Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in

Article Talk Read Edit View history Search Wikipedia

There is still a lot of local

Malaysian cuisines that
does not have its picture
in Wikipedia:
Join WikiSelera 2021 to
Main page share your local food and
Contents win prizes!
Current events
Random article
About Wikipedia Anatomy
Contact us
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Donate

Contribute For the anatomy of plants, see Plant anatomy. For

Help other uses, see Anatomy (disambiguation).

Learn to edit Anatomy (Greek anatomē,
Community portal
'dissection') is the branch of
Recent changes
biology concerned with the
Upload file
study of the structure of
Tools organisms and their parts.[1]
What links here Anatomy is a branch of natural
Related changes science which deals with the
Special pages structural organization of living
Permanent link
things. It is an old science,
Page information
having its beginnings in
Cite this page
Wikidata item prehistoric times.[2] Anatomy is
inherently tied to
Print/export One of the large,
developmental biology,
detailed illustrations in
Download as PDF embryology, comparative Andreas Vesalius's De
Printable version anatomy, evolutionary biology, humani corporis fabrica
and phylogeny,[3] as these are 16th century, marking
In other projects the rebirth of anatomy
the processes by which
Wikimedia Commons
anatomy is generated, both
Languages over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and
Banjar physiology, which study the structure and function of
िहन्दी organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural
Jawa pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together.
മലയാളം Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences
Bahasa Melayu that are applied in medicine.[4]
Português
!"# The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and

Tiếng Việt
microscopic. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is
the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided
eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of
143 more
superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the
Edit links use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of
various structures, known as histology, and also in the
study of cells.

The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive

understanding of the functions of the organs and
structures of the human body. Methods have also
improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of
animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers
(corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques
including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance
imaging.

Contents [hide]
1 Definition
2 Animal tissues
2.1 Connective tissue
2.2 Epithelium
2.3 Muscle tissue
2.4 Nervous tissue
3 Vertebrate anatomy
3.1 Fish anatomy
3.2 Amphibian anatomy
3.3 Reptile anatomy
3.4 Bird anatomy
3.5 Mammal anatomy
3.5.1 Human anatomy
4 Invertebrate anatomy
4.1 Arthropod anatomy
5 Other branches of anatomy
6 History
6.1 Ancient
6.2 Medieval to early modern
6.3 Late modern
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Bibliography
10 External links

Definition [ edit ]

Derived from the

Greek ἀνατομή
anatomē
"dissection"
(from ἀνατέμνω
anatémnō "I cut
up, cut open"
from ἀνά aná
A dissected body, lying prone on a
"up", and τέμνω
table, by Charles Landseer
témnō "I cut"),[5]
anatomy is the
scientific study of the structure of organisms including
their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the
appearance and position of the various parts, the
materials from which they are composed, their locations
and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite
distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal
respectively with the functions of those parts and the
chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist
is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure,
blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the
liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of
bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of
bodily functions.[6]

The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a

number of branches including gross or macroscopic
anatomy and microscopic anatomy.[7] Gross anatomy is
the study of structures large enough to be seen with the
naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or
surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body
features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures
on a microscopic scale, along with histology (the study of
tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its
immature condition).[3]

Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-

invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information
about the structure and organization of organs and
systems.[3] Methods used include dissection, in which a
body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy, in
which a video camera-equipped instrument is inserted
through a small incision in the body wall and used to
explore the internal organs and other structures.
Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance
angiography are methods to visualize blood
vessels.[8][9][10][11]

The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to human

anatomy. However, substantially the same structures and
tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal
kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other
animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to
specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure
and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they
are studied in plant anatomy.[6]

Animal tissues [ edit ]

The kingdom
Animalia
contains
multicellular
organisms that
are heterotrophic
and motile
(although some Stylized cutaway diagram of an
animal cell (with flagella)
have secondarily
adopted a
sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated
into separate tissues and these animals are also known
as eumetazoans. They have an internal digestive
chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are
produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes
include a blastula stage in their embryonic development.
Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have
undifferentiated cells.[12]

Unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor
chloroplasts. Vacuoles, when present, are more in
number and much smaller than those in the plant cell.
The body tissues are composed of numerous types of
cell, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin.
Each typically has a cell membrane formed of
phospholipids, cytoplasm and a nucleus. All of the
different cells of an animal are derived from the
embryonic germ layers. Those simpler invertebrates
which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and
endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed
animals whose structures and organs are formed from
three germ layers are called triploblastic.[13] All of a
triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from
the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm.

Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types:

connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue.

Connective
tissue [ edit ]

Connective
tissues are
fibrous and made
up of cells
scattered among
inorganic Hyaline cartilage at high
magnification (H&E stain)
material called
the extracellular
matrix. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and
holds them in place. The main types are loose connective
tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage
and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins, the
chief and most abundant of which is collagen. Collagen
plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues.
The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support
or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid
cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization, as in
crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in
insects. An endoskeleton is internal and present in all
developed animals, as well as in many of those less
developed.[13]

Epithelium [ edit ]

Epithelial tissue
is composed of
closely packed
cells, bound to
each other by
cell adhesion
molecules, with
little intercellular Gastric mucosa at low magnification
(H&E stain)
space. Epithelial
cells can be
squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal
lamina, the upper layer of the basement membrane,[14]
the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the
connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by
the epithelial cells.[15] There are many different types of
epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the
respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining;
in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial
lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi.
Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the
vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the
cells in the skin.[16] The epithelial cells on the external
surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular
matrix in the form of a cuticle. In simple animals this may
just be a coat of glycoproteins.[13] In more advanced
animals, many glands are formed of epithelial cells.[17]

Muscle tissue ​[ edit ]

Muscle cells
(myocytes) form
the active
contractile tissue
of the body.
Muscle tissue
functions to
produce force
and cause Cross section through skeletal
muscle and a small nerve at high
motion, either magnification (H&E stain)
locomotion or
movement within
internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments
and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle,
skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has
no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts
slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of
stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea
anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers.
Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range
of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages
and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate
between the other two. The filaments are staggered and
this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can
extend slowly or make rapid contractions.[18] In higher
animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to
bone to provide movement and are often arranged in
antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of
the uterus, bladder, intestines, stomach, oesophagus,
respiratory airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is
found only in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump
blood round the body.

Nervous tissue [ edit ]

See also: Neuroanatomy

Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known

as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-
moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as
ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones
and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most
animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In
simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause
a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals,
specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and
photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages
along neural networks to other parts of the organism.
Neurons can be connected together in ganglia.[19] In
higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of
sense organs and there is a central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system.
The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit
information from sense organs and motor nerves that
influence target organs.[20][21] The peripheral nervous
system is divided into the somatic nervous system which
conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and
the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily
controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal
organs, including the stomach.[22]

Vertebrate anatomy [ edit ]

See also: Comparative anatomy

All vertebrates have a

similar basic body plan
and at some point in their
lives, mostly in the
embryonic stage, share
the major chordate
characteristics; a
stiffening rod, the
notochord; a dorsal
Mouse skull
hollow tube of nervous
material, the neural tube;
pharyngeal arches; and a tail posterior to the anus. The
spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is
above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is
below it.[23] Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm,
connective tissues are derived from mesoderm, and gut
is derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a
tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not
the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the
animal, and the anus at the base of the tail.[24] The
defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral
column, formed in the development of the segmented
series of vertebrae. In most vertebrates the notochord
becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs.
However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the
coelacanth retain the notochord into adulthood.[25] Jawed
vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or
legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of
vertebrates are considered to be homologous because
the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from
their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments
put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of
evolution.[26]

Fish anatomy [ edit ]

Main article: Fish anatomy

The body of a
fish is divided
into a head, trunk
and tail, although
the divisions
between the
three are not
always externally
Cutaway diagram showing various
visible. The
organs of a fish
skeleton, which
forms the
support structure inside the fish, is either made of
cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The
main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed
of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong.
The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb
girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins,
are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays,
which with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct
connection with the spine. They are supported by the
muscles which compose the main part of the trunk.[27]
The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood
through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round
the body in a single circulatory loop.[28] The eyes are
adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision.
There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low
frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line
system of sense organs that run along the length of the
sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements
and to changes in water pressure.[27]

Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive

anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish,
including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies
tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five
pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of
the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal
placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary
and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder.
Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky
eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young
develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae
develop externally in egg cases.[29]

The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical

traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the
features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are
generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills
protected by an operculum, and a mouth at or near the tip
of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping
scales. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them
maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a
cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs
with little yolk which they broadcast into the water
column.[29]

Amphibian anatomy [ edit ]

Main article: Amphibian anatomy

Amphibians are
a class of
animals
comprising frogs,
salamanders and
caecilians. They
are tetrapods,
but the caecilians
and a few
species of
Skeleton of Surinam horned frog
(Ceratophrys cornuta) salamander have
either no limbs or
their limbs are much
reduced in size. Their
main bones are hollow
and lightweight and are
fully ossified and the
vertebrae interlock with
each other and have
articular processes. Their
ribs are usually short and
may be fused to the
vertebrae. Their skulls
are mostly broad and Plastic model of a frog

short, and are often

incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and
lacks scales, but contains many mucous glands and in
some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians
have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle. They
have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products
are excreted primarily as urea. Amphibians breathe by
means of buccal pumping, a pump action in which air is
first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the
nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into
the lungs by contraction of the throat.[30] They
supplement this with gas exchange through the skin
which needs to be kept moist.[31]

In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are
much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet
have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for
swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have
large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in
appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is
close to or in contact with the ground and they have a
long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms
and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of
muscle contractions which move along the body and they
swim by undulating their body from side to side.[32]

Reptile anatomy [ edit ]

Main article: Reptile anatomy

Reptiles are a
class of animals
comprising
turtles, tuataras,
lizards, snakes
and crocodiles.
They are
tetrapods, but
Skeleton of a diamondback
rattlesnake the snakes and a
few species of
lizard either have
no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their
bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger
than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and
mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis
are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof
layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration
as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory
system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their
chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian
but there is a septum which more completely separates
the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The
reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization,
with a copulatory organ present in most species. The
eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which
prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or
develop internally in some species. The bladder is small
as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid.[33]

Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have

an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above
and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates
embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny
ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The
neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can
be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians
and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp,
horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are
modified into flippers.[34]

Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages

diverged in the Triassic period. There is one living
species, Sphenodon punctatus. The skull has two
openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly
attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the
lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper
jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely
projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually
wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than
those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single
chamber and lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-
developed parietal eye on its forehead.[34]

Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side,

the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having
been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly
attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards
are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground
by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no
limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable
eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a
central parietal eye.[34]

Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched off

from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous
period, and they share many of the same features. The
skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs
though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and
rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs. The bar under the
second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have
extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey
whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being
covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not
have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through
the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as
organs of taste and smell and some species have
sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate
warm-blooded prey.[35]

Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with

long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and
trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally
compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the
animal through the water when swimming. The tough
keratinized scales provide body armour and some are
fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are
elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to
remain above the surface of the water when the animal is
floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is
submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have
hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.[36]

Bird anatomy [ edit ]

Main article: Bird anatomy

Birds are
tetrapods but
though their hind
limbs are used
for walking or
hopping, their
front limbs are
wings covered
with feathers and
adapted for flight.
Birds are Part of a wing. Albrecht Dürer,
endothermic, c. 1500–1512
have a high
metabolic rate, a
light skeletal system and powerful muscles. The long
bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions
from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The
sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal
vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow
jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are
relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as
owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in
ducks.[37]

The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are

found in localized bands from where they fan out over the
skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail,
contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down
occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of
water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single
uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces
an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the
bird preens. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws
on the tips of the toes.[37]

Mammal anatomy [ edit ]

Main article: Mammal anatomy

Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly

terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved
flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs but
some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified
into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings.
The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk,
which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of
mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are
usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic
enamel. The teeth are shed once (milk teeth) during the
animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans.
Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a
cochlea in the inner ear. They are clothed in hair and their
skin contains glands which secrete sweat. Some of these
glands are specialized as mammary glands, producing
milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with lungs and
have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from
the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs.
The mammalian heart has four chambers and
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely
separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as
urea.[38]

Mammals are amniotes, and most are viviparous, giving

birth to live young. The exception to this are the egg-
laying monotremes, the platypus and the echidnas of
Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through
which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in
marsupials, the foetal stage is very short and the
immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's
pouch where it latches on to a nipple and completes its
development.[38]

Human anatomy [ edit ]

Further information: Human body § Human anatomy,
and Outline of human anatomy

Humans have
the overall body
plan of a
mammal.
Humans have a
head, neck, trunk
(which includes
the thorax and
abdomen), two
arms and hands,
and two legs and
Modern anatomic technique showing
feet.
sagittal sections of the head as seen by
a MRI scan Generally,

students of certain
biological sciences,
paramedics, prosthetists
and orthotists,
physiotherapists,
occupational therapists,
nurses, podiatrists, and
medical students learn
gross anatomy and
microscopic anatomy
In the human, the
from anatomical models, development of skilled hand
skeletons, textbooks, movements and increased
diagrams, photographs, brain size is likely to have
evolved simultaneously.[39]
lectures and tutorials and
in addition, medical
students generally also learn gross anatomy through
practical experience of dissection and inspection of
cadavers. The study of microscopic anatomy (or
histology) can be aided by practical experience
examining histological preparations (or slides) under a
microscope. [40]

Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are

complementary basic medical sciences, which are
generally taught to medical students in their first year at
medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally
or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by
bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by
specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory
systems.[3] The major anatomy textbook, Gray's
Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to
a regional format, in line with modern teaching
methods.[41][42] A thorough working knowledge of
anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons
and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such
as histopathology and radiology. [43]
: