BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

Research Design Preparation and

Sampling Determination LESSON 2

Introduction

The preparation of the research design is critical in conducting research. It will

help how a study should be carried out considering the resources available like time,
people, and financial matters. This lesson will help the researcher to minimize bias while
maximizing reliability. Research does not stop after the collection of data. Most of the
researchers find difficulty in its analysis that may lead to a wrong interpretation of results.
In this lesson, we are going to discuss some details of data analysis and interpretation of
its result.

Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this lesson, you shall be able to:

1. Understand how a research design should be prepared;
2. Identify the type of data needed in research;
3. Discuss how data will be collected during the conduct of the study;
4. Understand the importance of the data analysis after data collection;
5. Have an insight on how to interpret research results; and
6. Understand the details needed in the report of the research findings.

Let’s Get Started

In the thesis you have reviewed in the previous lesson, observe the research
design carried out in the study and write the steps used in the data collection and analysis.

Let’s Think About it!

1|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

Describe how the research design was presented in their manuscript. List the
steps used in the data and methods used in the data analysis.

Let’s Explore!

Step 3- Research Design and Collection of Data

Preparing the research design.

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher
will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design
facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other
words, the function of the research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped
into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation. A flexible research design that provides an opportunity for considering
many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the
research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate
description of a situation or an association between variables, the suitable design will be
one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected.

There are several research designs, such as experimental and non-experimental

hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-
and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal
designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square
design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select
one for his project.

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research

problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and

2|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

Determining the sample design.

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered
no element of chance is left and the highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice, this may
not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger
as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the
element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides,
this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money, and energy. Not only this, census
inquiry is not possible in practice under any circumstances. For instance, blood testing is
done only on a sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called
a sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample of what is popularly
known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined
before any data are collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the
plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.

Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With

probability samples, each element has a known probability of being included in the sample
but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those
based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling, and quota sampling techniques. A
brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:

(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-

probability sampling. This sampling method involves a purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample that
represents the universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion
in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience

3|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he

may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at
these stations. This would be an example of a convenience sample of gasoline
buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results, particularly
when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement
sampling, the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items that he
considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgement
sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method
of teaching in this pandemic time. Judgement sampling is used quite frequently
in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses
rather than to generalize to larger populations.

(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance
sampling or probability sampling where every item in the population has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples,
in the case of a finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.

For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of

15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items
on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is
another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is
assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five-digit random numbers are
selected from the table. To do this we select some random starting point and
then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might
start in the 4th row, the second column, and proceed down the column to the
bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right.
When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over
15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall
within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a
completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure
gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In the case of an infinite
population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the
same probability and that successive selections are independent of one
another.

(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is
to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street,

4|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

and so on. A sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element

of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when
the sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the
selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every
nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.

(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does
not constitute a homogeneous group, then a stratified sampling technique is
applied to obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population is
stratified into several non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample
items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum
are based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification,
and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling, the cost of taking random samples from
individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given a quota
to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for the sample
being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling. The
size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that
stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement
samples rather than random samples.

(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual
elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes
to sample its credit cardholders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers.
The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling, this list of 15,000
cardholders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 cardholders each. Three
clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must
often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of
accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and
other sources of error are usually accentuated. The clustering approach can,

5|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the
efficiency of fieldwork, especially in the case of personal interviews.

Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the
total geographical area of interest happens to be a big one. Under area sampling we first
divide the total area into several smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called
geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and
all units in these small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful
where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field
interviewing more efficient since the interviewer can do many interviews at each location.

(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster

sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably
large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling, the
first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then
districts, then towns, and finally certain families within towns. If the technique
of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling.

(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the
ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according
to mathematical decisions based on information yielded as the survey
progresses. This design is usually adopted under an acceptance sampling plan
in the context of statistical quality control.

In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used
in the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out
here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated
and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable
when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied
intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than random
sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs.

6|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into
consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

Collecting Data

Data collection methods can be divided into two categories: secondary methods of
data collection and primary methods of data collection.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books,
newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals, etc. There is an abundance of data
available in these sources about your research area almost regardless of the nature of the
research area. Therefore, the application of an appropriate set of criteria to select
secondary data to be used in the study plays an important role in terms of increasing the
levels of research validity and reliability. These criteria include, but not limited to date of
publication, credential of the author, reliability of the source, quality of discussions, depth
of analyses, the extent of contribution of the text to the development of the research area,
etc.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and
qualitative.

Quantitative data collection methods are based on mathematical calculations in

various formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include
questionnaires with closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and regression,
mean, mode, and median, and others.

Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and they can be applied within a shorter
duration of time compared to qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high level of
standardization of quantitative methods, it is easy to make comparisons of findings.

Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or

mathematical calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds,

7|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

feeling, emotions, colors, and other elements that are non-quantifiable. Qualitative studies
aim to ensure a greater level of depth of understanding and qualitative data collection
methods include interviews, questionnaires with open-ended questions, focus groups,
observation, game or role-playing, case studies, etc.

Your choice between quantitative or qualitative methods of data collection depends

on the area of your research and the nature of research aims and objectives.

Execution of the project.

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The
training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of
the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors to keep the survey as
much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to
ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is under
the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some
suitable methods should be
designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is
to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with
the help of experts, vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

Application: Describe how the data collection was carried out in the study/thesis
that you have just reviewed. Does it consider steps to avoid bias in the collection of data?

Step 4 - Analysis of data.

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing
them. The analysis of data requires several closely related operations such as the
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation, and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should
necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
Thus, the researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories.

8|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.

Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding, the
stage is ready for tabulation.

Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the
form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal
of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save
time but also make it possible to study a large number of variables affecting a problem
simultaneously. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of
various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical
formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting
with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).

For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn
from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our
problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference
is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests, we can establish whether
such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference
happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different
universes and if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two
samples belong to the same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can
help us in analyzing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield
significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data
with the help of various statistical measures.

Hypothesis-testing.

After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary? This is the usual question that should be answered while testing
hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or

9|Page
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of the research inquiry.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the
researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established based on data
may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

Step 4 – Interpreting Research Data.

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. The real value of research lies
in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might seek to explain his findings based on some theory. It is known as
interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions
which in turn may lead to further researches.

Step 5 – Report Research Findings.

Finally, the researcher has to prepare a report of what has been done by him.
Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.

In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgments and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a
list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After the introduction, there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should
be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in a logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

10 | P a g e
 BES 104 – RESEARCH METHODS

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. It is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography,i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in
the end. An index should also be given especially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there maybe’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

Let’s Do It!

In your review based on the researches you selected in lesson 1, did you see any
bias in the collection and analysis of data? Did the researcher present his/her manuscript
in a comprehensive form, showing all the necessary details in the study? What are your
suggestions/critiques on the said study?

Closure

Congratulations you have just finished our last part of our module for the research
process. After this lesson, we will start a new module that will discuss the experimental
design.

11 | P a g e