2.

CRANK – EFFORT (ENGINE – TORQUE) DIAGRAMS

2.1: Mechanical Drives and Torque – Speed Variations
2.1.1: Common Features of a Typical Mechanical Drive System
A mechanical drive system generally comprises of a Power Source (Prime Mover or Driver
Unit), a Power Transmission Mechanism (which may or may not be physically present in the
system as a distinct unit) and a Driven Unit (Load).
 The Prime Mover generates mechanical power (motion), usually in the form of rotary
(angular) motion and which can be harnessed to do some work. Examples include Electric
Motors (D.C or A.C Motors), Internal Combustion Engines (Two – Stroke or Four Stroke,
Reciprocating or Rotary), Gas Turbine Systems, Steam – Driven Turbines, Water – Driven
Turbines or Wind – Driven Turbines.
 The Driven Unit comprises of the actual resistance which must be overcome in order for
work to be done. Examples include Vehicular Loads (Mass and Other Internal plus
External Resistances), Pumps, Compressor Units, Conveyor Systems, Lifts or Hoists,
Force Exerters such as Tensile Testers and Stamping and Labelling Machines, Flour Mills,
Stone Crushers, Construction Site Cranes, Metal Forming Machines such as Bending
Machines, Extruding Machines, Drawing Machines, or Forging Machines, Machine Tools
such as Lathe Machines, Milling Machines, Shapers, Grinding Machines.
 The Mechanical Power Transmission Mechanism is thus used to couple or connect the
prime mover and the load in such a manner as to generate acceptable drive characteristics
on the load side. Examples of power transmission mechanisms include gear drives, belt
drives, chain drives, couplings, clutches, kinematic linkages. Typical drive characteristics
include; position /displacement, speed, acceleration, direction of motion, plane / axis of
motion, type of motion i.e linear or angular or reciprocating.

PRIME MOVER POWER TRANSMISSION MECHANISM LOAD

(DRIVER UNIT) (DRIVEN UNIT)

Figure 2 – 01:Typical Mechanical Drive System Components

The drive characteristics desired on the load side include speed, direction of motion, type of
motion i.e whether linear or angular, continuous or intermittent, continuous angular motion or
reciprocating linear / angular motion and frequency in case of reciprocating and rotary motion
Usually, the manufacturers of prime movers have no idea what load their product will drive
thus they produce prime movers with a wide range of specifications of the above stated drive
characteristics. Likewise, the prime movers also have a wide range of motion characteristics.
The prime mover is generally desired and designed to produce uniform speeds and torques
but manufacturing or operational discrepancies may lead to variations in prime mover speeds
and torques. In addition, load variations comprising changes in the actual loads and / or
behaviour of the coupled prime movers may lead to undesired load output speed and torques.
2.1.2: Typical Causes of Variations in Load Speeds and Torques in Mechanical Drive
Systems
 Non – Uniform Prime Mover Output Speeds; caused by operation or malfunction,
 Non – Uniform Load Requirements Due to Load Fluctuations; such as those
caused by
material inhomogenities in machining or stone crushing,
 Mechanical Drive System Malfunctions; malfunction of any one or more of the three
component sub – systems in the mechanical drive,
 System Operation, the Internal Combustion Engine sends “Drive Energy” into the
mechanical drive system in “Spikes” or “Pulses” at regularly repeating specific time slots
during the Power Stroke of Each Cylinder, one after another in accordance with the firing
order of the multi – cylinder engine, hence in – between the spikes, no drive energy is fed
into the drive system thus the speed is likely to fall, however small the magnitude of the
torque or speed reduction.
 Poor System Operation, such as sudden attempted speed shifting,
2.1.3: Typical Consequences of Variations in Load Speeds and Torques
 Total Mechanical Drive System Failure (Undesired Load Side Performances) such as
vehicular failure to move up the gradient when desired to do so, pump failure to elevate a
fluid to the desired pressure head, machine tool slide that travels too fast or too slowly or in
the wrong direction, a lift that moves too fast or too slowly or does not stop when required
to stop, a flour mill that does not grind the grains due to moving too slowly, an automatic
labeling head or quality control robot arm that skips some items, a mechanical sieve that
doesn’t shake forcefully enough or at the correct speed and an earth mover shovel which
cannot rise to the height of the lorry to be loaded.
 Vehicular Discomfort in land, rail, marine and air vehicles,
 Manufacturing Inaccuracies (such as poor surface finish and dimensional discrepancies)
in machine tool applications (manufacturing processes),
 Undesired Speeds and Torques Outputs in most mechanical drive applications,
 Productivity Variations, due to equipment malfunction.
2.2: Engine Torques and Engine Resistances
2.2.1: Typical Variations of Engine Torques and Engine Resistances with Crank Angle
The engine torques and resistances (and speeds) can be described as illustrated below;
(i) Constant Engine Torque or Engine Resistance (and Speed) Variation; – In which the
engine torque (and hence engine speed) is constant with crank angle, has a value, TM.
This is the ideal situation but is never or rarely experienced as it is impossible (difficult) to
achieve in practice.
Torque (Nm)

TM

Crank Angle (radians)

Figure 2 – 01: Constant Engine Torque or Engine Resistance (and Speed) Variation

(ii) Regular Sinusoidal Engine Torque or Engine Resistance (and Speed) Variation; – In
which the engine torque (and hence engine speed) is sinusoidal as a function of the crank
angle, and, has a constant frequency, ω rads-1 and has a mean value, TM.
Torque (Nm)

Tmax
TM
Tmax

T = [TM + Tmax.sinωt]

Crank Angle (radians)

Figure 2 – 02: Regular Sinusoidal Engine Torque or Engine Resistance (and Speed) Variation
 (iii) Regular Triangulated Engine Torque or Engine Resistance (and Speed) Variation;
– In which the engine torque and engine speed vary in a triangular shaped manner, with a
constant frequency ω rads-1 and with a specific shape of the triangle such as equilateral,
isosceles or any other shape and has a mean value, TM.
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)
TM TM

Crank Angle (radians) Crank Angle (radians)

(a): Equilateral Triangular (b): Isosceles Triangular
Engine Torque Variation Engine Torque Variation
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)
TM TM

Crank Angle (radians) Crank Angle (radians)

(c): Triangular Saw Toothed (d): Triangular Saw Toothed
Engine Torque Variation Engine Torque Variation
Figure 2 – 03: Triangular Variation of Engine Torques and Resistances (and Speed)

(iv)Square (and Rectangular) Engine Torque or Engine Resistance (and Speed)

Variation – In which the variation of engine torque or engine resistance (and speed) is
rectangular in shape, with a constant frequency, ω rads-1, a mean value, TM as shown in
Figure 2 – 04.
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)

TM TM

Crank Angle (radians) Crank Angle (radians)

(c):Square Engine Torque Variation (d):Rectangular Engine Torque Variation

Figure 2 – 04: Square and Rectangular Variation Engine of Torques and Speeds Variation

(v) Irregular (Random) Engine Torques and Resistances (and Speed) Variation; – In
which the variation of the engine torques and resistances (and speeds) exhibit a variation
that cannot be described by any well defined mathematical formulation. It is random in
nature, is unpredictable over any selected interval of time or crank angle, does not repeat
itself after any specific crank angle or time interval change, and, does not have a well
defined mean value unless this is only approximated. The analysis of such a torque or
speed variation can only be carried out by approximating it to the closest among the regular
variations discussed in Section 2.2: 2.2.1 (i) through (iv), see Figure 2 – 05.
The irregular torque variations are actually a combination of various regular torque
variations such as linear, non – liner square, cubic and other higher power functions,
trigonometric and series functions and so on. In practice, these are the most common
variations of engine torques, resistances and speeds, the interactions between which form
an even more complex combination. The approximation of the irregular functions to well
 defined regular functions enables interactions of engine torques and resistances to be
analysed, giving results that are accurate and effective enough for most practical purposes.

Crank Angle (radians)

Figure 2 – 05:Typical Irregular (Random) Variation of Engine Torque or Engine Resistance

2.2.2: Typical Permutations of Mechanical Drive Torques and Resistances (and Speeds)
A mechanical drive system will therefore experience the following torques;
 The Prime Mover Torque, or usually the Engine Torque, TE, which operates or drives the
entire mechanical system forward, and may have any of the profiles outline above,
 The Prime Mover Resistances or Drive System Resistances, TR, which comprises the
total of all the resistances opposing the engine torque, including the inertia forces of the
reciprocating, parts, the frictional resistances plus the actual loads (torques) being driven
by the system, and may also have any of the variations outlined above,
 At any instant of time, the net torque acting on the drive system will be the vectorial sum
total of the two torques,
 For analysis purposes, the engine and resisting torques have a common mean or one
which can be approximated based on the information given for the drive system,
 Depending on the magnitudes of the driving torques and resisting torques at any instant,
either the driving torque will be higher than the resisting torque, in which case the system
will accelerate or the resisting torque will be higher, in which case the system decelerates
or the two torques may be equal, in which case the system runs at uniform velocity.
Ordinarily, the Power developed by the mechanical system, PE, and the Power consumed
due to the mechanical resistance including the losses, PR, are related by;

PE=T E.ω ¿} and¿}¿¿. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [2 . 01]¿

where ω is the angular velocity of the system or sub – system.
If the Engine (or Driving) Torque becomes larger than the Resisting Torque, the system
accelerates by a magnitude given by, α rads-2, such that;
. ..
dω d2 ω
T N =I . α=I . =I . ω=I . 2 =I .θ . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . ..[ 2. 02 ]
dt dt
where I is the Mass Moment of Inertia of the System and TN is the System Net Torque,
 where,

T N=( T E−T R) ¿} OR¿} ¿ ¿.... . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... . . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... . . ... . ... . [2.03]¿
where (TE – TR) produces a system acceleration while (TR – TE) produces a deceleration.
Considering the driving power equation, PE, alone, it can be observed that when the driving
torque increases, the angular velocity increases and vice versa. The same also applies to the
power consumed due to the resistances alone.
Mathematically, the net system accelerations / decelerations depend on the relationships;

If TE=TR ;NoAcceleration /Deceleration Occurs¿}If T E<TR;The Mechanical Drive System Decelerates ¿}¿¿.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .[2.04]¿
The various combinations (permutations) of mechanical drive system torques and resistances
(and speeds) experienced in practice can be represented as shown in Figure 2 – 01.

TE TR TE TR
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)
TM TM

0 π 2π 3π 4π 0 π 2π 3π 4π
Crank Angle (Radians) Crank Angle (Radians)
2 (a): Sinusoidal Torques of Different Frequencies
Figure 2 (b): Sinusoidal Torques of Same F

TE TR TE TR
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)

TM TM

0 π 2π 3π 4π 0 π 2π 3π 4π
Crank Angle (Radians) Crank Angle (Radians)
FigureTorque
Figure 2 (c):Sinusoidal Torque and Triangulated 2 (d):Constant Torque and Irregular (Random) Torq

Figure 2 – 06: Typical Combinations of Engine Torques and Resistances

Other permutations include; Sinusoidal – and – Irregular, Sinusoidal – and – Constant,

Constant – and – Triangulated, Irregular – and – Triangulated, Irregular – and - Constant.
Consider a special case whereby; TE = 100 + 10.sinθ and TR = 100 + 5.sin2θ. The Torque –
Crank Angle Curves may be plotted together as shown in Figure 2 – 07.
TE TR
Torque

10
5
TM = 100
 Nm)
0 π 2π 3π/2 4π
Crank Angle (radians)
Figure 2 – 07: Sample Engine Torque and Engine Resistance (Torque – Crank) Curves

The driving system will accelerate between points A and B and the extra work done between A
and B is equal to the Shaded Area where the work done is given by W.
During the crank motion from position A to B, the engine speed increases from ω1 to ω2 hence
the Total Kinetic Energy also increases, and this equivalent to the extra work done, W.
1
Thus; W =Work Done=Change in Kinetic Energy=ΔK . E= . I . ( ω 22−ω21 ) . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .[2 . 05 ]
2
The Shaded Area = Increase in Kinetic Energy = Maximum Fluctuation of Energy, thus;
Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy (β); – This is the ratio of the Maximum (Greatest)
Fluctuation of Energy to the Work Done Per Cycle.

][ ]
. I . ( ω 22−ω21 )
Maximum (Greatest ) Fluctuation of Energy ΔK . E ΔK . E 2
Thus; β= [
Work Done Per Cycle
=
Tθ
=
2 π .T M
=
2 π.TM ][ ][. .[ 2. 06 ]

Rearranging equation [2.06], we obtain;

1 1
2π .T M . β= . I . ( ω22 −ω 21 )= . I . ( ω2 +ω1 ) . ( ω2 −ω1 ) .. ....... ...... .. .. ..... .. ...... .. ........ ..... .. .. .. ... .. ...... .[2. 07 ]
2 2
If ω2 is very close to ω1, (which is usually the case), then (ω2 – ω1) is very small and;
(ω2 + ω1) ≈ 2ω = 2ωM ……………………………………………………………………….[2.08]
Substituting for (ω2 + ω1) from equation [2.08] into equation [2.07] and rearranging, we obtain;
1 1
2 π . T M . β= . I . ( ω2 +ω1 ) . ( ω2 −ω1 )= . I . 2ω M . ( ω2 −ω 1 )=I . ω M . ( ω 2−ω1 )
2 2
where ωM = (1/2).(ω2 + ω1) = Mean Speed
Hence; Coefficient of Speed (α); – This is the ratio of the Maximum Fluctuation of Speed
to the Mean Speed.
( ω2 −ω 1 ) 2 π . T M . β
Coefficient of Speed = α = [ Maximum Fluctuation of Speed
Mean Speed
=
ωM
= ]
Iω 2M[ ][
.. .. .. . .[ 2 . 09 ]
]
The Coefficient of Speed (α) must be minimised as much as possible to ensure the system
runs at an ALMOST CONSTANT ANGULAR VELOCITY (ω M) and this is done by
INCREASING THE MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA, I, in equation [2.09] hence the use of
FLYWHEELS in all engines and a number of mechanical drive systems such as chaff cutters,
stone crushers, most machine tools, metal forming tools and flour mills.
For regular torques such as the ones used in the illustration above;
 θ2

Maximum Fluctuation of Energy=β =∫ ( T E −T R ) . dθ .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .[2 .10 ]

θ1
NOTE: The limits of integration should cover the maximum areas two points where the two
T Vs θ curves intersect thus A and B in the example above thus θ1 = 0 and θ2 = π.
For Irregular Torque Variations, approximations are applied basing on the closest regular
torques variations coupled with graphical analysis so as to determine the Largest (Greatest)
Fluctuation of Energy which can then be manipulated together with relevant information about
the mechanical drive system to obtain the crucial parameters of the mechanical drive system.
Flywheel sizing is actually one of the key objectives of analysing engine or general mechanical
drive system torques and the corresponding resistances.

TUTORIAL 2: ENGINE – TORQUE (CRANK – EFFORT) DIAGRAMS

1. A vertical diesel engine running at 350 r.p.m develops 600 kW and has 4 impulses per
revolution. If the fluctuation of energy is 25 % of the work done during each impulse,
estimate the cross sectional area of the rim of the cast iron flywheel required to keep the
speed within 2 r.p.m of the mean speed when the mean peripheral speed of the rim is
1350 m/min. Cast iron has a density of 7.2 Mg/m3. [40000 mm2]

2. A machine press is worked by an electric motor, delivering 2.25 kW continuously. At

the commencement of an operation, a flywheel of moment of inertia 50 kgm2 on the
machine is rotating at 250 r.p.m. The pressing operation requires 4.75 kJ of energy and
occupies 0.75 s. Find the maximum number of pressings that can be made in 1 hour
and the reduction in speed of the flywheel after each pressing. Neglect friction losses.
[1705;
23.5 r.p.m]
3. A single – cylinder gas engine, working on the four stroke cycle, develops 11 kW at 300
r.p.m. The work done on the gases during the compression stroke is 0.7 times the work
done by the gases during the power stroke. The turning – moment diagrams for the
compression and power strokes may be taken as triangles and the turning moment
during the suction and exhaust strokes are negligible.
(a) Determine the maximum fluctuation of energy,
(b) If the speed is not to fluctuate more than 2.5 % above or below the mean speed,
find the mass of the flywheel required, assuming its radius of gyration is 450 mm.
[13.58 kJ;
1358 kg]
4. The output torque of a multi – cylinder engine is given by the expression;

TE = 70 + 15sin2θ (Nm)

The engine drives a machine whose resisting torque is given by the expression;

TR = 70 + 10sinθ (Nm)

The rotating parts of the engine have a moment of inertia of 100 kgm 2 and a mean
speed of 500 r.p.m. Sketch the torque – crank angle curves for the system over one
revolution hence determine the;
(a) greatest fluctuation of energy
 (b) coefficient of fluctuation of energy
(c) coefficient of fluctuation of speed
(d) angular positions of the crank when the acceleration and deceleration are at their
maximum. [ ]
5. A single – cylinder four – stroke internal combustion engine develops 30 kW at 300
r.p.m. The turning moment diagram for expansion and compression strokes may be
taken as two isosceles triangles, on bases 0 to π and 3π to 4π radians respectively,
and the net work done during inlet and exhaust stokes is negligible. The work done
during compression is negative and is one quarter of that during expansion. Sketch the
turning – moment diagram for one cycle and find the maximum value of the turning
moment during expansion. If the load remains constant, mark on the diagram, the
points of maximum and minimum speeds. Determine also the moment of inertia of a
flywheel necessary to keep the speed fluctuation within +5% of the mean speed.
[10.18 kNm; 444 kg]
6. A gas engine developes 22.5 kW at 270 r.p.m. It has hit – and – miss governing and
there are 125 explosions per minute. The flywheel has a mass of 900 kg and a radius
of gyration of 675 mm. If it is assumed that the work done is identical for each working
cycle, that the work done by the gases on the explosion stroke is 2.4 times the work
done on the gases during compression stroke, and that the work done on the other two
strokes is negligible, determine the maximum fluctuation of speed of the flywheel as a
percentage of the mean speed. [4.82 %]
7. A shaft fitted with a flywheel rotates at 250 r.p.m and drives a machine, the resisting
torque of which varies in a cyclic manner over a period of three revolutions. The torque
rises from 675 Nm to 2700 Nm in a uniform manner during the half a revolution and
remains constant for the following one revolution. It then falls uniformly to 675 Nm
during the next half revolution and remains constant for one revolution, the cycle being
then repeated. If the driving torque applied to the shaft is constant and the flywheel has
a mass of 450 kg and a radius of gyration of 600 mm, determine the;
(a) power necessary to drive the machine, and,
(b) percentage fluctuation of speed. [44.2 kW; +3.58]
8. The turning moment diagram for a petrol engine is drawn to the following scales:
turning moment 1 mm = 5 Nm; crank angle 1 mm = 1 0. The turning – moment diagram
repeats itself at every half – revolution of the engine and the areas above and below the
mean turning – moment line, taken in order, are; 295, 685, 40, 340, 960, 280 mm 2. The
rotating parts are equivalent to a mass of 36 kg at a radius of gyration of 150 mm. If the
engine runs at 1800 r.p.m, determine the Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed. [0.299%]
9. A double – acting steam engine runs at 100 r.p.m. A curve of the turning moment
plotted on a crank angle base showed the following areas alternately above and below
the mean turning – moment line: 780, 400, 520, 620, 260, 460, 340 and 420 mm 2. The
scales used were 1 mm = 400 Nm and 1 mm = 1 0 crank angle. If the total fluctuation in
speed is limited to 1.5 % of the mean speed, determine the necessary mass of the
flywheel of radius of gyration 1050 mm. [3.464 tonnes]
10. (a) Explain the main function(s) of Mechanical Machinery Flywheels and with the
aid of a labeled diagram in each case, describe any FOUR practical engineering
applications of flywheels in mechanical machinery, clearly stating any TWO
consequences of not applying the appropriate flywheel sizing procedure in the
applications described. Explain the use of lighter flywheels in most automatic
transmission cars, clearly stating what compensates for the otherwise heavier
flywheels associated with some manual transmission cars of the same capacity.
 (b) A single – cylinder four – stroke internal combustion engine developes 30 kW at
300 r.p.m. The turning moment diagram for the expansion and compression
strokes may be taken as two isosceles triangles, on bases 0 to π and 3π to 4π
radians respectively, and the net work done during the exhaust and inlet strokes
is zero. The work done during compression is negative and is one quarter of that
during expansion.
(a) Sketch the turning moment diagram for one cycle and find the maximum
value of the turning moment during expansion.
(b) If the load remains constant, mark on the diagram the points of maximum
and minimum speeds. Determine also the moment of inertia of the
flywheel needed to maintaine the fluctuation of speed within +1.5% of the
mean speed. [10.18 kNm; 444 kgm2]

© THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KENYA – O.D.O / B.ENG.II.ELECTRICAL.C. E. Ds.2021