(f ± g) = grad f ± gradg g
ii) If f and g are any two scalar point functions then, fg = fg + gf.
iii) Gradient of a constant is zero.
z The divergence of the vector function:
o
F (x, y, z) = F1(x, y, z) i + F2(x, y, z) j + F3(x, y, z) k is defined as:
o § w w w ·§
·
. F = ¨ i j k ¸.¨ F1 i F2 j F3 k ¸
© wx wx wx ¹ © ¹
wF1 wF2 wF3
=
wx wx wx
o
z A vector F is said to be solenoidal if its divergence is zero.
o
z The curl of F (x, y, z) is defined by
o § w w w · §
·
¨
× F = ¨ i j k ¸
¸ u ¨ F1 i F2 j F3 ¸
k
© wx wy wz ¹ © ¹

i j k
w w w
=
wx wy wz
F1 F2 F3
§
wF3 wF2 · § wF1 wF3 · § wF2 wF1 ·
= i ¨¨ ¸ j¨ ¸ k¨ ¸
© wy wz ¸¹ © wz wx ¹ ¨© wx wy ¸¹
o
z A vector F is said to be irrotational if its curl is zero vector..
z Properties related to divergence and curl
o o o o
i) div( F ± G ) = div F ± div G
o o o
ii) .(I F ) = (I). F + I(. F )
o o o o
iii) curl( F ± G ) = curl F ± curl G
o o o o
iv) curl(I F ) = gradI × F + Icurl F ( × F )
o o o o o o
v) div( F × G ) = G .curl F – F .curl G
o o o
vi) curlcurl F = graddiv F – Laplacain F
o
vii) divcurl F = 0

o o o o o o o o o o
viii) grad( F . G ) = F × curl G + G ×curl F + ( F .) G + ( G .) F
o o o o o o o o o o
ix) curl( F × G ) = F div G – G div F + ( G .) F + ( F .) G

Press.
§ w w w ·
Ans. to Q. No. 1: gradI = I = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸ (3x2y – y3z2)
© wx wy wz ¹

w
w
w
= i 3x 2 y y3z2 j 3x 2 y y3z2 k (3x2y – y3z2)
wx wy wz

= i (6xy) + j (3x2 – 3y2z2) + k (–2y3z)

gradI(1, –2, –1) = –12 i – 9 j – 16 k at (1, –2, –1)
o
Ans. to Q. No. 2: Given r = x i + y j + z k
o
?r =|r |= x2 y 2 z2
i.e., r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 ... ... ...(1)
§ w w w ·
Now r = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸r
© wx wy wz ¹

wr wr wr
= i j k ... ... ...(2)
wx wy wz

wr wr x
From (1), we get, 2r = 2x =
wx wx r
wr wr y
2r = 2y =
wx wx r
wr wr z
2r = 2z =
wx wx r
x y z
From (2), we get, r = i + j + k
r r r
o
x i y j z k r
= =
r r
o
r
?r =
r
§ w w w · n
ii) rn = ¨¨ i j k ¸¸r
© wx wy wz ¹

wr n wr n wr n
= i j k
wx wy wz

n 1 wr n1 wr n1 wr
= i nr j nr k nr
wx wy wz
n 1 § wr wr wr ·

= nr ¨¨ i j k ¸¸
© wx wy wz ¹
= nrn–1r
o
n–1 r
= nr From (i)
r
o
?rn = nrn–2 r

Ans. to Q. No. 3: Unit normal vector n in the direction of i + j – k is

i j k .
3

wf wf wf
Now gradI = I = i j k
wx wy wz

w 2
w 2
w 2
= i x yz 4 xz2 j x yz 4xz 2 k x yz 4 xz2
wx wy wz

= i (2xyz + 4z2) + j (x2z) + k (x2y + 8xz)

?(gradI)(1, 1, 1) = i (2 + 4) + j (1) + k (1 + 8) = 6 i + j + 9 k

Directional derivative = gradI. n

i j k

= (6 i + j + 9 k ).
3
6 1 9
=
3
2
=
3
Ans. to Q. No. 4: Do yourself.
Ans. to Q. No. 5: Given I = x2 + y2 – z – 10

wI wI wI
?gradI = I = i j k
wx wy wz

w x2 y2 z 10 w x2 y2 z 10 w x2 y2 z 10
= i j k
wx wy wz

= 2x i + 2y j – k

(I )(1, 1, 1) = 2x i + 2y j – k
|I | = 4 4 1= 3

I 2 i 2 j k
?unit normal vector = n = = .
I 3
Ans. to Q. No. 6: Do Yourself.
o w w w
Ans. to Q. No. 7: div V = (xyz) + (3x2y) + (xz2 – y2z)
wx wy wz
= yz + 3x2 + 2xz – y2
o
?div V = –1 + 12 + 4 – 1 = 14 at (2, –1, 1).

i j k
o w w w
curl V =
wx wy wz
xyz 3 x y xz y 2 z
2 2

= i (–2yz – 0) + j (xy – z2) + k (6xy – xz)
o
?curl V = 2 i – 3 j – 14 k at (2, –1, 1).
Ans. to Q. No. 8: Let, I = x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz, then,
o § w w w ·
F = gradI = ¨¨ i wx
j
wy
k ¸¸ (x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz)
wz ¹
©

= (3x2 – 3yz) i + (3y2 – 3zx) j + 3(z2 – 3xy) k
o w w w 2
?div F = (3x2 – 3yz) + (3y2 – 3zx) + (z – 3xy)
wx wy wz
= 6x + 6y + 6z
= 6(x + y + z)

i j k
o w w w
and curl F =
wx wy wz
3 x 3 yz 3 y 3zx 3z 3 xy
2 2 2

= i (–3x + 3x) + j (–3y + 3y) + k (–3z + 3z)
o
= 0
o o
Ans. to Q. No. 9: The vector F is solenoidal if div F .
o w w w
Now, div F = x 3y y 2z x az
wx wy wz
=1+1+a
=2+a
o
?div F = 0
2 + a = 0
a = –2.
o o
Q.1: If F = x2z i – 2y3z2 j + xy2z k , find find . F .
Q.2: If I= 2x3y2z4, find div(gradI).
o o
Q.3: Find div F and curl F for the vector xy3 i – 2x2yz j + 2yz4 k at (1, –1, 1).
o
Q.4: If F = 3xyz2 i + 2xy3 j – x2yz k and I= 3x2 – yz, find
o
i) . F
o
ii) .(I F ) at (1, –1, 1).
Q.5: If I= 3x2z – y2z3 + 4x3y + 2x – 3y – 5, find 2I.

o
Q.6: Prove that the vector F = (x + 3y) i + (y – 3z) j + (x – 2z) k is solenoidal.
o
Q.7: Prove that the vector F = (siny + z) i + (xcosy – z) j + (x – y) k is
irrotational.
*** ***** ***

REFERENCES
1) Jain, P. K. and Ahmhad, K. Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three

Dimensions. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd.
2) Khan, R. M. Analytical Geometry Of Two & Three Dimensions &
Vector Analysis. New Central Book Agency (P) Limited.
3) Kishan, Hari. Coordinate Geometry of Two dimensions. New Delhi:
6) Pal, Sat and Pal, Harbans. A Textbook of Two Dimensional Geometry.
7) Pandey, R. K. Vector Analysis. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing
House.
8) Sharma, G. C. and Jain, Madhu. Coordinate Geometry (2D and 3D).
New Delhi: Galgotia Publications Pvt Ltd.
Publishing House.
Press.
13) Vasistha, A. R., Agrawal, D. C. Analytical Geometry of Three
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GMA S5-01

Exam. Code: MAP5A

Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Professor N. R. Das, Dept. of Mathematics, Gauhati University

Course Co-ordinator : Harekrishna Deka, KKHSOU

SLM Preparation Team

9, 10 & 11 Prof. Tarun Sarkar, Retired Vice-Principal and

Content : Dr. Dilip Kumar Sarma, Dept. of Mathematics, Cotton College

June, 2019 ISBN: 978-93-89123-33-3

Head Office : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati-781 017; Web: www.kkhsou.in

UNIT 9: Sphere Pages: 205-217

UNIT 10: Cone Pages: 218-233

UNIT 11: Cylinder Pages: 234-244

UNIT 12: Introduction to Vectors Pages: 245-267

UNIT 13: Product of Vectors-I Pages: 268-281

UNIT 14: Product of Vectors-II Pages: 282-291

UNIT 15: Vector Calculus Pages: 292-315

204 Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

In unit 6, 7 and 8, we have already discussed the coordinates system

Definition: The locus of a point which moves in space in such a

9.3.1 Equation to a Sphere with given Centre and given

9.3.2 General Equation of Sphere

Consider the equation: x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0

Which is the same as:

9.3.3 Diameter form of the Equation of a Sphere

P(x1, y1, z1) B(x2, y2, z2)

values of the arbitrary constant O, we get different spheres passing

208 Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis

Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis 209

Example 6: Find the equation of the sphere passing through the

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Find the equation of the sphere whose centre

Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis 211

9.4 LET US SUM UP

9.5 FURTHER READING

1) Jain, P. K. & Ahmad, Khalil. Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three

212 Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis

9.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans. to Q. No. 1: The equation of the sphere is:

Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis 213

Ans. to Q. No. 3: For the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 3 = 0

Putting the values u, v, w and d in (1), we get,

9.7 MODEL QUESTIONS

*** ***** ***

Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis 217

10.1 Learning Objectives

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

In unit 9, we discussed the sphere and its equation. In this unit, we

Definition: A cone is a surface generated by a straight line which

218 Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis

10.3.1 Equation of a Cone with a given Vertex and a given

Coordinate Geometry and Vector Analysis 219

10.4.2 Locus of Second Degree Homogeneous Equation

The most general homogeneous equation of 2nd degree in x, y and

10.4.3 Right Circular Cone

* * *

0.x 1.y 0.z

* * *

* * *