I n t J. Heat Mass Trans/er. Vol. 41, No. I. pp.

45 59, 1998

~P ergamon
~', 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
0017 9310/98 $19.00+0.00

P I I : S0017-9310(97)00113-0

Forced convection heat transfer from a flat

plate: the conjugate problem
M. V Y N N Y C K Y t
Tohoku National Industrial Research Institute, 4-2-1 Nigatake, Miyagino-Ku, Sendai, 983 Japan

S. K I M U R A
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kanazawa University, 2-40-20 Kodatsuno, Kanazawa,
920 Japan

K. K A N E V
Visual Science Laboratory, Inc., Awajicho MH bldg, 2-21 Kanda Awajicho, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo,
101 Japan

and

l. POP
University of Cluj, Faculty of Mathematics, R-3400 Cluj, CP 253 Romania

(Received 29 November 1996 and in final form 21 April 1997)

Abstract Heat transfer associated with the forced convection flow over a conducting slab sited in an
aligned uniform stream is investigated analytically and numerically. Both internal and external thermal
conductivities are taken into consideration by means of a conjugate model consisting of the full Navier-
Stokes equations for the fluid medium and the energy equations for both the fluid and the slab. The analysis
facilitates the investigation of the effects of the Reynolds number (Re), the Prandtl number (Pr), the
thermal conductivity ratio (k) between the slab and the fluid medium and the slab aspect ratio (2) on the
heat transfer characteristics. For Re >> 1, boundary-layer theory is used to derive two methods of solution
whose results are compared with the full numerical solutions. ~ 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

1. INTRODUCTION elman [7]. Apparently, he was the first to present a

closed-form expression for the temperature and the
It has become increasingly apparent that conjugate local Nusselt number at the fluid-solid interface.
heat transfer regimes occur frequently in practice and Later, Luikov et al. [8] obtained an exact solution for
that an understanding of them is crucial in many pro- the interracial temperature, reducing the problem, by
cesses. Typical applications where this is true are the a generalized Fourier sine transform, to a singular
entrance regimes of pipe or channel flows [1, 2]. In integral equation. The solution is presented in a com-
addition, flows through tunnels or caves that com- plicated form and does not easily permit a comparison
municate heat with the surrounding rock walls and with the corresponding traditional (non-conjugate)
determine the thermal or environmental conditions problem. It was again Luikov [9] who gave an
also fall in this category; in fact, problems involving approximate solution of this problem assuming that
insulated or isothermal tunnel walls have been inves- the temperature in the plate varies linearly with the
tigated already [3, 4]. Another area of application is normal distance from its surface, thereby neglecting
in electronic device cooling; due to the low thermal axial conduction in the plate. However, in both these
conductivity of molding materials in semiconductor papers [8, 9], no numerical results were reported. The
devices, it is critical to design a cooling system that case of a plate of finite length was analyzed in detail
keeps the device temperature below some specified by Sakakibara et al. [10] by expanding the fluid-solid
value [5, 6]. interfacial temperature as a power series in the square
The reference work lbr the coupling of forced con- root of distance along the flat plate, with u n k n o w n
vective heat transfer in a boundary-layer flow over coefficients to be determined. It was found by these
a flat plate of finite thickness with two-dimensional authors that the interracial temperature is influenced
thermal conduction in the solid plate is due to Per- markedly by the wall conduction when the plate is
short and/or thick and its thermal conductivity is
t Present address : Department of Mechanics, Royal Insti- higher than that of the surrounding fluid.
tute of Technology, S-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden. An extension of the results reported in refs. [8, 91 was

45
46 M. VYNNYCKY et al.

NOMENCLATURE

A constant Greek symbols

a thickness of the conducting slab thermal diffusivity
b length of the conducting slab coefficient of thermal expansion
Ca drag coefficient 7 constant
I, integrals in equation (103) AT temperature difference, T~- T ,
kf thermal conductivity of the fluid AO temperature increment
medium similarity variable
k~ thermal conductivity of the plate O~ dimensionless temperature in the solid
k thermal conductivity ratio, k j k f Of- dimensionless temperature in the fluid
Nu dimensionless local Nusselt number medium
37u dimensionless average Nusselt number Ob dimensionless boundary temperature
Tc constant temperature of heated side of Oh dimensionless average boundary
slab temperature
T, constant temperature of ambient fluid Oo constant
Pr Prandtl number for the fluid, v/c¢ 2 aspect ratio, a/b
Q constant constant
Re Reynolds number for the fluid, v kinematic viscosity
bU,~/v ff dimensionless constant (Rel/2/k or
u, v dimensional velocity components (Re Pr)':2/k)
along (x, y) axes "C dimensionless constant (k/2 (Re Pr)"2)
fi, ~ dimensionless velocity components Z constant
along (x,y) axes, (u, v)/U~v dimensionless streamfunction
U~ velocity of the ambient fluid o) dimensionless vorticity.
x, y dimensional Cartesian coordinates
along and normal to the plate Subscripts
2, ~ dimensional Cartesian coordinates ambient conduction
(x,y)/b i, j nodal quantities.
x~ size of computational domain in x-
direction Superscripts
y~ size of computational domain in y- m iterative order
direction. averaged quantities.

obtained by Payvar [11] for high Prandtl numbers. low Luikov's [9] one-dimensional approximation of
Karvinen [12, 13] improved the analysis made by Pay- the conduction process in a flat plate. This model
var [11] and also presented an iterative technique for problem has been considered in recent years by several
solving numerically the problem of conjugate heat investigators including Pozzi and Lupo [17], Yu et al.
transfer for a flat plate in the presence of internal heat [18], Pop and Ingham [19] and Pozzi et al. [20], among
sources. A further contribution was made by Chida others, for simple practical uses or further theoretical
and Katto [14] who solved the problem by vectorial extensions. However, the validity and the applicability
dimensional analysis. Gosse [15] has given an ana- of the simplification considered in these papers must
lytical solution for large values of the distance along be further examined by detailed analysis including
the plate far downstream from the leading edge of the also axial thermal conduction in the plate. It is this
plate. Recently Mori et al. [16] extended the work by question which motivates the present work.
Sakakibara et al. [10] by combining mass transfer with In this paper, we solve the two-dimensional con-
the conjugate heat transfer between the flow and the jugate heat transfer problem for a rectangular ther-
solid plate through the vapour-liquid equilibrium mally conducting slab. The governing equations are
relation. Distributions of interfacial temperature, the first developed in dimensionless stream function-vor-
local Nusselt and local Sherwood numbers were cal- ticity-temperature form and then solved numerically
culated for a parallel-flow case where the Prandtl and using a finite-difference method for a wide range of
Schmidt number were equal to unity. different values of the four non-dimensional par-
The literature on conjugate tbrced convection heat ameters that are present in the problem : the Reynolds
transfer indicates also some recent papers which fol- number (Re), the Prandtl number (Pr), the aspect
 Forced convection heat transfer from a fiat plate 47

u,r
Y

0T 0

,-
.-'"
°
Thermal boundary layer /
Conductive slab
OT=0
9~

3C~----
b b
2 y = -a x= 2
T=Tc
Fig. 1. Physical model and coordinate system.

ratio of the slab (;0 and the thermal conductivity ratio anical point of view, it is evident that when a hori-
of the slab and the fluid (k). F o r a thermal and viscous zontal block is subject to a horizontal uniform flow
boundary-layer regime, two approaches are pre- the horizontal velocity profile at x = - b / 2 can no
sented : one couples conduction in the solid with the longer be uniform, since mass must be conserved at
boundary-layer flow of the fluid to give a non-linear any arbitrary vertical cross-section. At large Reynolds
problem which is solved numerically using the Keller- numbers, the situation becomes more complicated
Box method and relaxation, the other involves the because of the possibility of flow separation at the
derivation of approximate analytical one-dimensional leading edge, subsequent reattachment and the recov-
solutions. The first method encounters numerical ery of the laminar boundary layer. F r o m the heat
difficulties when the value of Rel/Z/k, for Pr >> l [or transfer point of view, on the other hand, it is c o m m o n
(Re Pr)~/2/k, for Pr << 1] exceeds a critical threshold practice to prescribe a uniform upstream velocity at
value which depends on 2. The second method proves the leading edge in order to compute the forced con-
to be valid when k ~< 5 and Pr >> 1. vection heat transfer rate over the horizontal surface.
Furthermore, this fluid mechanical boundary con-
dition can only be realistic when the plate is extremely
2. BASIC EQUATIONS
thin, or has a downward taper cut at the edge. There-
Consider the steady, two-dimensional conjugate fore, in applying a heat transfer correlation obtained
heat transfer in a rectangular slab over which a lami- from a Blasius-type velocity profile to a real problem.
nar incompressible fluid is flowing. The conduct- extreme caution is required.
ing slab occupies the region - a ~< y ~< 0, Nonetheless, we have decided to follow a for-
- b / 2 <~x <~b/2, and the ambient forced flow, which mulation that is consistent with that employed by
occupies - ~ < x < ~ , y / > 0, has uniform velocity previous authors of conjugate heat transfer problems
Us and temperature T~. A schematic description of [19] : that is, we prescribe zero shear stress at y = 0,
the model problem is given in Fig. 1. We assume which is consistent with a uniform stream boundary
that the lower side of the slab is held at a uniform condition at x = - b / 2 for a boundary-layer regime.
temperature To( > T~,~),whilst the sides x = ~ b/2 are One advantage in doing so is that we can present and
insulated. It is also assumed that for the fluid region highlight conjugate effects as a deviation from those
there is no heat flux, no normal outflow and no shear of an isothermal plate. In addition, once one starts
at y = 0, Ixl > b/2. For y = 0, [xl < b/2, we expect taking into account the full details of incoming flows
both continuity of temperature and heat flux. Whilst at the leading edge, it becomes virtually impossible to
the rationale for most of these boundary conditions is extract any meaningful compact heat transfer cor-
physically evident, that for the conditions at y = 0, relation in a simple parametric domain, because the
[x[ > b/2 is not, and requires a little motivation, as upstream velocity conditions will now depend on both
follows. the Reynolds number and the thickness of the
There is little doubt that the boundary conditions upstream slab face. As for the situation downstream
we have assumed are not entirely realistic, particularly of the plate, here too the condition of zero shear stress
at the leading edge (x = -b/2). F r o m the fluid-mech- may appear to be unrealistic, although it may serve
48 M. VYNNYCKY et al.

as an adequate approximation to the situation in a medium. For the outer boundary conditions, we
grooved channel [6] ; of course, for a boundary-layer expect
regime, the boundary condition downstream of the
slab should have very little effect on heat transfer at 0c--+0 asy~: Ix[~oc (14)
the slab surface itself. The above ideas are expressed
mathematically as follows. - ~l asy-~oo Ixl--,oc (15)
f~r
Introducing dimensional variables appropriate to
the present situation as ¢o-~0 as),~oo )xl~ (16)
x y u v 6 although we discuss the implementation of these in
" e=U : d= bU~ greater detail in Section 4. The physical quantities
of greatest interest are then the dimensionless local
d)= ~ 0,.- AT 0~- AT (1) Nusselt number, given by

where AT = T ~ - T ~ and ff is the stream function, Nu= -\@/,.=o ]xl <,5 (17)
defined by
O~b 0~ and the dimensionless average Nusselt number,
u = -c?),
- v- ~x (2) defined as
,2
we drop the hats to obtain the equations governing
Nu = Nu dx. (18)
vorticity and energy transport for the fluid, in the 1,2
form

V2~ = --0'.) (3)

3. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR R e >> 1

For the case Re >> 1, conductive heat flow in the

"~xx +V~-y = ~eV~¢o (4)
solid is coupled to the convective heat flow within the
thermal and viscous boundary layers that are present
d0f +vg_~ _ 1
U~,x t3y Re Pr v20f (5) at the conjugate boundary. Denoting by 0o the tem-
perature at ( - 1/2, 0), where it is clear that 0 ~< 00 ~< 1,
and for the conductive solid slab a total of four cases emerge, namely 00 > 0 and 00 = 0
when Pr >~ 1 and Pr << 1, and we treat these as follows.
V20~ = 0 (6)
3.1. P r > ~ l
where Re and Pr are the Reynolds and Prandtl num-
For 00 > 0, the appropriate rescalings are given by
bers as given in the Nomenclature, and V2 is the Lapla-
cian in Cartesian coordinates (x, y). The inner bound- = Re ~2qj co = Re~'2O y = Re 1,2 y
ary conditions for equations (3)-(6) are
(19)
20
¢=?~fiy=0 ony=0 Ix[ ~<~l (7) so that, on invoking the boundary-layer approxi-
mation, equations (3)-(5) reduce to
1
a2g'=0 ony=0 [xl>~ (8) E~p
¢3y~ = - f~ (20)
1
0 s = Of on y = 0 Ixl ~ ~ (9) O~P Of~ O~P dQ Ozf~
(21)
OY ~'~ OX OY Oy2
~30r k t30~ 1
ay - ~y o n y = 0 Ixl ~< ~ (10)
e [dW OOf ~u? ~?Of~ c?zOf (22)
O0f 1
c~3--7.= 0 ony=O Ix(>~ (11)
from equations (20) and (21), we eliminate f~ and
(?0~ 1 integrate once with respect to Y to obtain
~x 0 onx +~ -2~<y~<0 (12)
(23)
0~= 1 ony= -)~ Ixl ~ ' (13) ~Y ~ Y ~ X c~X (?y 2 t~y 3

where 2 = a/b is the aspect ratio of the conducting where X = x + 1/2, with the start of the boundary
slab and k = k~/kf is the ratio of the thermal con- layer now at X = 0. The boundary conditions relevant
ductivities of the conducting solid and the fluid to the layer are now
 Forced convection heat transfer from a flat plate 49

8tP F=F'=0 one=0 (39)

• =~--~=0 onY=O X~>O (24)
U-~l G--*0 as~+m (40)
0r=0~ onY=0 0~<X~<I (25)
but with equation (34) now replaced by

on Y = 0 0~<X<~ 1 (26) G=0o one=0 (41)

8Y a 8y
where the constant 00 is, of course, as yet unknown.
Bud Furthermore, the canonical substitution G = 00C~,
--~I 0¢~0 ~--*0 asY-~ov (27)
8Y removes 0o from the system of equations (37)-(41),
which may be solved once and for all ahead of the rest
where a = Re ~2/k is a dimensionless parameter. Initial
of the computations.
conditions are also required at X = 0. These come
Now, we observe that from the condition for con-
from assuming that there is a uniform stream at ambi-
tinuity of heat flux at the conjugate boundary in the
ent temperature for X ~< 0, so that the appropriate
vicinity of X = 0
conditions are
80, aOo
Sod 8y X,, 2 G'(0) (42)
--=1 atX=0 (28)
8Y
so that the heat flux has an integrable singularity,
0r=0 atX=0 (29)
which we remove as follows. Introducing plane polar
we return to the validity of these assumptions in Sec- coordinates (r, ~b), given by
tion 5.
X=rcos~b Y=rsin4~
For the purpose of analytical development and ulti-
mate numerical solution, it is better to reformulate we note that boundary conditions (12) and (42)
equations (23)-(29) using similarity-like variables. become
Writing
805
tP(X, Y) = X'/ZF(X, ~) Or(X, Y) = G(X, ~) 8~=0 on~b=-~ (43)

Y 80~
= ~ (30) 8~ = aO°G'(O)r~'2 on ~b = O. (44)

equations (23) and (22) reduce to A harmonic function which satisfies these boundary
conditions is
FF' / 8K , &F\
F'+ T= X(F~-~" ~X) (31)
O~(r, 4)) = ArJ"2 sm
" ~6p (45)
G" FG" / eG 8F\
+ T = x (32) where
P~
A = -2~a00G'(0) (46)
where the primes denote differentiation with respect
to ~. The boundary conditions for 0 ~< X ~< 1 in terms so that we may remove the singularity at r = 0 by
of F and G are writing 05 = 0s + 0". Thence, 0* satisfies
F=F'=0 one=0 (33) V20 *= 0 (47)
0~=G one=0 (34) subject to
80~ 0"=00(~--0~ ony=0 0~<X~<I (48)
G' one=0 (35)
8y X I'~
80* ~00 80,
8j,-X ~'2 ( ~ ' - - 8y ony=0 0~<X~< l (49)
F'--+I G-+0 as~--)oo (36)
with equations (28) and (29) satisfied automatically 80*
by the choice of variables. Letting X --) 0, we arrive at 83=0 onX=0 -2~<y~<0 (50)
the ordinary differential equations
80- 80,
onX= 1 -2~<y~<0 (51)
F'"+ ff~ = 0 (37) 8x- 8),
0"=1-0, on),= -2 0~<X~<I. (52)
G" FG"
p~ + ~ - = 0 (38) Recast into this form, with the singularity at r = 0
removed, the equations are amenable to numerical
subject to solution by methods to be described shortly, provided
50 M. VYNNYCKY et al.

00 > 0. The case when 00 = 0 proceeds slightly differ- Although we have not used this formulation for our
ently, however, and we include it for completeness. numerical scheme, we note here that it is the appro-
Here, the similarity-like variables are priate one to choose in the thin-slab limit ( 2 - , 0)
considered previously by Pop and lngham [19].
W ( X , Y ) = X"+F(X,~) OfCX, Y) = X'2G(X,~)
Y 3.2. Pr << 1
.... (53) For this regime, the thermal boundary layer, of
-- XI,2
thickness (Re Pr) - L~2,is much thicker than the viscous.
with governing equations To obtain the governing equations for 0f, which
replace equations (23)-(29), we refer back to the sca-
FF" / DF', ~F)
F" + ~ - = X IF ~ F - aX] (54) lings given by equation (19), except this time with

y : ( R e P r ) -1/2 Y.
G" 1 ( F ~G_ G,c~F~
Pr + ~ ( F G ' - G U ) = X \ i?X ,?XJ (55) At leading order, the boundary-layer equations are
now

and boundary conditions for 0 ~< x ~< I

0T 02hu {~T (~2~p
F=U=0 one=0 (56) 0 (69)
PY ~Y~X ?,X ~ y ~
O~=XI~2G on~=O (57)
- (70)
i?Y <?X ~X +Y (?y2
- G' one:0 (58)
~y X 1'2
from these, we can obtain
U-~I G--*0 as(-~oc. (59)
Wm y (71)
Letting X -~ 0, we arrive at

FF" - (72)
~OX #y2
F'"+ -~- = 0 (60)
where equation (72) satisfies the boundary conditions
G" 1
Prr + ~(FG'-GF') = 0 (61) Of=O~ on Y = 0 0~<X~<I (73)

subject to (?Of I O0~

on Y = 0 0~<X~< 1 (74)
6Y a ?y
F=F'=0 on[=0 (62)
0r~0 as Y ~ , (75)
F-~l G~0 as~oc (63)
Of=O atX=0 (76)
with the initial conditions already satisfied thanks to
the choice of variables. Here, the apparent shortfall and where a is now given by a =(RePr)~/~/k. The
in boundary conditions is made up for by observing equations for the viscous boundary layer of thickness
that the canonical forms G = QG are also solutions Re-~;2, incidentally, remain the same as before, but
to equations (60)-(63), with Q a constant to be deter- their solution is not necessary for determining Of.
mined. Subsequently, f and 67 satisfy equations (60)- Treating once again the case when 00 > 0 first, we
(63), with the extra boundary condition appearing in note a discontinuity in the boundary conditions for Of.
the form at X = 0, Y = 0 which is liable to cause numerical
difficulties. The singularity may be removed using a
G'(0) = - 1 (64)
coordinate transformation, as follows. Writing
and with Q being determined from the continuity of
heat flux at Y = 0 once the solution for 0~ has been Y
q- S = X ''~ (77)
X 12
found. This time, there is no singularity near the origin
with respect to 0~, which now satisfies the boundary
equation (72) becomes
conditions

O~ = QXt2G ony=0 0<X<I (65) (78)

00~ _ QaG' ony=0 0<X< 1 (66)

& subject to

0~=1 ony=-2 0<X<I (67) O+=Or o n y t = 0 0~<S~<I (79)

gO~ I +?Of I g0~
--=0 onX=O, 1 -2~<y~<O. (68) onq=0 0~<S~<I (8O)
gx S +?q
 Forced convection heat transfer from a flat plate 5l

Of ---~0 as r/---~~ .
(81 ) 0r(X, Y) = erfc
Furthermore, equation (76) is replaced by considering
the limit of equations (78)-(81) as S ~ 0; in particu-
lar, we obtain the ordinary differential equation - e~{r~*~c'erfc ( & 2 +~X ~2) (90)

d20r r/d0~
d, +i =0 (82) which then gives

0,()¢) = 1 -e~2Xerfc(~X'a). (91)

subject to

0r --+ 0 asq ~ o0 (83) 3.3. Solution

The numerical solution procedure was identical to
0r=0 o n r1 = 0 (84) that used by Vynnycky and Kimura [22], the only
which leads to the solution difference being the actual form of the boundary-layer
equations. In summary, the latter were discretized and
solved using the Keller-Box method, as described by
0r(q, 0 ) = 00 erfc ( 2 ) (85)
Cebeci and Bradshaw [23], whilst regular five-point
differencing was used for the slab temperature, with
where erfc(X) denotes the complementary error func- the two temperature distributions being coupled via
tion given by the conditions at the conjugate boundary which then
had to be iterated for; the convergence criterion used
2 ( ' '~ was
erfc(X) = ~ | e -'-~ds.
maxjO~"+'~-O~"'l I < 10 `7
i#
Subsequently, we arrive at
where m denotes the iteration order, and i and j are
~0~ {~00 indices over y and x, respectively. For those parameter
ony=0 asX~0
P, ( ~ t 9 1 '~ combinations which yielded converged solutions, con-
vergence was obtained within 20 iterations, requiring
which suggests, by analogy with equations (42) and less than a minute of CPU time on a Cray Super-
(46), that we should take computer. However, in common with the results in
ref. [22], it became quickly evident that convergence
A - 2x/2a0° (86) was only possible for sufficiently small values of the
7~1/2
parameter ~. For instance, for Pr = 102 no solutions
in order to remove the singularity in 0~. As a corollary at all were obtained for 2 = 0.25 and 1, Re = 500, 104,
to the above considerations, we note finally that when k = 1, 2, 5, 20 ; for Pr = 10 -2, further runs carried out
00 = 0, there is no singularity at X = 0, Y = 0, and in addition to the above indicated that the scheme
the equations can be solved numerically without became non-convergent for, approximately,
recourse to transformation equation (77). a > V/5/3, when 2 = 0.25, and for ~ > v/5/6, when
Finally, we observe that in the thin-slab limit con- 2=1.
sidered by Pop and Ingham [19], a closed-form solu-
tion may be derived for Pr << 1, as follows. In this 3.4. Quasi-two-dimensional analogue
situation we have that A simpler approach for determining the tem-
perature profile approximately in the solid when
Re >>1 proves to be valid for certain parameter
-- = 0 (87)
(TV2 ranges, to be ascertained in Section 5, or Pr, k and 2.
This involves assuming one-dimensional heat flow in
which then gives the slab in order to obtain a horizontally-averaged
Nusselt number and conjugate boundary tempera-
(0n(X) - 1)
0~(~(,y) - ~ y+0dX) (88) ture, which are then used as input for the boundary
conditions for a Dirichlet problem for the slab, as
which leads to equation (72), subject to equations (75) follows. We assume first that Pr >~ O(1).
and (76) and Defining the average conjugate boundary tem-
perature 0b by
00r
. ~ = r(Or-- 1) (89) 1

where ~ = k/2(RePr) v2. With reference to Carslaw

0,, =
i )
Or(O,y) d X

and Jaeger [21, p. 74], the solution for Orfor 0 ~< X ~< 1 then, on using the scalings of equation (19) and the
may be written down as canonical transformation used after equation (41),
52 M. VYNNYCKY et al.

albeit with 0u replacing 00, averaging over 0 ~< X ~< 1 whence the resulting Dirichlet problem for 0~, that is
gives, for 0~, equation (6), subject to equations(12) and (13) and

0 b -- l 0s = 0b(X) ony = 0 --~-~

I ~ x ~< I (102)
0~(y) = --)~---y + 0 b. (92)
gives a series solution in the form
Integrating equation (35) over 0 ~< X ~< 1 gives [22]
V
k- o,(x,y) = - ~ + 2(~,+ 1)Ob
=(0b-- 1) = 2 Re'/ZObff/(O) (93)
z

where (~'(0), which depends only on the Prandtl o=, 1. s~nhnn~ cosn~ z + (103)
number, comes from the solution of equations (37)-
(41) ; in fact, a useful correlation, due to Pohlhausen
where the integrals In are given by
[24], is

G'(O) = 0.332Pr ~/3.

Rearranging (93), we arrive at

(94) I~ =
fo' x' cos nTrx d x (104)

1 the heat flux at the conjugate boundary is then

0b(#) = (95)

8yL.=0 = - ~ + 2 0 b ( 7 + 1)~Z
N u ( # , k/2) =--(k/'~)l~ (96)
1+~

where

2 P r ~n R e j'2
/~ - 1.506k (97)

The case for Pr << l, R e Pr >> 1 proceeds similarly, 4. NUMERICAL SOLUTION

except that the equivalent of (93) here is
Equations (3)-(6), subject to equations (7)-(16),
k- 2 were solved numerically using a non-uniform Car-
v ( 0 ~ - 1) = - ~:~,~(RePr)'/zOb
7Z,,~ (98) tesian grid, with the control volume method of Pat-
A
ankar [26] being used to discretize equations (4) and
and 0b and ATuare once again given by (95) and (96), (5), and regular five-point differencing being used for
respectively, except with (97) replaced by equations (3) and (6). Subsequently, equations (3)
and (4) were swept over simultaneously and solved
2 2 ( R e Pr)l/z using Gauss-Seidel iteration, subject to a convergence
(99)
# krt~/2 criterion
With 0b determined we proceed with a substitution m a x ( O itin)
j - ~ ' i i( m - 1)
I Io)!S~-~o}~-'~l) < 10 '-8
j
for Ou(x) in the form

0b(X ) = Z(X_~_~) ), 12~. X ~ 1 (100) the velocity field so generated for a particular value
of Re was then used as input for equations (5) and
where X and y are real constants to be determined as (6), which were solved for in the same way. In general,
follows, Equation (100), with y = 1/2, in fact expresses a relaxation parameter of 1.8 was used for equations
the actual boundary temperature profile for a non- (3) and (6), and 0.7 for equations (4) and (5), and
conjugate problem in which the heated boundary is each calculation required of the order of a few minutes
subjected to a constant flux ~; in the present treat- on a Cray Supercomputer.
ment, however, it is proposed to determine )¢ based To deal with the boundary conditions at infinity,
on heat transfer between the solid and the fluid, We we implemented analytical formulae for •, e0 and 0
continue to work with the parameter 7, incidentally, which we derived in similar fashion to those of Rob-
because analogous results are relevant in a variety of ertson et al. [27] for a related problem. Whilst we
other conjugate problems : for instance, in conjugate omit the details of the derivation, we note that the
free convection past a vertical plate in a Newtonian expressions for ~kand ~oare exactly the same, although
fluid [22], ~, = I/5, whereas for the corresponding situ- the expression for 0 differs slightly, since the boundary
ation in a porous medium 7 = 1/3 [25]. In particular, conditions for x > 1/2 are for zero flux, rather than
Z is given by zero temperature ; thence, denoting by xo~ and y~ the
finite x- and y-values taken for 'effective' infinity, we
Z x+ dx = 0b (101) quote the necessary results as, for x = - x ~ ,
1/2 O <~ y <~ y~, a n d y = y ~ , - x ~ <~ x <~ O
 Forced convection heat transfer from a flat plate 53

Of = 0 75 each for the regions upstream and downstream of

the plate in the x-direction, and 50 x 50 points for the
by+ -l+-tan -~ slab itself.
7~
F o r the non-conjugate problem, the method was
checked against results available in the literature. Our
o9=0
tests are summarized in Table 1, which compares
and for x = x~, 0 ~<y ~<y~. a n d y = y~, 0 ~< x ~< x~ the results obtained against theoretical results for the
scaled drag coefficient and the scaled Nusselt number
Of ~ Ax-1.2 e -R,.p~-~..4,+o(r .i..2) which pertain in the limit of high Re. The agreement
is particularly good in the second and fifth columns,
~ y+ ~tan-' (v)-~erf(ReJ'2Y)+\~j o(1) whilst we suspect that a lower value of Pr would
need to he taken in order to obtain better agreement
towards the bottom of the third column. This view is
Re3'~ Cd Y e-&,?,4X+o(r- 2) reinforced by the fact that Nu/(RePr) I/2 for Re = l 0 4
4~/2 x32 increases monotonically as Pr ~ 0: for instance, we
obtained from further computations that for
where
Pr = 5 × 10- 3 and Re Pr = 50, Nu/(Re Pr) ~" = 1.139,
eft(X) = 1 - e r f c ( X ) whilst for Pr = 10 -3 and RePr = 10,
Nu/(RePr) ~2= 1.156, much more in line with the
Cd is the corresponding drag coefficient, given by
theoretical value of 1.128. There is a discrepancy of a
2 1 I/2 few percent towards the bottom of the fourth column
Ca . . . . ~o(x, 0) dx for Pr = 1, probably due to the fact that Nu is inte-
Red,j2
grably singular at x = _+ 1/2 ; this order of error is not
and the constant A, given by uncommon in computations of this sort [22].

A -
l
(~ Re Pr) 1'2
i_ '2I.'2 oy 0) dx
5. RESULTS

is derived by considering the balance between the heat For the range in Re and Pr mentioned above,
lost at the slab surface, and that transported down- numerical results were obtained for k = 1, 2, 5, 20,
stream. 2 = 0.25, I. To facilitate understanding, we point out
We envisaged obtaining results for the range in advance that for Figs. 4-11, we have adopted the
102 ~< Re <<,104, Pr = 10 -2 , I0: and so a variety of convention that full or broken lines are for solutions
meshes were initially experimented with in order to obtained from Navier-Stokes computations and that
resolve adequately the thermal and viscous boundary shaded and open symbols are for solutions due to the
layers present in the fluid ; a uniform mesh was always analytical methods of Sections 3.2 and 3.4, respec-
used for the solid. F o r all computations, a mesh which tively; for Figs. 12 and 13, the convention for lines
was uniform in x for the extent of the slab, and whose and open symbols is reversed.
spacing in x increased geometrically for First, in Figs. 2 and 3, the isotherm dependency on
1/2 < Ix] ~< x_~., was used. The spacing in y was also the various parameters is demonstrated when
non-uniform and determined geometrically in such a Re = 10 4, 2 = 0.25. In Fig. 2, where Pr = 10-2, the
way that there were always 10 points within a distance lower value o f k (a) ensures a far greater temperature
equal to the magnitude of the shortest physically rel- drop across the solid than is the case for the higher
evant fluid length scale ; thus, for a given Re, in view value (b); also outstanding in (b) is a kink in the
of the fact that the largest value of Pr used was 102, isotherm for 0 = 0.9 at the conjugate boundary, which
the appropriate distance was (100Re)-~/2. F o r all runs, is due to the high conductivity ratio between the two
x~ = y~ = 5 proved to be large enough. Typically, 20 media. Figure 3 for the high Prandtl number regime,
mesh points were used for the y-direction in the fluid, on the other hand, illustrates that most of the tern-

Table 1. Comparison of scaled Cd and A3uvalues for computed solutions with analytical results for Pr = 10-2, 1, l0 2

Nu/(Re Pr) t:2 ~u/Re12 ~u/Re J:2pr I/3

Re CdRe1/2 (Pr = 10 ~) (Pr = 1) (Pr 10 2)
=

100 1.662 1.215 0.676 0.707

500 1.482 1.035 0.651 0.687
1000 1.431 1.006 0.644 0.682
5000 1.359 0.977 0.634 0.673
10 000 1.329 0.972 0.631 0.671
Theoretical 1.328 1.128 0.664 0.664
54 M. VYNNYCKY et al.

, ~ . . ,

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2. Isotherms for Re = 10 4, Pr = 10 2 2 = 0.25 (40 = 0.1): (a) k = 1 ; (b) k = 20.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 3. Isotherms for Re = 104, Pr = 102,), = 0.25 (40 = 0.1): (a) k = 1 ; (b) k = 20.

perature drop occurs across the solid both for k = 1 the length, before increasing markedly towards the
and 20 and that, in particular in plot (b), any drop end of the slab ; the curves for the analytical solutions
that does occur within the fluid is contained within a do not, unsurprisingly, show this last feature, since no
thin boundary layer adjacent to the surface of the slab. attempt was made to account for the discontinuity in
Figures 4-7 show the local Nusselt number for a boundary conditions at the slab surface at (1/2,0)
range of k values lying between, and including, those which is responsible for the increase in local Nusselt
used for Figs. 2 and 3, for 2 = 0.25, 1, Re = 5 x 102, number, The agreement between the two methods is
104. Also included here is a comparison, where poss- quite good, given that, as mentioned in Section 4,
ible, with the semi-analytical method of Sections 3,1 Pr = 10 2 is insufficiently low for good agreement in
and 3.2 ; however, for the ranges of Re and k that were the limit as Pr -~ 0. A further observation here is that,
chosen, the number of converged solutions that were particularly in Figs. 6 and 7, the local Nusselt number
actually obtained is relatively small, since in most is approximately constant for most of the conjugate
cases a exceeds the threshold values indicated in Sec- boundary, suggesting that the constant-flux approxi-
tion 3.3. The c o m m o n feature of the Navier-Stokes mation developed in Section 3.4 may provide
computations in many of the plots is that of high local adequate results for Pr >> 1, provided k ~< 5 ; this point
Nusselt number at the left-hand end of the conjugate is explored further presently.
boundary which decreases monotonically for most of Figures 8 11 show the conjugate boundary tern-
 Forced convection heat transfer from a flat plate 55

5 in,
10

4 !'•,',2 k=l l 8 k=l

- k=2 - k=2
:i ~ \ \ • - - - k=5 J~j - - k=5
-- . k=20 -- k=20
3 k=5 (analytical) [; • k=20 (analytical)
Nu k=20 (analytical)
Nu
°1"
2

[ ~ __ _ .... IIL~o ~ __ . "/

i

o
-o.5 -04 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0 3 0.4 0.5
x -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
x
(a) (a)

2°[i / 30

'\. - k=l
- k=2 25
k=5 •- k = l
15 \ •
•

- • k=20 - k=2
• k = 2 0 (analytical) 20 k=5
k=20
Nu ~ • Nu \~
10 J \.~ 15 \

5
5

0 ~ [ 'i n i i I Z i i r
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0,2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
X x
(b) (b)
Fig. 4. Local Nusselt number (Nu) vs x for Pr = 10 2 Fig. 5. Local Nusselt number (Nu) vs x for Pr = 10 2 2 = 1 :
2 = 0.25: (a) Re = 5x 10s; (b) Re = 104. (a) R e = 5 x l 0 2 ; ( b ) R e = 1 0 a.

perature (Oh) for Figs. 4-7 respectively ; in Figs. 8 and description of flow within the solid when Pr >> 1,
9, the analytical solution that is referred to is that k ~ 5, since agreement in 0b subsequently ensures
developed in Section 3.2, while for Figs. 10 and 11 it agreement for 0s by the uniqueness property of the
is that given by (100) under the constant-flux approxi- Dirichlet problem. As in earlier conjugate convection
mation. In Figs. 8 and 9, we see quite good agreement studies [22, 25], it is evident from these figures that an
for 0b, although as in ref, [22], there is a significant increase in the parameter controlling heat flow in the
difference between the profiles near the leading edge boundary-layer, here R e Pr, or an increase in 2
of the slab. A similar point has been discussed before decreases the boundary temperature, whilst an
[22], and concerns the assumptions used in employing increase in k increases it.
the boundary conditions (28) and (29) for the start of Figures 12 and 13 summarize the bulk of the com-
the boundary layer. By analogy with the earlier paper, putations in terms of the average Nusselt number
one would expect agreement for 00 to improve as Re Pr dependency on Re, as well as comparing these results
is increased, something which plainly does not happen with the predictions of the analytical formulae (95)
if we compare the results for k = 20 in Fig. 8(a, b). and (96). In Fig. 12, we see good agreement for both
Although we have not resolved this issue by compu- aspect ratios for k ~< 5, but note quite substantial
tation, it may be suspected that once again the value deterioration for k = 20; the latter feature is once
for Pr is not actually sufficiently low to permit a fair again hardly surprising, since the regime k >> 1 cor-
comparison. A further issue of interest is that the responds to an isothermal plate, the solutions to which
numerical method of Section 3.3, both here and in ref. were discussed in Section 4. In Fig. 13, the results for
[22], consistently fails where 00 ~ 0.5, a point worthy Pr = 102 agree well for all four values of k displayed,
of further investigation. with agreement for the high k values guaranteed by
Turning to Figs. I0 and 11, on the other hand, the results for the isothermal plate shown earlier in
comparison of 0b does indeed indicate that the con- Table 1.
stant-flux approximation provides an adequate In summary, therefore, we obtain agreement to
56 M. VYNNYCKY et al.

60
200

5O
k = "1
- k=2
150 k=l
- - k=5
- k=2 40 -- k=20
k=5
- k=20 Nu
Nu
30
100

\ /
\ 20
J
5O
10

"" I "I . . . . I ..... I. . . . . . r ...... I ..... I .... 1. . . . . l- I

-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 04 0.5
0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
X x
(a) (a)

160 35

140 3O • -- k = l
k= 1 • - k = 2
- k = 2 . . . . k=5
120 - - ~ k=5 / 25
i
-- • k=20
- - - k=20 I
#
Nu \
100
N,, ] 20

ao ~ / 15
50
10
40
5
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,'

0 " .'.~ 2 ..['2__...'[Z 2. 1 " ";i K'~IH'21T "Z T'Z'21"~'~'I 0 i ~ " [ r 1 'L L • p i l

-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0,3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
X x
(b) (b)
Fig. 6. Local Nusselt number (Nu) vs x for Pr = 10a, Fig. 7. Local Nusselt number (Nu) vs x for Pr = 102, 2 = 1 :
2 = 0 . 2 5 : (a) Re = 5 x 10:; (b) Re = 104 . (a) R e = 5 × 1 0 :;(b) R e = 104.

within 1 or 2% for ~Tu, in particular for lower values the four non-dimensional parameters (Re, Pr, k, 2)
of k, and agreement to within perhaps 5% when k that appear in the problem. In addition, the Re >> 1
is as high as 20. As for local quantities 0b and Nu, regime was investigated further using two analytical
quantitative comparison with the coupled con- methods of varying complexity. An averaging method
duction-boundary-layer method of Sections 3.1 and that was developed provides good agreement with
3.2 is only possible for k ~> 5 and leads to agreement the full equations for k ~< 5 and Pr >> 1, as well as
to within a couple of per cent for the majority of the providing good predictions for the mean Nusselt num-
conjugate interface. The leading and trailing edges of ber (bTu) and conjugate boundary temperature (0b);
in particular, the method indicates that 0b can be
the plate tend to be more problematical, with differ-
reduced, via equation (95), to a function of just one
ences in 0b and Nu sometimes greater than 10% ; this is
parameter, whilst hTu reduces to a function of two. A
not surprising at the trailing edge, since the asymptotic
second method which coupled two-dimensional con-
method, which treats essentially a parabolic system of
duction in the slab with convective flow in the adjacent
equations, is not able to capture the temperature drop boundary layer was also developed. For Pr >~ 1, the
that occurs in the full elliptic system. relevant parameter set is (Rel/2/k, Pr, 2), whilst for
Pr << 1, heat flow depends on just ((Re Pr)l/2/k, ~.) ; the
6. C O N C L U S I O N S greatest simplification, however, comes for Pr, 2 << 1,
in which case the only governing parameter is
This paper has attempted to provide a com- ;~(Re Pr)l/Z/k. Whilst this second method appears able
prehensive account of two-dimensional forced con- to provide an adequate representation of the heat flow
vection flow over a slab of both finite length and for Re >> 1, its range of applicability was found to be
thickness. The governing momentum and heat trans- limited owing to convergence difficulties associated
fer equations were solved numerically using an with the iterative solution of the discretized equations,
efficient finite-difference scheme for a wide range of particularly for Pr >> 1.
 1 at m 1 - - k=l

• ............ -- --

....
- k=2
k=5
-- k=20
0.8 k = 1 (analytical) o 0
0.8 -
o k=2 (ana~tical) o 0
o k=5 (anMytica/) o o
o k=20 (ana~tlcal) o o -- -- __
0.6
0.6
o~ e~ ~ 0
" + ....... k=l

- - - k = 2 0.4
6.4
. . . . . k=~ o o

k=20
- - -

k = ~ (a~alytical) / o o o +~...~ .? ? ~
k = 2 0 (analyticaO
o <, -¢,++-,¢...+0+. •......
0.2
0.2
_[3__ ~ _J3-- -- --
O --~q~:~ "i- ~ L i i i l i
0 I I I I i i i i {

-0,5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
x X
(a) (a)

1 0.35 - - k=l
-- -- - k=2
..... k=5 o
0.3 - - - k=20 o
o
o.3 ~ ~ " k=l (analytical) o
D k--2 (analytical) o ~
0.25 o k~ (anal~l) o o o
o k--,?O ( a n a l y t i c a l ) ~
j~
0+0.2
Ob - - - - -

0.15
0.4

o.1 ~ o
/ " .. • • . . . . . . . . . . . - k = l o ~ o o ¢' ? o
0.2 ....... -- - - k=2 c, o - o.,..-°-.'-° . . . . . . . . .
- - . k = 5
0.05 b o + . , ~ . +o . . . . o
- - + k = 2 0

• k=20 (ana/ytical)
0 { l I l i l + = , I 0 ~ ~ , - , , , , + ,
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.t 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
X X

(b) (b)
Fig. 8. C o n j u g a t e b o u n d a r y t e m p e r a t u r e (0b) vs x for Fig. |0. C o n j u g a t e b o u n d a r y temperature (Oh) VS X f o r
Pr = 10 -2, 2 = 0 . 2 5 : (a) Re = 5 x 102; (b) Re = 104. Pr = 10z, 2 = 0.25: (a) Re = 5 x 102; (b) Re = 104.

....... k=l

- - - - k=2
. . . . . k-5 - - k=l
- - k=20 0.35 -- -- - k = 2
1 - • k = 2 0 (analytical) ...... k=5 o 0
-- k=20 o

0.3 A k = l (analytical) o
[3 k = 2 (analytical) o o
0.8 o k = 5 (analytical) o
0.25 o k = 2 0 (analytical) o o ~ ~ -- -- \

0.6 0.2

o.
0.15 / o
I
0.4 . 1

0.1 o o o ?..?. ~'. ~' o

0.2
0.05 0 .-O +-o . o -" 0- J : 3 _ Q - ~3411 ~]_[]
..... ° _ ~-,+-,+ .-B-9~-+. ++ . . . .
0 { i { i i { J i l f
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Oi4 0,5
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 X
X
(a) (a)

1 0,1 - - k=l
-- -- - k=2
o
/ .... k=5 o
J - - k = 2 0 o

0+8 f
0.03 ~ k=1 (analytica 0 o o
...... ~1 m k=2 (analytical) o !1 41- \
-- - - k = 2
0b o k=5 (analytical)
. . . . k=5 o k---20 ( a n a l y t i c a l )
0.6 - - - k=20 0.06 o

0.4 0.04 ~ o

, ___-----

0+2 0.02
A o
o. o o .o ._
o .o- ~.. <>...o. "

0 ....... i d I I 1 I I I I I
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0,4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5
X X
(b) (b)
Fig. 9. C o n j u g a t e b o u n d a r y temperature (Oh) vs x f o r Fig. l l. C o n j u g a t e b o u n d a r y t e m p e r a t u r e (0b) vs x for
Pr = ]0 +2 , ,~ = 1 : (a) .Re = 5 x ]02; (b) +Re = lO". P r = 102, 2 = l : ( a ) R e = 5 x 1 0 2 ; ( b ) R e = 104 .
58 M. V Y N N Y C K Y et al.

100 z~ k=l
E) k=2
~, k=l ¢ k=5
L] k=2 o k=20
10 ¢ k=5 80 - - k= l (analytical)
o k=20 - - k = 2 (analytical)
---- k = l (analytical) - ~ o k = 5 (analytical)
-- k = 2 (analytical)

; J
k=20 (analyticaO o
8 k = 5 (analytical) 60 ~ . . . . .
. k = 2 0 (analytical) ~ .

o
6
40 - ~/
Nu

4
20 o ¢ ....... ¢ . . . . . . . o

2
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 1 104
Re
0 (a)
2000 4000 Re 6000 8000 1 10 '~
(a)

~. k=l
10 t~ k=1 3O Q k=2
[3 k=2 o k=5
o k=5 o k~20
o k=20 - - - k = l (analytical)
8 - - k = l (analytical) 25 - k=2 (analytical)
- k = 2 (analytical) k = 5 (analytical)
k=5 (analytical) ~_~ ~ o .... k = 2 0 (analytical)
- - k=20 (analytical) 20

Nu
o9 ~
Nu 15

4 j
10

2 o <>
. . . . . c~ . . . . . 43
5
(31(3- - -

0
2000 4000 6000 8000 1 10 `= 2000 4000 Re 6000 8000 1 104
Re
(b) (b)
Fig. 12. Average Nusselt number (ATu) vs Re for Pr = 10 -~: Fig. 13. Average Nusselt number (/Vu) vs Re for Pr = 102:
(a) 2 = 0,25; (b) 2 = 1. (a)). = 0.25; (b)). = 1.

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