The University of New South Wales Course outline

Topic 1 Overview
Topic 2 Switchboards
Topic 3 Cables and busbar systems
Topic 4 Distribution transformers
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications Topic 5 Fault calculation
Industrial and Commercial Topic 6 Protection

Power Systems Topic 7 Earthing

Topic 1 Overview Topic 8 Lightning protection

Dr. Daming Zhang Topic 9 Power quality, reactive power and power factor correction
Room 317 G17
Ph. 9385-4070
Email: daming.zhang@unsw.edu.au
1 2

A power system: 11 kV
Assessments
415V
 Mid-term exam (week 7, 6/04/2019)
 closed book
 worth 20%
11 kV
 Assignment 20%
 Final exam
Our main concern
 closed book
 60% of total marks Purpose of this course is to design a power supply system for a
new building, which could be commercial high-rise buildings,
residential buildings, large campuses and factory sites with
electrical supply at up to 11 kV and with possibility of both 11 kV
and extensive 415V distribution systems.
3 4
Tall buildings (skyscrapers): Westpac Place
 headquarter of Westpac bank in Sydney
city business district (CBD)
 91,000 sqm, 166m tall
 32 floors with 6 basement levels
 house 5000 people
 completed in 2005
 cost $627 millions
commercial office building with retail area
3 substations; total load = 10MVA
~19000 light fittings, mostly fluorescent
office equipment (computers, printers,
photocopiers etc)
air conditioning

5 6

Hot strip mill (a furnace reheats slabs of steel so they can

be shaped according to customer specifications) Relevant materials
 Lecturenotes
 Standards
 AS/NZS 3000:2007 Wiring Rules
 IET BS 7671: 2008, Requirements for
Electrical Installations
 Other Australia standards

 IEEE Gray Book

 Service and Installation Rules (S.I.R.)
 Publications from manufacturers

 etc

7 8
Check also:

 AS/NZS 3008.1.1:2009 Electrical installations - Selection of 1. Overview

cables - Cables for alternating voltages up to and including
0.6/1 kV - Typical Australian installation conditions
Requirements on electrical supply systems:
 AS/NZS 3008:1.1:1998 Electrical installations – Selection of
cables (for AC up to 0.6/1kV)  more energy efficient, better energy management
 AS/NZS 3017:2007 Electrical installations – Verification  safer (including personnel safety, fire and equipment safety)
guidelines. Provide methods for verifying that electrical
installations comply with safety requirements  adequate power quality (harmonics and over-voltages)
 AS/NZS 3019:2007 Electrical installations – Periodic verification  able to handle modern information technology systems
 AS/NZS 4836:2001 Safe working on low-voltage electrical  compliant with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and
installations electromagnetic interference (EMI) regulations for electrical
 AS/NZS 3018:2001 Electrical installations – Domestic systems
installations
 provide monitoring systems to assess condition of installation

9 10

Maximum power demands must be known before details of supply

configuration can be determined and designed for a new building,
either factory or residential or office building.
This includes power estimation for the following three types of
demand
2. Calculation of Power • manufacturing equipment requirements (for factory)
• fixed wiring infrastructure requirements
Demand by a New Building • general purpose outlets (GPOs)

11 12
 Calculation of maximum power demand by using ADMD
Two methods for Maximum Demand Calculation For general estimate, the following gives typical power demand
 calculation using Appendix C of AS/NZS3000 Wiring Rules to requirements per unit area of floor space:
determine demand for domestic and commercial type loads. ADMD
 when exact load details are unknown, use an estimate WestPac:
technique called ‘After Diversity Maximum Demand’ (ADMD) 91,000m2, 10MVA
• Based on results from similar installations, typical load density values
(VA/m2) are derived for different types of floor area usage.
91,000m2 X 110
=10.01MVA
• Data available for commercial (e.g. offices, shopping centres, hotels,
theatres) and light industrial premises

EnergyAustralia
NS0112 Design standards
for industrial/commercial
developments
13 14

In estimation of maximum demand, one should make

allowance for future growth in power usage. Once incoming supply is specified, requirements
Typically: can then be detailed for:
 residential premises, 10% 100kVA→110kVA  incoming cable rating
 fully air-conditioned offices, 15-20%  main transformer capacity
 commercial premises, 20-25%  substation size and capacity
 shopping centres, light/medium industrial, 25%  switchboard size and capacity.

Such allowance for future growth should be With this final design, one can further determine
considered at the planning stage in the selection of  fault level
switchboard circuits  proper fuse and switchgear ratings
transformer capacity  other protection needs.
cable sizes for feeder circuits and network of power
15 16
 Calculation of maximum demand
using Appendix C of AS/NZS 3000:2007

 domestic installation (use Table C1)

 single

 multiple

 non-domestic installation (use Table C2)

 residential type (e.g. hotel, hospital)

 others (e.g. factory, shop, business office)

Table C1 (AS3000: 2007)

A. (i):
17 15 points: 3A; 50 points: 3A+2A+2A=7A (50=20+20+10). 18

Table C1 (cont.) Table C1 (cont.)

19 20
Notes to Table C1:
a See Clause 2.2.2 for where the maximum demand for consumers mains, and submains, and final g Floodlighting, swimming pool lighting, tennis court lighting and the like.
subcircuits, respectively, may be determined by assessment, measurement or limitation.
h For the purpose of determining maximum demand, a multiple combination socket-outlet shall be
b For multiphase connections, divide the number of living units by the number of supply phases,
regarded as the same number of points as the number of integral socket-outlets in the combination.
e.g. 16 units on a three-phase supply, 16/3 = 6 units on the heaviest loaded phase (Column 4).
i Each item of permanently connected electrical equipment not exceeding 10 A may be included in
c Where only a portion of the number of units in a multiple domestic electrical installation is
load group B(i) as an additional point.
equipped with permanently connected or fixed appliances, such as electric cooking ranges or space
heating equipment, the number of appliances in each category is divided over the number of j Where an electrical installation contains 15 A or 20 A socket-outlets covered by load group B(ii) or
phases, and the maximum demand determined as shown in Example 3 of Paragraph C2.3.2. B(iii), the base loading of load group B is increased by 10 A or 15 A respectively. If both 15 A and 20
d Lighting track systems shall be regarded as two points per metre of track. A socket-outlets are installed, the increase is 15 A.
e A socket-outlet installed more than 2.3 m above a floor for the connection of a luminaire may be k Where an electrical installation includes an air-conditioning system for use in hot weather and a
included as a lighting point in load group A(i). heating system for use in cool weather, only the system that has the greater load shall be taken into
An appliance rated at not more than 150 W, which is permanently connected, or connected by account.
means of a socket-outlet installed more than 2.3 m above a floor, may be included as a lighting
l Instantaneous water heaters including ‘quick recovery’ heaters having element ratings greater
point in load group A(i).
than 100 W/L.
f In the calculation of the connected load, the following ratings shall be assigned to lighting:
m Storage-type water heaters, including ‘quick recovery’ heaters not referred to in footnote l.
(i) Incandescent lamps 60 W or the actual wattage of the lamp to be installed, whichever is the
greater, except that if the design of the luminaire associated with the lampholder permits only lamps n This load group is not applicable to socket-outlets installed in communal areas but connected to
of less than 60 W to be inserted in any lampholder, the connected load of that lampholder shall be the individual living units. Such socket-outlets should be included in load group B.
the wattage of the highest rated lamp that may be accommodated. For multi-lamp luminaires, the
load for each lampholder shall be assessed on the above basis.
(ii) Fluorescent and other discharge lamps
Full connected load, i.e. the actual current consumed by the lighting arrangement, including the
losses of auxiliary equipment, such as ballasts and capacitors.
(iii) Lighting tracks (230 V) 0.5 A/m per phase of track or the actual connected load, whichever is
the greater. 21 22

Table
C2
(cont.)

Table C2
23 24
 Example 1:
d.Notes_C1 24+2X10+1=45
e.Notes_C1
A(i) 45=20+20+5
d.Notes_C1: A(i)
3000/230=13A

e.Notes_C1: A(i)
i.Notes_C1: B(i) i.Notes_C1 26=20+6

Note: Assume supply voltage and equipment rating of 230V

25 26

Example 2:

(A-N) (B-N) (C-N)

27 28
 3.1 Voltage levels
3. Means & Requirements Supply voltage levels available from electricity
of Electricity Supply distributors for use in commercial and industrial
locations in urban areas:
3.1 Voltage levels
 High voltage:
3.2 Quality of supply
3.3 Method of supply 11 kV, 3-phase supply
3.4 Type of supply connection [by cable or overhead line]
3.5 Safety  Low voltage:
3.6 Reliability of supply
(a) 230/400V, 3-phase, 4-wire system
3.7 Maintenance
(b) single-phase, 230V, 2-wire system
3.8 Backup supply
[underground/aerial cable, or overhead line]
3.9 DC supply
29 30

Electricity distributors for NSW

 Energy Australia
What is an energy distributor? Point of supply  Integral Energy
 Country Energy
Distributors own and manage high and low voltage  Actew AGL
network of 'poles', 'wires' or ‘pipes’ that deliver electricity or
gas to your home or business. They are responsible for the Energy Australia
quality and reliability of your energy service. Electricity distributor for Sydney,
Central Coast and Hunter regions of
NSW
How is that different to an energy retailer? Distributes ~ 25,000 GWh of
electricity annually, to 1.4 million
Energy retailer on the other hand sells you the electricity customers through:
and gas for your home or business and bills you for what More than 1000km of above ground
132kV HV cable
you use.
Almost 500km of underground
132kV HV cable
More than 400km of 66kV cables.
More than 2200km of 33kV cables.
31 32
 3.2 Quality of supply
An important consideration because: Quality of supply based on consideration of:

 increasing use of power electronics has introduced a  frequency of AC supply

higher harmonic level into supply  voltage level fluctuation
 much of equipment now in use, especially IT devices,  voltage waveform distortion (harmonics)
is more susceptible to voltage variation, transient over-
 interference with communications and control
voltages and harmonics.
equipment
 transient over-voltages

33 34

Up to 3000 kVA:
3.3 Method of supply  utility-owned transformer(s) installed in utility-owned
and maintained substation, located on consumer’s
Up to ~200 kVA in demand: premises.
 incoming supply would be obtained directly from  ratings of transformers: 11kV/415V and 750 – 1000
distributor’s LV mains. It is commonly a low kVA in power rating.
voltage supply of 3-phase 415/240V.  supply to consumer’s electrical system from the
secondary side of the transformers would be at low
 by either overhead or underground connection. voltage (415/240V).
 oil-filled transformers if installed outdoors or dry-type
transformers if installed inside a building. Dry-type
units reduce fire hazards within buildings.

NSW SIR 2009

35 36
Greater than 3000 kVA:
3.4 Type of supply connection
 supply to consumer would be at high voltage, most A. high or low voltage from distributor’s supply, by either:
likely 11 kV  aerial lines (with either bare, covered or bundled conductors)
 consumer provides and owns HV substation and  underground cables (either 3 single phase or 1 three-phase cable)
switchgear installation B. low voltage supply from utility on-site substation, by means of
 consumer handles maintenance and switching any of:
operations associated with substation  low voltage aerial lines
 low voltage underground cables
 consumer required to employ electrical staff or  low voltage busbar trunking system (> 2000A per phase)
contractors adequately trained in maintenance and
operation of high voltage equipment. C. dedicated HV line from
utility HV substation.

 By either overhead line or

underground cable, depending
on location and requirements.

37 38

Aerial lines or overhead lines between point of supply and end Aerial lines or underground cable between point of supply and
consumers. end consumers.

Ref.: NSW Service and Installation Rules 39 Ref.: NSW Service and Installation Rules 40
 3.5 Safety
Underground cable between point of supply or end of distribution
mains, and end consumers.
 personnel safety
 installation requires adherence to all relevant Codes
and Standards.
 electrical hazards (electric shocks, equi-potential
areas, anti-static locations).
 fire
hazards (overheating)
 mechanical hazards (rotating machines)

 lifts,
emergency lighting, fire extinguishing systems,
alarm and evacuation systems

43-46

Ref.: NSW Service and Installation Rules 41 42

3.6 Reliability of supply 3.7 Maintenance

Issues:
Factors to be considered include :  Moisture control
 level of reliability required depends on  Ventilation and cooling
application
 supply voltage level (HV supply more  Corrosion, wear and tear.
reliable than LV)
 redundancy in circuits Approaches:
 proper protection design (discrimination, etc)  Testing as required
 proper maintenance of equipment  Regular visual inspection and testing
 choice of equipment.  Reliability centered monitoring and testing (most
favoured method).
43 44
 3.8 Back-up supply 3.9 DC supply

 Many applications require some form of  Rare.

back-up, e.g hospital operating theatre
 Required in some industrial locations, e.g for
 basic system or maintenance of full supply. adjustable speed motors, electrolysis etc
 Generate DC by modern power electronic
 un-interruptible supply systems (UPS) are
converters
becoming more common in building services.
 Older installations may still use rotating
 use diesel generators or battery operated machine DC generators driven by AC motors
power electronic inverter systems or even mercury arc rectifier systems.

45 46

4. Distribution System Close 4.1 Supply system layout options

to End User  Simple radial system
4.1 Supply system layout options  Expanded radial system
4.2 Substation
 Primary selective system
4.3 Switchboards
4.4. Cables, busbars etc  Primary loop system
4.5 Voltage regulation and power factor  Secondary selective system
 Secondary spot network
 Ring bus system

47 47 48
 4.1.1. Simple radial system 4.1.2. Expanded radial system
S1 S1
Medium or high-voltage
Load break fused switch C/B (draw-out type)
Transformer

Low voltage air C/B Load break fused switch

(draw-out type)

Low voltage air C/B

(draw-out type)

IEEE-Std 315-1979

For small loads. One primary service and distribution supply Two or more radial systems. For larger loads.
transformer supplies all feeders. Simplest possible arrangement, Similar advantages / disadvantages as simple radial system.
no duplication or redundancy. Cheapest, least reliable option.
49 50

4.1.3. Primary selective system 4.1.4. Primary loop system

S1 S2

Air break switch

Alternative supply from two sources on primary side of Greater reliability in case of primary cable failure. Load can be
transformer(s). Improved reliability but at higher cost. supplied from either end of cable. Finding cable fault may be
Maintenance possible without loss of supply. difficult or dangerous in some cases (one section may be
51 energized from either end). 52
 4.1.5. Secondary selective system 4.1.6. Secondary spot network
S1 S2

Tie C.B.
(Normally open)

Pair of substations connected through a normally open secondary

tie CB. If primary feeder or transformer fails, main secondary Loads supplied from 1 common secondary busbar with parallel
feeder CB is opened and tie CB closes. General operation of primary feeders. Use protectors to each secondary connection. If
secondaries is as radial systems. primary feeder fails, protector CB prevents reverse fault in-feed by
opening in such an event. Most reliable system. Expensive. Used
Maintenance is possible; Good reliability; Requires consideration extensively for high load density applications such as large
of loading if sustained loss of one circuit.
53 commercial buildings. 54

4.1.7. Ring bus system

System will automatically isolate a fault. No interruption of

supply for single fault. High cost (need more components).
One-line diagram of a large industrial plant.
Allows safe maintenance without loss of general supply. 55 Ref.: Industrial and commercial power system handbook 56
4.2 Substation
315kVA, 22kV/415V
Include following items of equipment pole-mounted
transformer
 general enclosure,
 transformer(s),

 switchgear,

 protection system, Pad-mounted

substation
 backup battery systems,
 monitoring equipment for energy,
voltage, current, power factor etc.

57 58

Some substation options from EnergyAustralia

Some substation options from EnergyAustralia
Pole substation
overhead 11kV
Kiosk substation
HV fuse underground 11kV radial
or closed network feeder

11kV ring main fuse switch unit

transformer 11kV/415V nominal
Dyn11 winding transformer 160kVA (200A/phase)
25kVA up to 400kVA 315kVA (400A/phase) J kiosk
600A/phase (400kVA) 400kVA (600A/phase)
LV fuse LV link 400kVA
600kVA L kiosk
LV link LV fuse 800kVA
60-64 1000kVA

For more substation options, see:

NS112 Design standards for industrial/commercial developments, EnergyAustralia
59 Pad-mounted substation 60
Some substation options from EnergyAustralia Some substation options from EnergyAustralia

Kiosk substation (K type) A chamber substation (two transformers)

underground 11kV radial
or closed network feeder

11kV ring main circuit breaker switch unit

current transformer transformers 2 x 750kVA (1400A/phase)

2 x 1000kVA (1600A/phase)
transformer 1500kVA (2000A/phase)

various LV fuse options up to 1 x 1600A

per transformer

bus section link normally open

Pad-mounted substation
61 62

Some substation options from EnergyAustralia

For more information on substations, refer to
City CBD substations
(no other types permitted in CBD)  AS 2067-2008 - Substations and high voltage
installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.
isolating and earthing switch

transformers: up to 3 x 1500kVA
(5500A/phase)
LV air CB

various LV options up to 2 x 3000A

busbars or cable supplies.

63 64
4.3 Switchboards
4.4 Cables, busbars, etc
(switchgear assemblies)
Include following items of equipment Important factors to be considered:
 main switch unit,  current ratings,
 Incoming feeders (cables or busbars)  voltage drop limit for cables,
 Outgoing feeders (cables or busbars)  insulation ratings
 fire performance,
 Fault protection using CTs, relays,
fuses and their coordination  segregation of circuits,
 Internal arcing detection etc  bundling of cables (effect on thermal rating),
 magnetic fields and any potential interference effects,
 IP [Ingress Protection] requirements to prevent
contamination ingress.

65 66

4.5 Voltage regulation Voltage drop not to exceed 5%

and power factor consumer

load
mains
 For LV supply, nominal voltage is 230/400V +10% / -6%
at 50Hz (AS 60038-2000 Standard Voltages). final
submains subcircuit
 Deviation from nominal voltage can cause problems: load
equipment overheating, light dimming or flickering etc.
 AS3000 requires voltage drop between point of supply point
and any point in electrical installation not to exceed of supply main
5% of nominal voltage when conductors are carrying switchboard
maximum demand. MSB
distribution
 Voltage drop in utility service line should not exceed 3% board DB
of nominal voltage when at maximum demand. This is
mainly a requirement applied to distributors and their
service cable impedance. Voltage drop not to exceed 5%
i.e. 1-phase (230V) = 11.5V
3-phase (400V) = 20V
67 68
 5.1 Voltage drop determination methods

5. Voltage Drop
• Voltage drop determination by calculation with given
impedance of cables etc, load current and load power factor;

• Voltage drop determination by referring to Tables.

5.1 Voltage drop determination methods
5.2 Voltage drop determination for cables
5.3 Voltage drop determination for transformers
5.4 Parallel operations

69 70

5.2 Voltage drop determination for cables

For typical length of 50 Hz building power-supplying cables,
the effect of their shunt capacitive reactance is negligible.

Calculation of voltage drop along the cables can be done

adequately by use of short line approximation represented
by equivalent circuit:

71 For a lagging power factor load 72

 Accurate enough for general use. Used for voltage
drop calculations extensively.
 Require values of R and X which are constant, and
values of I and  which can vary.
 Regulation is load dependent.

For a leading power factor load

73 74

Z=R+jX can also represent a transformer impedance.

So above formulas are also valid to find voltage regulation
of transformers with given load conditions.

75 76
 Alternatively one can find voltage drop across
5.3 Voltage drop determination for transformers transformer at rated kVA from figures:

Transformers are represented

by an impedance Z=R+jX and
so the same formula can be
used to calculate voltage drop
across it:

where R and X are total R and

X (ωL) referred to either
primary or secondary side.

Figure 13
Approximate voltage drop curves for three-
phase transformers, 225-10 000kVA, 5-25kV

77 78

5.4 Parallel operation of transformers and

feeders

 Parallel lines or transformers share power in inverse

proportion to their impedance.
 Important for transformers to be matched in impedance
when they are operated in parallel.
 If not matched, one may be overloaded. Also, voltage
difference causes circulating current and core saturation.
79 80
Taipei 101

509m; 101 floors;

completed in 2004

81
 OVERVIEW
The University of New South Wales Switchboard is also called “Switchgear and Controlgear
Assembly” (SCA).

 Generally, a power supply may need both a HV

School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications switchboard and one or several LV switchboards.

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER

SYSTEMS
TOPIC 2 • Proper control of power flow

SWITCHBOARDS
1 2

OVERVIEW One example of home switchboard:

 Purpose of switchboard is to take power from main

supply source and distribute it to various circuits
within building.
• Metering

• Proper control of power flow

• Protection against damaging effects of faults.

3 4
Switchgear enclosures and housings for large power
distribution PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD
A switchboard may contain several or all of the
following items:
 Incoming feeders (cables, bar conductors etc)
 Outgoing feeders (cables, bar conductors etc)

 Internal busbars
 Main isolating switches or section switches
 Circuit breakers
 High rupturing capability (HRC) fuses and combined
fuse-switch (CFS) units
 Protection relays

 Metering equipment 7-19

 Overvoltage surge protection.
5 6

PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D) PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)

Incoming feeders Outgoing feeders
 either HV or MV/LV
These may be of following types:
 HV cables:
 impregnated paper insulation (unlikely these days)  Insulated cables
 cross linked polyethylene (XLPE), most common
 Insulated busbars
 ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) – more flexible
 Busbar trunking systems
 LV cables: XLPE or EPR type
 Fire-resistant cables, such as mineral insulated metal-
sheathed (MIMS) cables

7 8
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D) PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Main isolating switch or section switches
Internal busbars
These allow segregation of switchboard or its component
parts to allow maintenance work on SWB.
Rigid copper (or aluminium) bars (insulated or uninsulated)
in large SWBs or simply insulated single phase cables in
small SWBs.

Bare LV busbars are close together and are subject to high

forces on short circuit. This and resonant force effect must
be considered in determining supports.

9 10

PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)

Circuit breakers
HV or LV depending on switchboard voltage level.
HV C/B types are oil, SF6 and vacuum units, contained in
withdrawable rack-mounted carriers. Oil C/Bs no longer
used in new installations.
LV/MV (<1000 V) C/Bs are air-break type.
Large MV CB units may be also rack-mounted but modern
SWB will have moulded-case circuit breakers (MCCBs)
for higher current ratings (> 100 A)
withdrawable parts ABB SF6 C/B
and miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) for lower rating
(< 100 A). MCBs normally used in smaller sub-main and
local SWBs in a building.
11 12
 PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
HRC fuses and CFS units

These are also used in MV and LV switchboards for high

level fault protection and, in many cases, there are
combinations of HRC (high rupturing capacity) fuses and
overload switches with limited interrupting capacity used
(combined fuse-switch or CFS units) because of their
Moulded case LV circuit
breakers of varying ratings economy.

e.g. Eaton Cutler-Hammer series G: ratings up to 2500A with

interrupting capacities up to 200kA at 240V.
13 14

60 mm busbar system
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)

Protection relays

Used for higher voltages, together with associated

instrument transformers [current transformers (CTs) and
voltage transformers (VTs)].
Overcurrent protection units are used to activate timing
relays so as to provide proper fault protection operation.
At lower voltages, circuit breakers normally have in-built fault
detection sensing, thus no separate relaying is required.

15 16
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Metering equipment

The metering of SWB will include:

 line and phase voltage,

 line current in each phase,
 total power,
 power factor metering.

17 18

SWITCHGEAR & ITS BUSBAR

PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D) REQUIREMENTS
Over-voltage surge protection Life of 25-30 years at least
Spare capacity for expansion (20-40%)
Modern switchboards also have some over-voltage surge Good quality and reliable switchgear in various outgoing
protection designed into both HV and LV sides to protect functional units
equipment against effects of any over-voltage transients that Proper protection design, particularly in time discrimination
may be generated within the system or conducted in from with flexible variation of I-t characteristics possible
external sources. Adequate interrupting capacity for future expansion
Residual current (earth leakage) protection
Adequate current carrying capacity
Protection against ingress of contamination
Adequate compartments to limit arc faults

19 20
SPECIFICATIONS
Purchaser should specify: STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
 Voltage, power, current ratings
 Required fault level and protection operating time AS3439.1-2002 Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear
Assemblies – Part 1: Type-tested and partially type-tested
 Internal structure, segregation of compartments
assemblies
 Ingress Protection (IP) numbers for protection against dust and
moisture AS/NZS 3439.2:2002 - Particular requirements for busbar
 Arc containment requirements … trunking systems (busways)
 Earthing requirements AS/NZS 3439.3:2002 - Particular requirements for low-
 Electrodynamic forces and insulator mechanical strength voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies intended
requirements to be installed in places where unskilled persons have
 Thermal features - maximum temperature rises etc.
access for their use - Distribution boards (IEC 60439-
3:1990, MOD)
 Testing requirements (Type tests and Routine tests).
AS 2067-2008 - Substations and high voltage installations
exceeding 1 kV a.c.
21 22

INGRESS PROTECTION (IP) AND IP

AS/NZS 3000:2000 Electrical Installations
NUMBER
 Service and Installation Rules 2005 (Victoria)

 NS 0112 Design Standards for Industrial / It is against:

Commercial Developments (EnergyAustralia)
 ingress of various contaminants (e.g.
MORE USEFUL DOCUMENTS particles, dust and moisture)
Low voltage electrical work – Code of Practice 2001
(NSW WorkCover)  access by personnel to live internal parts
NSW Service and Installation Rules

23 24
 IPnumber uses two numerals to represent specific
design requirements to prevent ingress:

 1st numeral = degree of protection against ingress

of solid objects and thus protection of personnel
against access to hazardous parts.

 2nd numeral = degree of protection against harmful

ingress of water.

 additional letter (optional) = degree of protection of

personnel against access to hazardous parts

 supplementary letter (optional) = other information

25 Ref: HB300-2001 26

27 28
  IP00 = completely open, no protection
 IP68 = hermetically sealed enclosure
 IP21 typical for commercial buildings
 IP65 for industrial manufacturing or outdoor SWBs

Electrical installations at UNSW: IP??

IP43 for interior

IP56 for exterior

29 30

ARC FAULT CONTAINMENT ARC FAULT CONTAINMENT (CONT’D)

Arcing: caused by insulation failure such as ageing,  Arc fault current is lower than that of bolted fault
moisture, solid particle contamination, etc condition (because there is an arc voltage when such
fault occurs). +

 It is difficult to predict value of arc voltage. ~ V-

arcZL

7.09E04(V/m) 4.09E05(V/m)  Arcing involves significant energy and thus damage is

very destructive.
 IEEE 1584-2002 provides method to calculate incident
energy and arc-flash protection boundaries.
 Segregation of internal parts limits spreading of
damage.

@ Michael Walz etc

31 32
 NILSEN can have high voltage switchboards tested to 31.5kA.

INTERNAL SEGREGATION OF
CIRCUITS
http://www.nilsen.com.au/
SWBs have many internal components, thus susceptible
to faults.

 High impedance arcing fault is a major problem.

 Segregating chambers will assist in containing

faults.

33 34

Switchboard
compartment
forms of segregation

enclosure busbar

internal
separation

functional
unit

terminals

Fig. D2 AS3439.1:2002
35 36
 SWITCHBOARD DESIGN

Insulation Design
• Power frequency insulation level
• Lightning impulse insulation level (BIL)
• Creepage distance (surface tracking)
Thermal Design
Protection against electric shock
Testing of Switchboards

37 38

SWITCHBOARD DESIGN
Testing of Switchboards
• Two test categories:
• Type Tests: done only on one unit representative of
the design
• Routine Tests: done on every manufactured unit

• Testing laboratories in Sydney

• Testing and Certification Australia (TCA)
• TestSafe Australia (associated with NSW WorkCover)

39 40
TTA: type-tested assemblies;
PTTA: partially type-tested assemblies. UNSW HV Electrical Services
41 42
 The University of New South Wales

School of Electrical Engineering

and Telecommunications

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER SYSTEMS

TOPIC 3

CABLES AND BUSBARS

SYSTEMS
Olex MV cables
(3.8/6.6 – 19/33kV single core screened and PVC sheathed)
1 2
http://www.olex.com.au

2C: Two-core cable

3 4

3 4
 Olex MV cables
6
(3.8/6.6 – 19/33kV three core individually screened and PVC sheathed)

5 6
http://www.olex.com.au

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

 AS/NZS 3000:2007 Electrical Installations

 AS/NZS 3008.1.1:1998 Electrical Installations -
Selection of Cables Part 1.1: Cables for alternating
voltages up to and including 0.6/1 kV – Typical
Australian installation conditions
 AS/NZS 5000.1:1999 Electric cables - Polymeric
insulated - For working voltages up to and including
0.6/1 kV
 AS/NZS 3198:1996 Approval and test specification -
Electric cables - XLPE insulated - For working
voltages up to and including 0.6/1 kV (superseded)
 AS/NZS 1429.1:2000 Electric cables - Polymeric
insulated - For working voltages 1.9/3.3 (3.6) kV up
to and including 19/33 (36) kV

7 8
 CABLE CONDUCTOR
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS  Mainly copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al).
 Al conductors of cross‐section < 16 mm2 are difficult to terminate due to its
 AS/NZS 1125:2001 Conductors in insulated electric tendency to 'cold flow'. Therefore below 16 mm2, Al cables are not generally
cables and flexible cords used.
 AS 1531:1991 Conductors - Bare overhead --
Aluminium and aluminium alloy Cold flow characteristic of aluminium metal: The common problem with
aluminium wiring occurs as the aluminium wire is screwed to a wall receptacle
 AS 1746:1991 Conductors - Bare overhead - Hard-
drawn copper or switch plate and becomes loose due to expansion and contraction caused
 AS 3158:2004 Electric cables - Glass fibre insulated -
by the flow or non‐flow of electric current.
For working voltages up to and including 0.6/1 (1.2) kV This produces an illumination oxidation layer as it breathes. Oxide, being an
 AS/NZS 3560.1:2000 Electric cables - Cross-linked insulator of high resistance, produces enormous heat that deteriorates the
polyethylene insulated - Aerial bundled - For working contact and eventually breaks down.
voltages up to and including 0.6/1(1.2)kV - Aluminium
conductors Copper, on the other hand, does not have cold flow properties.
 AS/NZS 3187:1995 Approval and test specification -
Mineral-insulated metal-sheathed cables

9 10

CABLE CONDUCTOR (CONT’D)

 Cu has higher conductivity than Al. To achieve same current‐carrying as Cu

Requirements
conductor, Al needs 1.6 times cross section area. This results in more space
required to terminate Al conductor.

of
Termination of Al conductor requires great care to avoid formation of Al oxide
on metal surface, which could deteriorate conductivity of the termination.
 Al conductors cost less. 
 Al conductors have about half specific gravity as Cu conductors . cable system design

11 12
 CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
Major considerations in selecting cables:  Very important criterion

 current carrying capacity [determined by maximum  Temperature of cable insulation must be kept
permissible steady state temperature rise]. below well-defined values to limit ageing
 voltage drop and regulation at full load   Minimum rating for cables of consumer mains
 short circuit rating [determined by maximum permissible is 32A; for cables of sub-mains it is 25A.
transient temperature rise]
 insulation requirements and associated factors [jointing and
termination].
.
 required level of fire resistance of cable and busbar systems

13
14

CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY (CONT’D) Limiting temperatures for insulated cables

Table 1 AS3008.1.1
 Tables 3 to 21 of AS3008.1 give ratings for a
variety of cable types and enclosures.
 Allowance must be reserved for future
expansion.
 Current carrying capacity of neutral conductor
also needs be considered.

15 16
 EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON CABLE CAPACITY
 Grouping of cables
Table 9  Ambient temperature
AS3008.1.1  Depth of laying
Current-carrying  Thermal resistivity of soil
capacities of cables
 Varying load conditions
Ambient air
temperature: 40oC.  Effect of thermal insulation
Ambient soil
temperature: 25oC.
 Effect of direct sunlight .
Thermal resistivity of
soil: 1.2 (0C∙m/W).

Ambient air temperature: 40oC.

Table 9
Ambient soil temperature: 25oC.
17 18
Thermal resistivity of soil: 1.2 (0C∙m/W).

IET standard BS 7671:2008 – Table 4C4: de-rating factor for cable

group applications

Effect of installing circuits in groups:

 very common situation

0.84

 cables no longer independently cooled

0.75
 need to reduce current-carrying capacity

 appropriatederating factors given in 0.72

Tables 22 to 26 of AS3008.1

19 20
Effect of ambient temperature:

 Tables 3 to 21 in AS3008.1 based on

 ambient air temperature of 40oC

 ambient soil temperature of 25oC

 If ambient temperature differs, cable capacity

needs to be adjusted using rating factor
given in Table 27 of AS3008.1

21 Table 27 AS3008.1.1 22

Effect of thermal resistivity of soil:

 Tables 3 to 21 in AS3008.1 are based on soil

thermal resistivity of 1.2oC.m/W
 Large variation in resistivity: 0.8oC.m/W for
some clay or peat soil, 2.5oC.m/W for well-
drained sand.
 Appropriate rating factors given in Table 29.

24-25

24
23
 VOLTAGE DROP AND REGULATION
 Wiring Rules allow maximum of 5% voltage
drop between point of supply and end of
longest sub-circuit.
 Allocation of voltage drop in consumer's circuits
 consumer mains: 0.5 - 1 %
 sub-mains: 0.75 -1.5%

 final sub-circuit connections: 2 - 3 %

Table 29 AS3008.1.1
25 26

Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m)
for single-phase cable for three-phase cable L
+ V1 -
+ + + V1 -
Single-phase voltage drop: VS I VR where Z is the Three-phase voltage drop: +
IA
+
- VS VR
- + - equivalent impedance IB
V2 -
- +
-
of each conductor. IC
V2
L V1+V2
V2
-IB
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) given in where Z is the equivalent impedance of each IC
standard for single-phase cable: conductor or in the one-phase equivalent circuit. V1
IA
IB
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) given in
where zpm is the equivalent per-meter impedance of each of two standard for three-phase cable:
conductors in the single-phase cable and zpm= rpm + jxpm.
Given unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) for single-phase
cable, the voltage drop across it is given by where zpm is the equivalent per-meter impedance referred to
each conductor of the cable and zpm= rpm + jxpm.
27 28
 -
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) + V1

for three-phase cable (Cont’d) L

- V2 +
+ V1 -
+ +
IA
VS VR V1 -
IB IA +
- -
- +
V2 IB
IC - V2 +
IC

Given unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) for three-phase

One can see from the last two columns of the table below that such
cable, the voltage drop across it is given by relationship holds.

29

29 30

VOLTAGE DROP AND REGULATION (CONT’D) IET Wiring Regulations, BS 7671_2008: See T3_18

Calculation of voltage drop along the cable under different loading

conditions by referring to Tables 30‐39 of AS3008.1.
For single-phase cable:
(mΩ/m)
L
+ + (P.73 of Topic 1.)
VS VR
- -
For three-phase cable:

where rpm and xpm are per‐meter values referred to each

conductor and can be calculated from the values given
in Tables 30‐39.
L
+ + One can see that the voltage drop depends on
VS VR Load power factor
- -
 Current level Per‐unit‐length impedance for the chosen cable referred to each conductor :
 Cable or conductor resistance and reactance Single‐phase:
 Length of cable. 31
Three‐phase: 32
 Summary L

Unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) for three-phase +

+ V1 -
+
VOLTAGE DROP AND REGULATION (CONT’D) cable VS
IA
VR
IB
- -
- +
V2
Unbalanced 3-phase circuits:
IC
zpm is per-meter impedance of each conductor.
 Voltage drop calculations performed on 1 basis by z is the value found from Table 4D1B for three-phase
cable.
geometrically summing voltage drop in heaviest loaded
phase and voltage drop in neutral conductor. Unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A∙m) for single-phase
 Alternatively, assume balanced 3 load conditions and cable
perform calculations using current in heaviest loaded + V1 -
+ +
phase. VS I
VR
zpm is per-meter impedance of each conductor. -
- + -
V2
z is the value found from Table 4D1B for single-phase
cable. L

34

33 34

For a chosen three-phase cable under certain operating condition, the voltage drop is For a chosen single-phase cable under certain operating condition, the voltage
calculated by L drop is calculated by L
+ V1 -
+ + where
IA
where V
-
IB V
-
- +
S V2 R
IC
rpm and xpm are per‐meter values referred to each conductor. rpm and xpm are per‐meter values referred to each conductor.
Both r and x can be found from Table 4D1B. Both r and x can be found from Table 4D1B.
 is load power factor angle. It is always positive no matter for lagging or  is load power factor angle. It is always positive no matter for lagging or
leading load. leading load.
or Maximum voltage drop across a single-phase cable with a given current:
+ V1 -
where + +
I
Maximum voltage drop across a three-phase cable with a given current: VS VR
-
- + -
V2

where Vc(1) or z can be found from Table 4D1B for L

single-phase cable, and
36
where Vc(3) or z can be found from Table 4D1B for 3 cable, and 35 Maximum occurs when load power factor angle is equal to , lagging.
Maximum occurs when load power factor angle is equal to , lagging. 36
 SHORT CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE RISE
Maximum permissible short-circuit temperatures (duration
up to 5 seconds) are detailed in Tables 52-54 of AS3008.1. Table 53

Table 52

Table 54

Limited by material in contact

37 38

Calculation of permissible short-circuit current for the

cables
where: I2t=K2S2
I = short-circuit current (rms over duration), in amps
t = duration of short circuit, in secs
S = cross-sectional area of conductor, in mm2
K = constant depending on the material of the current-carrying
conductor, the initial temperature and the final temperature;
independent of conductor dimension.
V75

c = specific heat conductivity of the conductor material

20 = electrical resistivity of conductor at 20oC
 = conductor material density
0, 1 = initial and final temperatures
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
Values for the constant K can be readily obtained from Table 51
of AS3008.1. 39 Table 51, AS3008.1.1 40
CABLE INSULATION FIRE HAZARDS
The particular type and thickness of insulation of cables and 1. The cables may provide substantial flammable material in the
conductors will depend on the voltage of operation and also on the chemical structure of their insulation.
application. 2. They generate significant smoke and soot when they burn and this
For modern high voltage distribution systems, cross-linked can cause considerable damage to equipment otherwise unaffected
polyethylene (XLPE) is almost exclusively used. by the fire heat.
For low voltage applications, there are many insulation types in use. 3. Many of the fire products from insulation combustion are toxic
These include: and thus represent a significant health hazard.
 PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
4. Many products of the insulation combustion are corrosive and can
 XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene)
substantially damage electronic equipment for example.
 Elastomeric (ethylene propylene rubber [EPR])
 Mineral insulated metal sheathed (MIMS) cables 5. The cables should ideally be able to operate after significant
damage by a fire; however this is not possible if the polymeric
Other factors that need to be considered in the insulation choice insulation burns away. There may be total loss of insulation integrity
are flexibility, hardness, resistance to mechanical effects, effects in this case. -
of moisture and contamination etc. A major factor in the choice
of insulation used is the effects of fire on the cable insulation. 41 42

CABLE TYPES IN USE

 Aerial cables or lines CABLE ENCLOSURES AND CONDUITS
 They are used between buildings or as service lines to buildings
 They could be bare lines with no insulation covering; or insulated  Conduits: steel, rigid PVC, corrugated
overhead cables, which may be either aerial bundled cables
(ABC) or simply covered conductors. flexible PVC
 For those used outdoors, their insulation degrades due to
 Tubes and pipes: metal, non-metal plastic,
ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
 Indoor distribution cables earthenware etc
 paper, XLPE(cross-linked polyethylene), PVC (polyvinyl  Ducts: metal or non-metal
chloride), EPR (ethylene propylene rubber )
 PVC or PE (polyethylene) sheathing
44-53  Cable support systems: cable trays, cable
 Fire resistant cables ladders troughs etc
 mineral insulated metal sheathed (MIMS) cables
 Radox (Radox is a halogen free polyolefin-copolymer based  Trunking systems: mainly for busbars.
compound crosslinked by e-beam technology to eliminate melt
and flow of the material when subjected to extreme heat such as
overload, short circuit or high ambient temperatures.)
 Firestop: It is fire resistant cables which can resist the effects of
fires.
 Other types of cables for control and communication applications 43 44
CABLE ENCLOSURES AND CONDUITS

 halogen-free, if made of insulating material, for

fire damage minimisation
 Insulation of sections to prevent eddy current
heating
 earthed to prevent problems of electric shock by
indirect contact
 have appropriate IP numbers to prevent ingress
of moisture and dust
 impact of the enclosure on thermal dissipation

45 46
Ref.: General Cable Australia catalogue

 Busbars Max Wright Ltd

BUSBARS  for high current capacity applications

&
 rigid Al or Cu rectangular sections
 insulated or un-insulated

BUSBAR TRUNKING  normally segmented (laminated):

SYSTEMS
 improve heat loss by providing greater surface area for thermal
dissipation
 limit increase of resistance due to skin effect.
 limit eddy current generation level
 DC systems are not affected in this way

47 48
  Busbar trunking systems (BTS)
 Busbars  tightly packaged sandwich of 3 busbars and neutral, with
insulating foil (melinex) between layers.
 Orientation influences natural convection flows so it can
 may require external fins for cooling
have significant effect on thermal dissipation.
 outer metal enclosure must be earthed, precautions for
 Matt (non-shiny) surface with high radiative emissivity
eddy currents
also enhances current rating substantially.
 may require protection against moisture ingress
 Electro-dynamic forces, 100 Hz resonant effects.
 plug-in systems for ease of connections

dbts™

49
50

51
52
  Flexible copper straps
 easily shaped on site to match installation requirements

EXAMPLES
 Example: Simel bars which consist of a number of
adjacent conducting bare copper laminates coated with a
black self-extinguishable PVC compound

53 54

Example 1: Three-phase circuit:

3 load
consumer 30A
mains
1 loads
Point of
supply MSB
1 load
30A
90m
final subcircuit

The line-to-line voltage at point of supply is 400V.

Assume: 3 voltage drop in consumer mains: Vd = 3V
balanced loads, i.e. disregard current in neutral

Subcircuits wired with multi-core V75 insulated and sheathed copper

conductors, installed in single circuit configuration, unenclosed in air,
clipped to a wall.
55

Choose conductor size to satisfy voltage drop and current requirement. Final choice: 10mm2. 3.86[mV/(Am)]*90*30=10.4V 56
Single-phase circuit: Example 2:

510 X 6 X 0.57=1744>1530
510 X 4 X 0.65=1326<1500

(See T3_5)
Item No. 2 (See T3_10)

(See T3_19)

Final choice: 16mm2

57
58

Example 3: Required minimum current-carrying capacity:

3-Ф circuit is to supply a load of 125A per phase. Use two V-75 for two parallel cables
four-core Cu conductor, insulated and sheathed cables bunched
together on a surface in a confined ceiling space where ambient or 95.25A per cable. From Table 12, column 4, the conductor
temperature is 50oC. minimum size is 35mm2.
1) Determine minimum conductor size and maximum route length if
3-Ф permissible voltage drop:
allowable voltage drop is 3%. 125A
2) With the chosen cable, determine how high the current could be Unit voltage drop (Table 42): for 35mm2 cable.
without exceeding 750C operating temperature.
3) What is the conductor operating temperature when they carry the Maximum route length:
load of 125A?
Solution: 2) From Table 12, one can see that 35mm2 cable can carry 110A.
1) Table 12 gives the current carrying capacity under two As there are two circuits in parallel and ambient temperature is 500C,
conditions: A) one circuit but in this case there are two 125A different from standard 400C,
parallel circuits; B) ambient temperature is 400C but in Derating factor for cable bunching = 0.8 (Table 22, col.5)
this case it is 500C. Derating factor for 50oC ambient = 0.82 (Table 27.1, col.9)
60
Derating factor for cable bunching = 0.8 (Table 22, col.5) Hence the maximum current that can be carried by each cable without
Derating factor for 50oC ambient = 0.82 (Table 27.1, col.9) 59
exceeding 750C temperature limit: 110A X 0.8 X 0.82=72.16A 60
3) What is the conductor operating temperature when they carry the Example 4*:
load of 125A?
Current by each conductor circuit is 125/2=62.5A.

35mm2 cable, • two circuits are in parallel;

• ambient temperature is 500C.

(Col. 6)

61

61 62

Example 5:
Example 4:
Select the minimum size conductor based on thermal consideration,
for a copper cable with compression joints connected to a supply
where protection is provided by an air circuit-breaker with a
clearance time of 1s and a breaking capacity of 10kA which is based
on fault current calculation.
Calculate the minimum conductor size for the following two types
of cable:
(a) PVC insulated V-75 cable with cross sectional area less than
300mm2.
(b) XLPE insulated X-90 cable.
Solution:
(a) PVC insulated cable:
Initial temperature is 750C from Table 1 (P.16). The final operating
temperature limit is 1600C as can be read from Table 52 (P.37). 64
From Table 51(P.40), the value of K can be selected as 111 for a
63
copper conductor. 64
 Formula for calculating permissible short-circuit current of cable: Example 6:
A single‐phase cable with the size of 95mm2 from column 4 of Table 4D1B is selected to
supply power to a single‐phase load of 180A. The cable has a length of 120m.
where K=111, t=1s and I=10kA. • Determine per‐meter resistance and reactance of each of two conductors of the cable;
• Determine total resistance and reactance in Ω of the two conductors of the cable;
• Calculate the voltage regulation with a load current of 180A and load power factor of
0.85 lagging.
Therefore, the minimum cable size would be 95 mm2. Use the following approximate formula to calculate voltage regulation :

(b) XLPE insulated X-90 cable: where  is the power factor angle of the load and is positive for both leading and lagging 

Initial temperature is 900C from Table 1(P.16). The final operating power factor. 
temperature limit is 2500C as can be read from Table 52 (P.37).
From Table 51(P.40), the value of K can be selected as 143 for a
copper conductor.
Formula for calculating permissible short-circuit current of cable:

where K=143, t=1s and I=10kA.

65 66

Therefore, the minimum cable size would be 70 mm2. 65 66

Solution: Example 7:
From question, one can see that the cable size is 95mm2 and cable type belongs to column 4. A three‐phase cable with the size of 185mm2 from column 7 of Table 4D1B is selected to
Then one can find supply power to a three‐phase load of 320A. The cable has a length of 80m.
r=0.47mV/(A∙m)=0.47mΩ/m;   x=0.18mV/(A∙m)=0.18mΩ/m;  z=0.50mV/(A∙m)=0.50mΩ/m. • Determine per‐meter resistance and reactance of each of three conductors of the cable;
• Per-meter impedance, per-meter resistance and per-meter reactance of each conductor • Determine resistance and reactance in Ω referred to each conductor;
• Calculate the voltage regulation with a load current of 320A and load power factor of
0.85 lagging.

(mΩ/m)
• Resistance and reactance of each conductor

• Resistance and reactance of two conductors + +

VS I VR
- -

• Voltage regulation along the cable L

where 67 68
Solution: I=320A
From question, one can see that the cable size is 185mm2 and cable type belongs to column 7.
Then one can find
r=0.21mV/(A∙m)=0.21mΩ/m;   x=0.145mV/(A∙m)=0.145mΩ/m;  z=0.26mV/(A∙m)=0.26mΩ/m.
• From the conversion given in the derivation of appendix on page 74 of Topic 5 Fault
analysis, we have per‐meter impedance in magnitude, per‐meter resistance and per‐
meter reactance for each conductor:

• Resistance and reactance of each conductor

• Voltage regulation along the cable

+ IA +
VS IB VR
- -
IC

L=80m
69
 The University of New South Wales

315kVA 22kV
pole-mounted
transformer
(Wilson Transformer)

School of Electrical Engineering

and Telecommunications
Pad-mounted
substation

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

Topic 4
Types of transformers:

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS Oil

 Cast resin
140MVA 132kV  Open-type
generator transformer  SF6
1 2

Standard specifications

 AS60076.1-2005: Power transformers – General

 AS2374.7-1997: Power transformers - Loading guide for
oil-immersed power transformers
 AS2374.8-2000: Power transformers - Application guide
 AS60076.11-2006: Power transformers - Dry-type
transformers
 AS3953-1996: Loading guide for dry-type power
transformers 5-24
 AS60044.2-2003: Instrument transformers - Voltage
transformers
Range of EA standard substation transformers
3 4
 1

LIQUID INSULATION

Oil insulated distribution transformer

5 ONAN cooled type (Oil Natural Air Natural) 6

Liquid-insulated transformers Mineral oil

 Kraft paper wound around winding conductors  Refined from petroleum

 paper impregnated with liquid dielectric to exclude air  Hydrocarbon compounds: paraffinic, napthenic, aromatic.
bubbles and to provide good thermal circulation for heat  Additives sometimes added:
dissipation.  Inhibitors to retard oxidation of oil
 Passivators to retard formation of copper sludge
 Use mineral oil in most applications
 Examples:
 Such oil is highly flammable. Transformers are generally  Shell Diala Oil B: straight mineral napthenic solvent refined oil
limited to Class A materials temperature rise limits of  Shell Diala Oil BX: Diala B with added oxidation inhibitor
about 60-70oC. Outdoor use only.
 Moisture is a major problem.

7 8
Askarel Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

 essentially a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)  Mixtures of synthetic organic chemicals with same basic
chemical structure and similar physical properties ranging
 artificial
insulating oil which is almost non- from oily liquids to waxy solids.
 Non-flammable, chemically stable, high boiling point and
flammable. electrical insulating properties.
 Used in many industrial and commercial applications
 toxic effects, particularly if heated or burnt including electrical, heat transfer, and hydraulic
equipment; as plasticizers in paints, plastics and rubber
 now banned from use in most countries products; in pigments, dyes and carbonless copy paper
and many other applications
 some PCB insulated transformers still in service  Health effects: carcinogenic (cancer) and non-
carcinogenic (effects on immune system, nervous
system)

9 10

Silicone oil Ester

 tetrachloro-benzyl toluene with ~40% trichlorobenzene  Organic compounds that result from interaction of acids
and alcohol
 essentially non-flammable and no toxicity problems
 Natural or synthetic
 most favoured synthetic transformer insulating oil
 Bio-degradable, no adverse toxic environmental or
 convective heat dissipation coefficient not so good
aquatic side-effects.
 electrical properties very similar to mineral oil
 Higher flash and fire points than mineral oil.
 more expensive
 More hygroscopic than mineral oil, less affected by
moisture.
 Becoming more popular as alternative fluids for
transformers
11 12
 2

DRY TYPE INSULATION

Ref: ABB Biotemp fluid

13 14

Open winding type

 windings in open air

 paper-insulated or nomex-insulated windings
 or insulating varnish coating applied to windings.
 problem with moisture ingress
 increase dielectric losses in insulation (dielectric
dissipation factor)
 reduce insulation strength

15 Dry-type transformer, open winding. 16

Cast resin type

 cast solid epoxy resin structure

 much less susceptible to moisture ingress and
absorption.
 differential expansion or contraction can cause
cracking.
 more costly than open structure dry-type
transformer and often more expensive than
silicone oil transformers.

17 Dry-type transformer, cast resin. 18

SF6 gas insulated transformer

 non-flammable
 used increasingly in buildings and in high-density areas
 very expensive but very reliable.
 SF6 is a non-toxic gas with very good electrical insulation
properties and thermal transfer properties.
 typically operate at ~2Atm where dielectric strength is
similar to oil.
 greenhouse problems
 SF6-N2 mixture as alternative

19 SF6 gas insulated transformer 20

Reduction of insulation life Transformer impedance and S/C

 loading effect on operating temperature  effect of transformer impedance on prospective

fault current is significant
 increased temperature causes increased
chemical reactions in insulation and lead to  typically around 5%
deterioration by changing insulation composition  usually, leakage inductance component is major
 rule of thumb: increase of continuous operating contribution to impedance
temperature by 10oC causes reduction of
insulation life by ~50%.
 details in loading guides, e.g. AS 2374.7-1997
(oil-filled transformers) and AS 3953-1996 (dry-
type transformers). 21 22

Transformer impedance and S/C Tappings on windings

 for adjusting voltage level
 tapping points normally on HV windings.
 allow ~10% voltage variation, in ~1% steps.
 manually change while transformer is de-energised
and isolated)
 Normally on-load tap changer (OLTC) is not available
for distribution transformers used in buildings

23 24
 Connections
 many possible variations of winding connections.
 affect magnitude of voltages and phase shift between primary
and secondary.
 common winding connections:
 DYn11 (most common, HV delta, LV star, neutral
brought out, LV leads HV by 30o)
 DY1
 DY5
 DY7
 star-connected on LV side to eliminate circulating triplen
harmonics.
 HV side is almost always in delta connection.
Transformer with on-load tap changing
[rating about 5000kVA]
25 26

Diagram of common winding connections: HV winding phase ‘A’ phasor VAg (voltage VAC
between phase A and ground) points at 12
A B C A B C o’clock.
VA

LV winding phase ‘a’ phasor Vag is oriented Van

according to induced voltage relation which 300
results from the connection. -VC
A B C
a b c
a b c
+ Vag =Van
VAC
-
A B C A B C
VC VB
a b c

+
a b c a b c Van VAg
Vag
- n Dy1
For this case, connection type is Dy1
Ref: Annex D, AS60076.1-2005
since Vag at low voltage side points at 1
on the face of clock.
27 28
HV winding phase ‘A’ phasor VAg
points at 12 o’clock.
VAB
Parallel Operation
VA If transformers are used in parallel, ensure they have:
A B C
+ Van  same voltage ratios
300
VAB  If not, will cause circulating current, overheating
-VB
-  same tap points in use (i.e. same voltage)
Vag =Van
 same vector diagram (same phase shift)
a b c
 If not, line and phase voltages will be intermixed.
+ VC Overstress insulation.
Van
VB  same internal impedance (preferable)
- n VAg  If not, will cause unequal loading
Vag
Dy11
For this case, connection type is Dy11
since Vag at low voltage side points at 11
on the face of clock.
29 30

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
1
PART 2
CONSTRUCTION
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND EFFICIENCY

31 32
Core and winding structure of a single phase transformer:
(a) Core type, (b) Shell type
Core Form is the most prevalent type in use.

Types of transformer winding

(a) Concentric, (b) Sandwich – made up of disc sections.

Core construction of 3-phase transformer

(a) Core type (b) Shell type or 5 limb core
33 34

Full equivalent circuit

EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

Parameters in the circuit are determined by open-circuit and

short-circuit tests.

35 36
Equivalent circuit: Equivalent circuit:

Equivalent circuit referred to the primary side:

Equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side:

37 38

Lumped equivalent circuit referred to the primary side:

Phasor diagram
39 40
 Example:
4000/400V 10kVA transformer:
Primary winding resistance: Rp=13Ω
Secondary winding resistance: Rs=0.15Ω
Total leakage reactance referred to primary: X=45Ω
Magnetizing reactance referred to primary: Xm=6kΩ
Core loss resistance referred to primary: Rc=12kΩ
When the secondary side is short-circuited, impedance Z determines the
fault current. This is the method to determine transformer impedance Z Determine:
(Short Circuit Test).
Secondary is shorted and primary volts are raised until rated current I2 flows
in secondary. Then
Since I1 is rated current value [1 per unit or 100%], then Z%=V1(test) [p.u.]
X value can be found from
The transformer nameplate normally gives a percentage value for Z, which
is termed the “Impedance Voltage”.
R is total winding resistance and can be measured with a resistance meter.
Very temperature dependent. Thus it should be measured at normal
operating temperature. Difference between R at ambient and operating
temperature may be as much as 30%. 41 42

(iii) Input current a) Secondary is open-circuit; b) I2=25A at 0.8 lagging PF.

Solution:
(in phase with V1) (lag V1 by 90o)

Hence
Thus

When

Thus, referred to primary:

Hence

Normally V2=400V.

4000/400V
10 kVA transformer

43 44
(iv) Core loss and winding (load) loss in case b) of (iii)
(iii) b) I2=25A at 0.8 lagging PF

Total loss = 1616 W

3
(v) Efficiency at full load at unity power factor
Full load |S|=10kVA
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Unity power factor p.f.=1

4000/400V
10 kVA transformer

Normally V2=400V, V2’=4000V.

45 46

Two components of transformer losses:

 load (copper) loss in resistance of windings
Copper loss:
 load-dependent
 scales as square of load current
 temperature-dependent

 core (iron) loss in the core material

 comprise hysteresis and eddy current losses
 constant whenever transformer is energised
and independent of load

47 48
Core loss:

49 50

Efficiency
Power efficiency

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY For a load with voltage V2, current I2 and power factor cosφ,

51 52
 Efficiency (Cont’d)
Efficiency (Cont’d) Energy efficiency
 Very efficient, typically 95 – 99%  Load will vary (usually) in a cyclic manner
 Varies with load  Hence consider energy efficiency (instead of power efficiency)
 For a given power factor, maximum efficiency occurs when For example, for a daily load duty cycle of the following:
core loss =copper loss.  8 hours at full load, 0.8 lagging (V2*I2*100%)*0.8*8
 6 hours at 0.6 per-unit of full load, 0.8 lagging
 6 hours at 0.4 per-unit of full load, unity PF
 4 hours at no load (but energised) S P E
The energy efficiency is given by the following equation:

Thus

53 54

MEPS
 AS2374.1.2-2003 Power Transformer Part 1.2:
Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS)
requirement for distribution transformers.
 Power efficiency determined at 50% of rated load
at unity power factor. EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON
 Apply to dry-type and oil- TRANSFORMER PERFORMANCE
immersed type, 1 and 3
power transformers, 10kVA
to 2.5MVA, used in 11kV
and 22kV networks.
 Standard also defines
minimum efficiency levels
for "High Power Efficiency
Transformers".

55 56
 Harmonics problem from
 non-sinusoidal supply voltage;
K-Factor method
 non-sinusoidal current due to non-linear loads. Total harmonic distortion of a current waveform:
 Both core loss and copper loss in transformer are frequency
dependent.
 Effect of load current harmonics on voltage across transformer
is negligible. Hence core loss is still treated as constant. Pure
sinusoidal supply voltage is assumed in the analysis. K-factor:
 Only copper loss increase is considered when de-rating
calculations are performed for the transformer.
 2 methods can be used to calculate de-rating factor:  Because the eddy current losses scale as the square of
 Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association frequency, the K-factor provides a useful indicator of the
(CBMEA) Crest Factor method. CBEMA crest factor method is increased heating due to the harmonic content.
not widely used as it is not very accurate.
 IEEE K-factor method: more accurate; normally adopted.  Typically, K may vary up to 20 or more for badly distorted
current waveforms.
57 58

The maximum permissible current is given by Example:

100kW of personal computers are supplied from transformer rated
at 150kVA and with a typical value of PEC(R) =10%. Calculate
maximum permissible current and power by the transformer.

where
•PEC(R)pu is eddy current loss in per unit at rated current at 50Hz;
Typically it is equal to 10%.

•K-factor is given by

Harmonic current
levels caused by
the PCs

59 60
 100kW of personal
computers are supplied
from transformer rated
at 150kVA

61 62

K-factor transformers Amorphous metal. Very low loss.

Eg. HB1 from Metglass
 Specifically designed for use with loads that produce
harmonic distortion (without need to de-rate)
 Typically K-factor value is around 15
 Compared to standard-type transformers, K-factor
transformers are:
 more expensive (twice)
 heavier (20% more)
1.6MVA amorphous iron core
 larger
transformer (Ireland, 1998)
 lower impedance
No-load (core) loss = 384W
Load (copper) loss = 18.2kW

63 Source: Intelligent Energy Europe Programme 64

 The University of New South Wales
There are two major problems that can occur in electrical
systems: open circuits and short circuits.

Short circuit is the most dangerous because it can lead to very

high fault currents, which could cause equipment damage, fire,
injury, etc.
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications Fault calculation is necessary for the following purposes:
To choose equipment with proper short-circuit current ratings;
To design protection system for clearing the fault when it occurs.
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

Topic 5

FAULT CALCULATIONS

1 2

Fault types
1) Single line-to-ground fault (70% to 80%) (unsymmetrical fault)
Difficulties: 2) Line-to-line fault (unsymmetrical fault)
 many types of fault in three phase systems 3) Double line-to-ground fault (unsymmetrical fault)
4) Three-phase short-circuit fault (symmetrical fault) etc
 must know impedances of all system components
 fault impedance itself may be non-zero, value =?
Type 2
 fault
current contribution from machines etc. Type 1

 DC offset in initial cycles of fault current

 difficult to estimate accurately earth impedance

Type 3 Type 4
 DC system faults also include inductance effects

Zf = 0
We consider only bolted 3-phase faults. This type gives
maximum fault current level at any location compared with other
3 types of faults and represents worst case situations. 4
 The prospective fault current varies at different points in the
Prospective s/c current and fault level (power): supply

 It is important parameter that designer of an

electrical installation needs to know. It can be
obtained from electricity distributor.
 Prospective short-circuit current = current which
would flow as a result of a bolted 3-phase fault.
Typical value at point of supply for 230/400V Example:
NSW distribution systems An 11kV-to-400/230V transformer has a prospective fault current
 Suburban residential areas: 10 kA of 32kA at the secondary terminals. The consumers mains circuit
 Commercial and industrial areas: 25 kA has a route length of 25m, using single-core 120mm2 active
conductors and 70mm2 neutral. The submains circuit has a
 Knowing fault level at one location, total route length of 35m, using 16mm2 multi-core cables.
impedance of upstream circuit and devices Determine prospective fault current at main switch board (MSB)
can be derived. and distribution board (DB).
5 6

Solution:
When the cable size is not very
large, its reactance is small
compared with its resistance.
Hence reactance is ignored.
Total upstream impedance seen from secondary side of transformer is

Assume cable temperature is 45oC. From Table 34 of

AS3008.1, impedance of consumers mains (1 phase) is

Prospective fault current at main switchboard:

Assume cable temperature is 45oC. From Table 35 of AS3008.1, impedance of

the submains (1 phase) is

Prospective fault current at the distribution board is

7 8
 1

PER UNIT SYSTEM

11-17

9 10

Per unit values:

 normalize electrical quantities

 express voltage, current, kVA and impedance as
percentages (per unit values) of their base values
 simplify calculations substantially.
 transformer treated as a simple impedance (no
need for ratio).

11 12
 need to specify two base values, and the other  normally, VB is taken as rated system voltage.
two base values can be derived.
 SB is arbitrarily specified (say 10 or 1 MVA), or
 usually, specify VB and SB use rating of a major system component, e.g.
supply transformer.
 and thus:

13 14

Three-phase systems
Example:

 calculationsdone on a single-phase basis using

per unit phase impedances in the one-line
diagram.
 VB is line voltage and SB is three-phase kVA
 and note:

15 16
 Example:

17 18

j0.24 Vb=33kV j0.24 Vb=33kV

Vb=11kV j0.2 j0.575 Vb=11kV j0.2 j0.575

Vb=132kV Vb=132kV
Sb=100MVA Sb=100MVA

19 20
 j0.24 Vb=33kV
Vb=11kV j0.2 j0.575

Vb=132kV
Sb=100MVA

EFFECTS AND REQUIREMENTS

21 22

Typical fault current

Knowing fault levels enables determination of:

 over-current protection requirements
 peak electromagnetic forces
 thermal heating effects
 maximum fault current (and minimum fault current)
 timediscrimination requirements of protection
operation
 touch voltage on earthed object (personnel safety) -

23 24
Sources of fault currents: Fault impedance variation:
 electrical utility supply grid system  For the utility supply, source impedance is
constant (a stiff source)
 any in-house generation systems operating at  For in-house generators or motors, impedance is
time of the fault time-varying, depending on the time after the
 any motors operating within the system at time of short circuit:
the fault  sub-transient reactance (Xd” )
 transient reactance (Xd’ )
 anyelectrical storage elements in the system (e.g
capacitors) -  synchronous reactance (Xs )
 Synchronous motors sustain fault current longer
than induction motors -

25 26

DC offset:
 Offset can increase initial current levels substantially

 Magnitude of DC offset level is governed primarily

by X/R ratio of faulted circuit

 Itis also dependent on angle of voltage waveform

at which fault occurs

27 28
Multiplier due to DC component in the fault current But when the fault occurs close to large generators, X/R ratio is very large
due to small resistance in the generators, the time-varying term decays
slowly in the K(t) expression. In such case, the influence of DC component
on total fault current must be taken into account.

Within our concern, fault occurs at the distribution side. Hence

influence of DC component is ignored and K is equal to 1.
: the total fault current is addition of DC and AC components.
Therefore, when calculating fault current at distribution side, one only needs
to calculate the rms value of ac component in the fault current or Iac.

We can see that the rms value of asymmetrical fault current i(t) or
total fault current equals the rms value of ac component iac(t) of the
fault current times an “asymmetry factor” K(t). - X
X/R or L/R ratio is relatively small at distribution side or consumer side
due to relatively large resistance seen towards the source. Then the time- X
varying term in the K(t) expression decays fast to zero. Hence DC
component has small influence on overall fault current. That is to say, in the
fault current, DC component can be ignored.

29 30

Assumptions:

FAULT CALCULATION METHODS RG

31 32
 Then fault current and fault power in per unit value are:
Procedure: F
 Convert all impedances to per unit values
 Draw one-phase equivalent circuit in per unit, and
including all possible sources modeled as ideal
voltage source with their source impedance When one chooses suitable voltage base to make Vth=1, then
 Simplify the circuit and reduce it to

Actual fault current in amperes is

s.c.
and fault power level at point F is

Note the advantage of using Vth=1. -

Normally Vth=1, taken as reference phasor.

33 34

Example IET Wiring Regulations, BS 7671_2008: See T3_18

A three‐phase power system is shown below, where Bus 1 is connected to a utility supply with a
fault level of 100MVA and a pure inductive internal impedance.

Three‐phase four‐wire cables between Bus 2 and Bus 3 are 4X 300 mm2 Cu/pvc/pvc as given in
the column 7 of Table 4D1B and its length is 150m.
(mΩ/m)

Choose a power base of 1MVA and voltage base of 22kV at Bus 1 for the following computation.

Calculate maximum fault current in amperes for fault at 1) Bus 2; 2) Bus 3 respectively.

Ignore contribution by loads to fault currents. Use both approximate and exact methods to
compute fault currents. Compare the results.

From the Table, one can determine the per‐unit‐length resistance and reactance for
the chosen cable referred to each conductor (See Appendix B for details):
35 36
Base: 1MVA ,  22kV at Bus 1 

~
Source fault rpm=0.0751 mΩ/m 
level : 100MVA xpm=0.0808 mΩ/m 

Source fault level: 100MVA and inductive internal impedance.

Generally, ZLoad is very large compared with addition of cable, transformer and source
impedances. So it can be treated as open circuit unless its impedance is given and is required to
be used in calculation.
Impedance base in cable region: Current base in cable region: In this case, it is not given. So it is treated as open circuit.

37 38

Current base in Current base in

cable region: cable region:

ZLoad ZLoad

Thevenin impedance as viewed from bus 3:

O.C. Fault current at bus 3:

Exact method:

Thevenin impedance as viewed from bus 2: Approximate method:

Fault current at bus 2:

Exact method
Approximate method

39 40
Example The motors in group M1 are identical, so are motors in group M2. Use the average sub-
transient reactance of 25% and a typical X/R ratio of 6 to calculate impedance of the
The single line diagram of a power system supplying power to two groups of induction
motor in the fault analysis.
motors is shown in Figure below. The cable data are given in Table below.
Calculate the maximum symmetrical component or ac component of fault current, if a
Table Per-meter resistance and reactance for three-phase four bolted three-phase symmetrical fault occurs at (1) point F1, (2) point F2.
Cu/pvc/pvc cables with different sizes
Cable Values in mΩ/m (Referred to one phase) Solution:
Common base values
rpm xpm The base MVA is selected as 1MVA and the base kV at load side as 0.4 kV. The base
4X70 mm2 0.3175 0.09238
impedance and base current can then be obtained as follows:
4X 120 mm2 0.1848 0.0866
4X 300 mm2 0.0751 0.0808
4X 400 mm2 0.0606 0.0808

X”=25% Utility fault level

X/R=6 The utility fault level is given as 800 MVA with a X/R ratio of 15. The values for the
common base of the equivalent utility resistance Ru and Xu can be obtained as follows:

where If is the fault current resulting from bolted three-phase symmetrical fault.
Figure Single line diagram of the power system under study 41 42

Base impedance on the utility side: 70 mm2 cable with a length of 30m
The per unit values of the resistance and reactance of the 70 mm2 cable for a length of
(P.34) 30 m can be obtained as follows:
So the per-unit source impedance is
Since Motor groups
The average sub-transient reactance is 25% based on the total rating of a group of
motors. Based on a typical X/R ratio of 6, the resistance is 25%/6=4.167%.
The values of the equivalent resistances and reactances converted to the common base
for the motor groups M1 and M2 are:
Transformer impedance
The 1000 kVA transformer has an impedance of 5.75% on 1000 kVA and the value of
resistance is 1.21%. The reactance can be obtained by
As the transformer rating of 1000 kVA is the same as the base MVA, the percentage
values of the transformer resistance (RT) and reactance (XT) remain the same.
(P. 17)
400 mm2 cable with a length of 66m
The per unit values of the resistance and reactance of the 400 mm2 cable for a length of 300 mm2 cable with a length of 100m
66 m can be obtained as follows:

43 44
Fault at location F1 or at bus 2: IEEE standard on fault calculation allows the following simplified calculation of Thevenin
impedance:

So X/R ratio for the fault at F1 or bus 2 is 0.04817/0.01021=4.72, the corresponding time
constant is 4.72/(2*3.14159*50)=0.015s.
The bolted three-phase symmetrical fault current at F1 is calculated as follows:
or 20.31*1443=29.31 kA.

Since the X/R is well less than 15, the multiplying factor calculated by Exact solution:

One can see that these two methods produce very close results for this case.
45 46

Fault at location F2 or at bus 3 Fault at location F2 or at bus 3

So X/R ratio for the fault at F3 or bus 3 is 0.0896/0.0445=2.01, the corresponding time
constant is 2.01/(2*3.14159*50)=0.0064s.
The bolted three-phase symmetrical fault current at F2 is calculated as follows:
or 10*1443=14.43 kA.
Since the X/R is well less than 15, the multiplying factor calculated by

47 48
Use IEEE recommended method to calculate Thevenin impedance as viewed from bus Appendix A
3:
Multiplier due to DC component in the fault current

Switch is turned on at t=0. Determine the current flowing through the circuit
for t≥0.

In this case, there is a discrepancy between these two methods, but negligible one. Solution is
In the above analysis, the resistance load and other unknown loads such as loads
from third branch in the circuit diagram are normally ignored when calculating fault where
current at each bus.

49 50

Transient in R-L circuit (Cont’d) Transient in R-L circuit (Cont’d)

Example of zero and maximum DC component:

Zero DC component

Two special cases:

The transient term is zero right from the beginning and the current waveform is
symmetrical;
Maximum DC component

The transient term attains its maximum amplitude.

51 52
Exercise: Prove the solution given on the earlier page. Appendix B
(1) Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(m∙A) for three-phase
cable
The solution to equation (1) can be written as
(2) Three-phase voltage drop: V1+V2
V1 - V2
IA + +
From the initial condition (3)
+
V- S IB VR IC -IB
- + -
Substituting (2) into (1) results in IC
V2
V1
IA
IB

or
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(m∙A) for three-
(4)
phase cable given in standard :
where

By comparing two sides of equation (4), one can obtain

Given unit value of voltage drop in mV/(m∙A) for three-phase

From (3)
cable, the voltage drop across it is given by

So the solution is
53 54

Appendix C FAULTS IN DC SYSTEMS

 Sources: DC generators, synchronous converters, DC

motors, rectifiers, battery banks, UPS
where  only resistance elements determine steady-state fault
Z is the impedance in Ω referred to each conductor or the impedance current.
in one‐phase equivalent circuit of the three‐phase cable;
zpm is per‐meter impedance referred to each conductor of the three‐  L/R time constants usually long enough that steady state
phase cable; fault current will not be reached before protection operates.
Vc(3) is the unit value of voltage drop for the three‐phase cable given  arc interruption is much more difficult for DC than for AC
in Table 4D1B.
V1+V2
V1 - V2
+ IA + +
VS IB VR IC -IB
- - + -
V2 V1
IC IA
IB

55 56
 57 58

Appendix D FAULT CALCULATION DATA AND EXAMPLE

59 60
61 62
 6.1 Basic components of an overcurrent protection system
The University of New South Wales
An overcurrent protection system has three basic components:
1.Current transformers
2.Relays (Electro-mechanic relaying and microprocessor based relaying)
3.Circuit breakers
An example of protection system:

CT
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

Topic 6

Overcurrent protection and coordination

1 2

CT selection 750A Fault clearing time by a protection system:

=6.25A
Standard CT current rating at the secondary side is 5 A. 600:5 X tclear=trelay+tbreaker=ttrip+tbreaker ABA++B-
Standard CT ratios It is defined as the time difference between the
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5 750A moment fault occurs and the moment fault is cleared.
500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5 1500:5 1600:5 =4.69A Breaker’s contacts parting
800:5 An induction-disc-type electromechanical relay:
2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5 4000:5 5000:5 6000:5

CT Equivalent Circuit:

(Np is just one turn or several turns)

X X X
trelay tbreaker

tbreaker: contact parting time of

3
tclear the breaker. 4
Relays 2) Definite-time or fixed-time relays, which operate after a definite or fixed
Three different basic types of electro-mechanic relays have been produced to time delay.
provide over-current and earth fault protection, namely For this relay, when the detected current is equal to
or greater than Ipickup, the relay sends a trip signal to
1) Instantaneous or definite-current relays, which operate instantaneously circuit breaker after a delay time of ttrip. Then the
when the currents in them exceed set values, circuit breaker opens the main circuit after a delay of
For this relay, when the detected current is equal its interrupting time.
X X
to or greater than Ipickup, the relay sends a trip Both Ipickup and ttrip are set values.
signal to circuit breaker. After a short‐delay
mainly caused by circuit breaker interrupting tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
time, the circuit breaker opens the main circuit.
tclear=trelay+tbreaker

trelay≈0 tclear≈tbreaker

trelay tbreaker
trelay tbreaker

tclear
5 6

3.1) Inverse-time: 3.4) Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relays, which have inverse
An inverse-time relay operates time/current characteristics.
when I’>Ipickup. The operating time Typical IDMT time-delay over-current relay can be described mathematically
decreases when the magnitude of by:
the current increases.
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
where IPS=tap setting or pick-up current setting or plug setting (PS) of the
3.2) Very-inverse-time: relay;
X
A very inverse-time relay gives
k=time-dial setting(TDS) or time multiplier setting (TMS);
more inverse characteristic curve X
than that of the inverse-time I’=Current level in secondary side of CT in amps;
relay.
t=relay operating time in seconds;
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
I’/Ipickup α and β are constants for a given relay.
3.3) Extremely-inverse-time: tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
An extremely-inverse relay gives the steepest time-current characteristic.
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker

trelay tbreaker

trelay tbreaker

7 8
 Tap setting or pick-up current setting or plug setting (PS) of an
overcurrent relay

Two methods of tap setting or plug setting for phase overcurrent

protection:
1) A percentage of the CT secondary rated current (5A).

PS=200% Ipickup=200%X5A=10A

2) A percentage of the maximum load current.

9 10

Typical commercial overcurrent relay Example 6.1 A relay is selected to protect a distribution feeder. The fault
current through CT primary side is 2000A and CT ratio is 200:5. PS=200%.
Find the operating times for the time dial settings of 2,
•if a CO-8 relay is selected and the time current curve is shown in figure
below;
For a multiples of 10,
•if an IDMT relay is selected and the time current curve is represented by
TDS “1” results in trelay
=0.2s delay;
TDS “7” 1.9s delay;
TDS “11” 2.9s delay. Solution:
The current through the
X
relay=2000/40=50A.
For PS=200%, the pickup current
is 200%×5=10A
X
and the multiples of current tap
setting is 50/10=5.
For the CO-8: the operating time
from figure is 0.75s.
X

X
For the IDMT:
trelay tbreaker the operating time from using
• equation is 8.6s.

11 12
6.2 Instantaneous and time-delay over-current protection scheme 1) Three identical CTs are used for three phases. Choose a proper CT ratio
design from the table below.
Example 6.2 The one-line diagram of a power system is shown in Figure 50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5
6.1a. The neutrals of the generator and two transformers are solidly 500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5 1500:5 1600:5
grounded. The system data expressed in per unit on a common 100-MVA 2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5 4000:5 5000:5 6000:5
base is tabulated below.
2) Use 90% of the rms value of the ac component of bolted three-phase
Item MVA  Voltage  X1
Item Base  Voltage  X1 rating Rating symmetrical fault current during transient period to determine the
MVA Rating X” X’ Xs T1 100 20/220 kV 0.10 current tap setting of the instantaneous relay.
GEN 100 20 kV 0.05 0.15 1.0 T2 100 220/20 kV 0.10
TL 100 220 kV 0.125 3) A time-delay protection scheme is installed as well to protect the system
for less severe faults. The time-delay relay has a time/current
characteristic shown in Figure 6.1b. The pickup current of the relay is set
Figure 6.1a Single-line
diagram of the power
equal to 150% of the nominal operating current referred to the secondary
system under study of CT. Determine the relay current tap setting and time dial setting.
The selected time dial settings of the relay should result in minimum
delay time.
The system base values are 100MVA and 20 kV in the generator region.
4) Draw the three-phase connection diagram including CT, relays and trip coil
The load level is 100MVA with a rated voltage of 20kV and a lagging power of circuit breaker and circuit breaker for the protection schemes in 2) and
factor of 0.95. 3) above. Also include a manual trip function.
Design an overcurrent protection scheme at bus 4 with the circuit breaker The rated interrupting time of the circuit breaker is 4 cycles.
installed close to load as shown in Figure 6.1a. Ignore the contribution by the load to the fault current. The system
frequency is 50Hz.
13 14

Solution: Base:100MVA and 20 kV

1) Load current So CT ratio is 3000:5.
Current tap  2) Use 90% of the rms value of the ac component of bolted three-phase
setting:
symmetrical fault current during transient period to determine the
1.0
1.2 current tap setting of the instantaneous relay;
1.5 Thevenin equivalent impedance as
2.0
2.5 viewed towards source side at the
3.0 place where circuit breaker is
3.5 installed:
4.0
5.0
6.0 Fault current during transient period
7.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
So the primary side fault current is 6.0768 kA. The chosen CT has a ratio of
3000:5. Thus the secondary current of the CT is 6077 /(3000:5)=10.13 A.
Figure 6.1b Relay time
versus current curve
The current tap setting of the instantaneous relay is set as 90%* 10.13 A or
9.12 A. 100MVA Item MVA  Voltage  X1
20 kV rating Rating
T1 100 20/220 kV 0.10
T2 100 220/20 kV 0.10
15 TL 100 220 kV 0.125 16
3) The current base at load side is 4) The circuit connection diagram is shown as below:

Load current is also equal to 2.887 kA. The pickup current is 2.887 kA X
150%/(3000:5)=7.22 A. So the current tap setting of the time-delay relay is
chosen as 8.0 A.
The selected time dial settings of the relay should result in minimum delay
time. So 0.5 or 1/2 time dial setting is chosen.

Current tap setting:

1.0
1.2
1.5 P2
2.0 P1
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
100MVA
7.0
20 kV 8.0
10.0
12.0
17 18

6.3 Radial system protection and relay coordination

Many radial systems are protected by time-delay overcurrent relays.
Adjustable time delays can be selected such that the breaker closest to the
fault opens, while other upstream breakers with longer time delays remain
closed. That is, the relays can be coordinated to operate in sequence so as to
interrupt a minimum number of loads during faults.
51:Time-delay
overcurrent relay F1
X

Basic requirements to protect a radial system:

• When a fault occurs at any section of a distribution system, breakers in
the system have to operate selectively and accurately to isolate the fault
and to limit the affected area as small as possible.
• Back-up protection is designed and takes action to clear the fault in case
that the primary protection fails to operate for the fault in its protected
area.
• Coordination between primary protection and back-up protection is
necessary.

19 20
The coordination time interval (CTI) or discrimination time is the time
interval between the primary and remote backup protective devices. When the protection at bus B acts properly to clear fault at F1, the relay at
It is the difference between the time t2 that the backup relaying operates bus A will drop off or be de-activated and ready for next fault.
and the time t1 that circuit breakers clear the fault under primary relaying.
t0: the instant that fault occurs; F1
CTI
t1: the instant that fault is supposed to be cleared X
t by primary protection;
t2: the instant that backup protection relay contacts Typical coordination time intervals from 0.2 to 0.5 seconds are selected in
t0 t1 t2 close and breaker trip coil is energized due to the most practical applications.
same fault in case that primary protection fails;
t2-t1: the discrimination time or CTI.
CTI
Example: For the fault below at F1, t1 is fault clearing moment by the
protection at bus B. t2 is the time moment for the relay at bus A to send out
trip signal to C.B.1.
F1
51:Time-delay
overcurrent relay
X
51B:
t1-t0(clear)=ttripB+tbreaker2

51A:
t2-t0=ttripA

21 22

Coordination (or grading) methods Time/current discrimination method (Cont’d)

Time/current discrimination method Procedure of relay coordination:
The inverse-time relays have the characteristics that the smaller the fault Step 1:Choose proper CT ratios for all protection units according to
current, the longer the trip time. their respective maximum load current. (Through load flow analysis)
Step 2:Select proper pick-up current or plug-setting of the relay.
1) t2-t1≥CTI; F1

2) t2 is minimum. X
Step 3: Determine time dial setting of the relay close to end user. Normally
t minimum time dial setting is chosen for quick action.
Step 4: Determine time dial setting of each upstream relay one by one
t0 t1 t2 according to coordination requirement. (Need to use maximum fault current
By choosing proper values of time dial at each location)
setting and current tap setting for 51B and
51A, 51B can be designed to be the primary Tclear3
protection for fault on Line2 and 51A be the
back-up protection for the fault on Line2. In
the meantime, 51A serves as the primary X
protection for faults on Line1.
51A
X

Ttrip2Tclear3+CTI Ttrip2
51B
X

23 24
Example 6-3
Data for the 50-Hz radial system of Fig. 6.2 are given in Tables 6.4, 6.5 and
6.6. Select current tap setting (CTSs or plug settings) and time-dial settings
(TDSs) to protect the system from faults. Use B1 as backup protection if B2
fails to operate.
Assume three CO-8 relays for each breaker whose curve is given in Fig. 6.3,
one for each phase, with a 0.3-second coordination time interval (CTI) or
discrimination time. The relays for each breaker are connected as shown in
Figure 6.4, so that all three phases of the breaker open when a fault is
detected on any one phase. Assume a 34.5-kV (line-to-line) voltage at buses
1 and 2 during normal operation. Also, future load growth is already included
in Table 6.4, such that maximum loads over the operating life of the radial
system are given in this table.
When selecting the current tap settings of relays, ensure that the ratio of 6.27A
pickup current to normal operating current is higher than but closest to
150%.

Figure 6.2 Single line diagram of a power system Figure 6.3 Time versus current curves
25 26

Solution:
First, select CTSs such that the relays do not operate for maximum load
currents. Starting at circuit breaker B2, the primary and secondary CT
currents for maximum load L2 are

Figure 6.4 Circuit

150%X4.18A=6.27A, so the current tap setting for B2 relay is CTS2=7 A.
diagram of protection
system Under normal operation, the continuous load current flowing through B1 is

Then
150%X4.18A=6.27A, so select a current tap setting of CTS1=7 A for B1
Table 6.4 Maximum loads Table 6.5 Fault currents
relay.
Load S (MVA) Lagging p.f. Bus Maximum fault current  Minimum fault current
L1 10.0 0.95 (bolted three‐phase) (A) (L‐G or L‐L) (A) Load S (MVA) Lagging p.f.
L2 10.0 0.95 1 3000 2200 L1 10.0 0.95
2 2000 1500 L2 10.0 0.95
Table 6.6 Breaker, CT, and relay data
Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay
(Rated interrupting time) (Rated interrupting time)
B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO‐8 B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO‐8
B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO‐8 B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO‐8
27 28
Second, select TDSs (time-dial setting for the relay) To meet coordination requirement:
Since we want to clear the faults as rapidly as possible, select a 0.5 time-dial Ttrip1-Tclear2≥0.3s (CTI); So 1) Ttrip1 ≥ 0.49s; 2) Ttrip1 is minimum.
setting (TDS) for B2 relay.
For the same fault at bus 2, the ratio of fault-to-pickup currents by B1 relay
To work out time dial setting of relay at bus 1, one needs to use maximum
is
fault current at bus 2 as protection at bus 1 is the backup protection for such
fault at bus 2.
The fault-to-pickup current ratio at B2 TDS=0.5: Ttrip1=0.25s; TDS=1: Ttrip1=0.61s; TDS=2: Ttrip1=1.10s.
for the maximum fault current 2000 A is So 1 is a suitable time dial setting for the relay at bus 1 as this results in a
Then from the 0.5 TDS curve in Figure 6.3, trip time of 0.61s, longer than 0.49s and being minimum.
the relay operating delay time is 0.09s.
Adding the breaker operating time (5
cycles=5*0.02=0.1s), primary protection Bus Maximum fault current  Minimum fault current
clears this fault at bus 2 in (bolted three‐phase) (A) (L‐G or L‐L) (A)
Tclear2=Ttrip2+Tbreaker2=0.09+0.1=0.19s. 1 3000 2200
2 2000 1500
TDS
Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay
X (Rated interrupting time)
Bus Maximum fault current 
(bolted three‐phase) (A) B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO‐8
1 3000 B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO‐8
2 2000 tclear=ttrip+tbreaker

Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay X

(Rated interrupting time)
B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO‐8
B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO‐8 29 30

6.4 Selection of current-limiting reactor to coordinate overcurrent c) A time-delay protection scheme is designed for these eight feeder circuits
protection with the current-limiting reactor determined in (b). Three identical CO-8
Example 6-4 relays are used in the scheme with a time dial setting of 2. Select a CT
The fault level of the equivalent source in Figure 6.5(a) is 2000 MVA. Its from Table below with the secondary current closest to 5 A under normal
positive- and negative-sequence reactances are the same and resistance is working condition. Then determine the current tap settings or plug
ignored. The voltage and power ratings of the transformer are given in the settings of the relays to ensure a ratio of pickup current to normal
figure. The bus bar supplies power to eight identical feeders, each of which working current larger than or equal to and closest to 140%. Determine
has a current rating of 200 A. the fault clearing time for bolted fault that results in maximum fault
a) If a fault occurs at the point as indicated in Figure 6.5(a), calculate the currents.
20X200A
maximum fault current in amperes passing through circuit breaker 4. Standard CT ratios
b) To limit the fault current flowing through each circuit breaker to 20 times 50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5
its rated continuous current, calculate the required minimum reactance of 500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5 1500:5 1600:5
the reactor as shown in Figure 6.5(b). 2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5 4000:5 5000:5 6000:5

When calculating fault current at one feeder branch, ignore current

contribution by other feeder branches to it.
Assume that the rated interrupting time of each circuit breaker is 4 cycles.
The system frequency is 50 Hz.

Figure 6.5(a) Figure 6.5(b)

70X200A 20X200A
31 32
 Figure 6.5(a) Single diagram of the power system under study

Figure 6.5(b) Single diagram of the power system

under study with current-limiting reactors connected
33 34

Solution: X
Its value in amperes is
(a) and (b) Select 100MVA and 220kV as
the base values on the source side. This is the fault current flowing through the circuit breaker without current-
The fault level of a source is defined as follows limiting reactor.
so the fault current without current-limiting reactor is almost
where If is the value resulting from bolted three-phase
70 times the normal operating current.
symmetrical fault at the source terminal.
For the given source, To limit the fault current to 20 times rated continuous current of 200A, the
per-unit reactance of the current-limiting reactor can be found by
Then the source internal positive-sequence impedance or reactance here is

Given the chosen bases, the per-unit source reactance is

The value in ohms of each current-limiting reactance is

Alternatively, since voltage base in the source region is the same as voltage
rating of the source
The per-unit transformer reactance
If,pu=Sf,pu , if Vs=1pu.
Without the current-limiting reactor, the maximum fault current flowing
through the circuit breaker, which results from bolted three-phase
symmetrical fault, is determined by

35 36
c) The fault clearing time by the circuit breaker for tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
Since the rated load current of each feeder branch is 200 A, in order to have the fault with maximum fault current is
a secondary current of CT equal to 5 A, the CT with a ratio of 200:5 is approximately equal to 0.35+4*0.02=0.43s.
selected.
According to the requirement that the ratio of pickup current to normal
working current is at least 140%, the current tap setting or plug setting or
pickup current setting of the relays is 140%*5A=7A, which is selectable from
current tap settings of the CO-8 relays (see graph in the question).
From solutions (a) and (b), the maximum fault current with the current-
limiting reactor is 20 times continuous load current, thus the multiples of the
current tap setting for this bolted three-phase fault that results in maximum
fault current is

37 38

Residual current devices (RCD)

• It is also called earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)
• It prevents electrocution when current ‘leaks’ through body to
general ground mass earth
• It provides protection by tripping when earth leakage current
exceeds limit
• 30mA 0.3s RCDs required for
• circuits supplying lighting and socket outlets in domestic
installations
• socket outlet circuits in residential sections of other electrical
installations
• problem of nuisance tripping

39 40
RCD level of sensitivity
• Type 1: rated tripping current < 10mA, mainly for protection of single
appliances and in various hospital situations
• Type 2: rated tripping current between 10mA - 30mA protect final sub-
circuits where a group of appliances require protection against direct
contact (resulting in ventricular fibrillation)
• Type 3: rated tripping current > 30mA, protect heavier equipment where
protection against indirect contact only is required.

41 42

Appendix 1 Coordination between protection device and cable:

Preferred values of rated continuous current for miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
or fuses: 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 25 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125A.

AS/NZS 60898.1:2004
Electrical accessories – circuit breakers for
overcurrent protection for household and
similar installations.

43 44
45 46

Appendix 2 ABB Inverse-overcurrent relay ICM 21

Active parts:

47 48
 The University of New South Wales 1
INTRODUCTION
Advantages of earthing (grounding):
 Limiting touch and step voltages to prevent
electric shock
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications  Equi-potential bonding of exposed metal
conductors to prevent electric shock
 Limitation of over-voltages on equipment for
prevention of damage
 Fast operation of electrical protection and
limitation of earth fault damage

1 2

General requirements: Standards:

 low impedance path (resistance and reactance) to
IEC 60364-7-710
earth conductor of local supply system and thence
to earth of supply at main substation AS/NZS 60479.1:2002 : Effects of current on human beings and
livestock - General aspects; and AS/NZS
 items that need earthing (eg metal casings) must be 60479.2:2002 : Special aspects.
connected to main earth by conductors of low
IEEE-Standard.#80-1986, Guide for Safety in Substation
enough impedance to provide equipotential Grounding
bonding between all equipment items. Avoid earth IEEE Green Book John Wiley(1986).
loops IEEE Standard #141: Recommended Practice for Electric
 earth potential rise (EPR) or ground potential rise Power Distribution for Industrial Plants. (IEEE Red Book).
IEEE/Wiley (1986).
(GPR) associated with any fault current must be
IEEE Standard #242: Recommended Practice for Protection
limited to safe levels and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
 earth conductors capable of handling fault current (IEEE Buff Book). IEEE/Wiley (1986).
without thermal or mechanical damage
3 4
  Unearthed system
2  Solidly earthed system
 Resistance earthed system
METHODS OF  Reactance earthed system
POWER SYSTEM EARTHING  Use of an earthing transformer

5 6

There are four systems allowed in Australia:

•Direct earthing system
• Multiple earthed neutral (MEN) system
• Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB or RCD) system
• Common multiple earthed neutral (CMEN) system

SYSTEMS OF EARTHING
IN LOW-VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS Metallic path of earthing:

7 8
MEN system: MEN system (Cont’d):

 neutral conductor must be earthed at substation

and at other locations as necessary to ensure that
total impedance between neutral and earth does
not exceed 10 ohms
 conductors used to earth neutral conductor of
distribution system must have a cross-section area
of at least 20% that of the smallest size of neutral
used in system
 earth connections to neutral at consumer’s
installation and along route to supply substation
 neutral provides the return path
 balancing of load to utilize phase current cancellation
in return neutral to minimize voltage drop
9 10

Common Multiple Earthed Neutral (CMEN) system: CMEN system (Cont’d) :

 Common Multiple Earthed Neutral system is

extension of MEN system
 high voltage and low voltage equipment is
bonded (via a neutral conductor) to a single
common earth
 impedance to ground of this interconnected
system of earthing is very low, typically 1 ohm or
Stobie Poles incorporate steel H-bars with
concrete core.
less.

11 12
Equipotential bonding Example of equipotential bonding in a hospital operating
Equipotential bonding is an electrical connection intended to theatre
prevent the occurrence of dangerous touch voltages between
simultaneously accessible conductive parts.
Such parts may be exposed conductive parts, in other words
metal casings for electrical equipment, or extraneous conductive
parts, such as conductive structures or pipes in buildings.
For safety and protective purposes the equipotential bonding
should have a potential approaching that of earth potential.
In each building a main equipotential bonding conductor shall
interconnect at the entrance point of the supplies for the following
conductive parts:
Main protective conductor; Main earthing conductor or main
earthing terminal; PEN conductor in TN-C system; Water pipes;
gas pipes; risers of central heating and air conditioning systems
as well as metallic parts of building structure and other metal
pipework.
13 14

There are three types of earthing system in consumer’s installation:

 TN systems
 TT systems
IT systems
4


In practice, only TT and TN systems are commonly used.

TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS
IN CONSUMER’S INSTALLATIONS

15 16
1st letter (I or T) gives relationship of supply to earth 2nd letter (T or N) gives relationship of exposed
 T (terra): direct connection of one point of supply conductive parts of the general installation to earth
system to earth  T (terra): direct connection of exposed conductive
 I (insulation): all live parts of supply isolated from parts to earth, independent of earthing of supply
earth or one point connected to earth through a very system
large impedance
 N (neutral): direct connection of exposed conductive
Supply Supply
parts to earthed point of supply (neutral point).

N N
T
Y T I 17
Load Loads
18

TN systems: one point of supply is directly earthed; Exposed  TN-C system: Neutral conductor (N) and protective earth (PE)
conductive parts of loads are electrically connected to that point conductor are combined into a single conductor throughout
by protective earth (PE) conductor.
TN systems can be divided into:
1) TN-S system; TN-C
2) TN-C system;
3) TN-C-S system.

 TN-S system: separate neutral (N) and PE throughout

 TN-C-S system: N and PE are combined into a single conductor
in a part of the system

TN-S
TN-CS

Y
19 20
TT system: one point of supply is directly earthed; Exposed IT system: There is either no direct connection or very large
conductive parts of loads are connected to earth via separate impedance between supply and earth; exposed conductive parts
earth electrode. of loads are connected to earth through independent earth
electrode.

Large

or open circuit
T
I
T T

21 22

Summary on earthing systems

Y
5

EARTH RESISTANCE OF
A GROUNDING SYSTEM WITH BURIED
ELECTRODES

23 24
 Resistance of a grounding or earthing system with
hemisphere electrode in homogeneous soil
Earth resistance determined by:
 shape of electrode(s)

 extent of electrode(s)

 electrical resistivity of the soil

Mud (compressed coal): 1 Ωm,
Wet soil: 10 Ωm,
Moist soil: 100 Ωm,
Dry soil: 1000 Ωm,
Rock: 10000 Ωm.

25 26

Resistance of a grounding or earthing system with The potential on the electrode can be determined by
hemisphere electrode in homogeneous soil

So the resistance of the grounding system is

The current density at radius r is expressed as follows
Alternatively, consider each individual shell with a radius x and a thickness dx,
the total resistance R up to a large radius r would be

So the electric field is When

27 28
Potential rise at point X on the surface of a ground due to current flowing
into a hemisphere electrode

If point X falls on the hemisphere electrode, the potential rise is just

Exercise: write down potential rise on each hemisphere electrode of radius r0 in

the following figure. The current into each electrode is shown in the figure and
the uniform soil has a resistivity of ρ.

soil ρ
29 30

1. Touch Voltage: if person touches tower conductor, he/she is

subject to voltage

USE OF EQUIVALENT HEMISPHERE

MODEL TO CALCULATE
TOUCH, STEP, TRANSFERRED
VOLTAGES

Transferred voltage

31 32
2. Transferred Voltage: if person touches a conductor connected 3. Step Voltage: if person walks nearby, he/she is subject to
to potential zero, he/she is subject to voltage voltage

(Usually r3-r2=1m)

Transferred voltage Transferred voltage

33 34

Single rod grounding system

7
Resistance of this system is
EARTH RESISTANCE OF
TYPICAL GROUNDING SYSTEMS where d is the diameter of the rod, r is its radius and is its
length.
Example
Calculate the resistance to earth of a 0.016 m diameter rod, 2.4 m
long, with soil resistivity as 100 Ω∙m.

35 36
A single rod grounding system can be replaced by a Exercise:
hemisphere electrode grounding system with equal A grounding system consists of two identical rods that are
electrically connected as shown in the R.H.S. figure.
grounding resistance: Prove that the resistance of such system can be written as

where and S is the distance between

two neighboring rods. Assume that S is larger than twice of r0.

Solution:
The radius r0 of the hemisphere is calculated by Each rod is first replaced by a hemispherical electrode of radius r0,
which has the same earth resistance as one-rod system.
Radius of the hemisphere of the equivalent hemisphere–system can
be found from
where R is the resistance of one-rod system as given on last where R is the grounding resistance of one-rod system and is equal
page. to

37 38

Two-hemisphere grounding system that is equivalent to two-rod Summary of rod system:

system:

Soil 

The potential on the left hemisphere is

where or
Soil 
Since the left-hand side hemisphere is connected electrically with the right-hand side
hemisphere,

The grounding resistance of two-rod grounding system is

39 40
Grounding grid at substation: A grounding system that consists Exercise:
of a number of interconnected, bare conductors buried in the A grounding system is composed of four
earth, providing a common ground for electrical devices or identical conductive rods, each of which is
planted in the earth vertically, and has a
metallic structures, usually in one specific location, such as diameter of 2r (m) and an effective grounding
distribution substation. length of l (m). The cross sections of the four
rods form a square as shown in the R.H.S.
figure and they are electrically connected
above the earth. The distance between any
two neighboring rods is D (m). The resistivity
of the earth is ρ(ohm·m).
Each rod can be replaced by an equivalent hemisphere with its radius
equal to r0 (m). r0 is calculated by the following expression:

Derive an expression that can be used to calculate the effective

resistance of this grounding system.
Assume that D is much larger than r0, and the earth soil is
homogeneous.
Given that r=0.016(m), l=2.4(m), D=5 (m) and ρ=100 (ohm·m),
calculate the numerical value of the resistance of the grounding
41 system. 42

Solution: Solution:

In terms of potential calculation Due to the symmetry of the system, the currents
flowing into four rods are the same. Assume that
on the first conductor E1, the
the current flowing into each rod is I.
original grounding structure can
be decomposed into the The voltage at electrode E1 is given by:
following four as shown below.

The terminals of the four electrodes above the earth are electrically
connected, so

Thus the resistance of the grounding system is

where r0 is determined by or

Given that r=0.016(m), l=2.4(m), D=5 (m) and ρ=100 (ohm·m), the
numerical value of the resistance of the grounding system is
(1) + (2) + (3) + (4)
44
 8

MEASUREMENT OF
EARTH RESISTANCE

45 46

Fall-of-potential method to measure resistance of a grounding system

Electrodes G, P and C are on a straight line and P is located between G and C. Fall-of-potential method to measure resistance of a grounding system (cont’d)
Electrode C is placed at a sufficient distance from the test electrode G.
When the ratio of V to I is plotted as a function of the potential probe distance x, curves
A current probe is connected between C and G; one potential probe is connected
similar to those shown below are produced.
between G and P.
A current of known magnitude is passed through the electrode G under test and
electrode C.
R
For one set of test, electrode C is at fixed position while P moves from G towards C. At D1<D2
each location of P, voltage drop between the electrode G under test and electrode P is
measured. (i) D=D1 (ii) D=D2

Then the ratio of voltage to

current at each position of
Air electrode P is calculated.

Soil
The resistance RG of the
grounding system under test
RG
Grounding can be found from the ratios.
system
under test

47 48
Fall-of-potential method to measure resistance of a grounding system (cont’d)

Prove that with D being large enough, when

Proof:

=0.618D

Grounding
system
under test

When

Proved.

One can see that when D is large enough, if electrode P is placed at 0.618D from
electrode G on the line of G-C, the ratio of voltage to current is just the grounding
resistance of the grounding system. 49
 The University of New South Wales

School of Electrical Engineering

and Telecommunications

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

Topic 8

LIGHTNING PROTECTION

1 2

 Lightning is very common event. Worldwide, some

Aim is to protect: 30 lightning flashes occur in every second on
average.
 People
 Frequency of occurrence of lightning and
 Buildings and Contents thunderstorms varies significantly with location.

against damaging effects of lightning strikes.  Severity of lightning storms also varies with
location.
 Local topographical features may cause variations
in occurrence of ground flashes.
 Tall objects (building rooftop, tree top, overhead
4-18
lines) tend to attract lightning flashes to themselves
and thus shielding surrounding area from direct
strikes.

3 4
Distribution of worldwide lightning strikes (flashes/km2/yr)
[Source: NSSTC]

5 6

Storms

Collision among ice crystals

and water droplets
2 Charge separation

PHYSICS OF LIGHTNING Lightning = sudden discharge

of electricity between
differently charged regions.

Cloud flash

www.erico.com
7 8
 Lightning Detectors: storm-tracking instruments, which
analyze storm and lightning activity.

e.g. The THUNDERBOLT “Lightningman” and

“Stormchaser”: handheld portable device can detect
electromagnetic signal from lightnings, from as far as
120 km away.

Ground flash, less common. www.erico.com

 Downward leader (stepped leader).

 Upward leader
 Return stroke 9

Ground flash consists of a sequence of high-

amplitude short-duration current impulses
Lightning protection systems (LPS) are (strokes).
designed to ensure that lightning terminates
on an air terminal (lightning rod) instead of on Currents are uni-directional, and usually negative
some other parts of building. (negative charge injected into struck object).

Stroke considered as generated from a current

source, i.e. current waveshape and magnitude
not affected by characteristics of ground
termination.

11 12
 Characteristics of ground flashes Potentials during a lightning flash to earthed conductor.
[Table B1, AS/NZS1768:2007] 13 14

Interception of lightning by lightning protection system

15
Modes of entry of lightning impulses [Fig 5.1, AS1768:2007] 16
Principal effects of lightning discharge to object: Cause death or serious injury in various ways :
 Direct strikes to person causing heart
 Electrical.
failure, brain damage, suspension of
 Thermal breathing, burns, etc.
 Mechanical  Asphyxiation or injury due to fires or
structural damage
 Side flashes
 Electric shock from step, touch, or
transferred voltages
17 18

Lightning protection system (LPS) components:

3  Air terminals
 Down conductors
ELEMENTS OF
A LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM  Earthtermination network and equi-potential
bonding
 Over-voltage protection

19 20
Air terminals Air terminals (Cont’d)
Its function is to absorb the lightning discharge that might A network of air terminals may be required to shield a large area
otherwise strike a vulnerable part of the object under protection. and they are so placed as to achieve a high probability of
intercepting the lightning.

Air terminal to intercept

lightning strike

21 22

Down conductors Earth termination network and equi-potential bonding

Its function is to provide a low impedance path to This consists of one or more earthing electrodes and the
convey the lightning current from the air terminal to conductors that interconnect them. Its function is to deliver the
earth, without the development of excessive large lightning current into the earth mass.
voltages which can cause side flashing.
Equipotential bonding is to reduce potential difference between
The lightning conductors can have a potential of up
different points within a building. By doing so, human-beings and
to 1 MV with respect to true earth. The non-uniform
electronic devices are not susceptible to electric shock or hazard.
field breakdown voltage for air is about 500kV/m so
(bare) downconductors should be kept more than
2m away from adjacent structures.
To reduce the possibility of side flashing, the
downconductor route should be as direct as
possible with no sharp bends.

23 24
 Bonding of services [Fig E1, AS/NZS1768:2003] 25
Combined utilities enclosure [Fig E2, AS/NZS1768:2003] 26

Common bonding network (CBN) [Fig E3, AS/NZS1768:2003] Ring earth [Fig E4, AS/NZS1768:2003]
27 28
Products of interception of lightning by lightning protection system Over-voltage protection
Its function is to prevent excessive voltages being applied to
ERICO company equipment while allowing correct operating voltages to exist. This
is achieved through the use of various surge protection devices
Eritech System 3000 installed on (SPD) such as spark gaps, gas-filled surge arrestors, and metal
Sydney Centerpoint Tower. oxide varistors (MOV).

Key feature is design of air terminal

Epeak
(Eritech Dynasphere) for controlled
emission of a streamer. Streamer is Ethreshold
produced only when ambient field can
sustain upward leader initiation and Vnormal
propagation. Ideal MOV

www.erico.com
29 30

Appendix F of AS/NZS1768:2003 deals with waveshapes for

assessing susceptibility of equipment to transient overvoltages
due to lightning. The waveshapes vary widely because of the
random nature of lightning discharges and the variable
characteristics of the transmission media (electrical supply lines,
4 telecommunication lines). However, the majority of transients
encountered in practice can be classified in terms of three
standard waveshapes:
Waveshape of transient overvoltage
and current induced by lightning •The 1.2/50s unidirectional pulse.
strike •The 8/20s unidirectional pulse.
•The 0.5s /100kHz ring wave.

31 32
 1.2/50s unidirectional pulse 8/20s unidirectional pulse

Standard uni-directional waveshape

[Figure F1, AS/NZS 1768:2003]

0.5s/100kHz ring wave (open-circuit voltage)

[Figure F2, AS/NZS 1768:2003]
33 34

Recommended application for waveshapes of Figs F1 and F2

[Table F1, AS/NZS 1768:2003]

35 36
  AS/NZS 1768:2007 Lightning Protection.
5
 Provide guidelines for protection of

STANDARDS ON people, buildings and structures, and

LIGHTNING PROTECTION sensitive electronic equipment.
 Applicable to conventional lightning
protection systems (LPS) and surge
protective devices (SPD).

37 38

5.1 Risk assessment & management

 Risk management is used to determine

whether protection is needed and if so select
of adequate protection measures to reduce
risk to below a tolerable level.
 Risk R is defined as probability of loss
occurring over a one-year period.
Table 2.1, AS/NZS1768:2007

39 40
 Damage due to lightnings:

41 42

43 44
5.2 Protection of structures

Note: common to consider PL III as standard.

45 46

47 48
 Using horizontal and vertical air terminals [Fig 4.5 AS1768:2007]

Typical LPS using metal in or on a building [Fig 4.4 AS1768:2007] 49 50

5.3 Voltage calculation

 See Appendix D of AS1768:2003

Idealised lightning stroke currents.

[Fig D1, AS/NZS1768:2007]

51 52
Approximate breakdown strength of air
[Fig D2, AS/NZS1768:2007]
53 54

55 56
57 58

OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
IN LOW-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

59 60
 Crowbar devices
 Air
spark gaps or gas discharge tubes
 SCR and triacs
 Clamping devices
 Metal oxide varistors (MOV)
 Avalanche diodes (Zener diodes)
 Switching and rectifier silicon diodes
 Isolators Surge diverter protection for electricity supply circuits
 Opto-isolators
 Isolation
transformers
 Common-mode filters

61 62

Low-pass filter to reduce rate of voltage rise.

Combination units.
Multi-stage protection for telephone and signalling circuits. 63 64
 Appendix

OTHER DESIGN METHODS

FOR
LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Floating computer common (separate earth).

65 66

1. Cone of Protection Method

Volume protected by a catenary wire air termination.

67 68
 2 Faraday Cage Method

Also called mesh method, comprised of a series of horizontal

air terminals such as copper tape which are bonded to
vertically descending down-conductors.

Minimum mesh sizes (IEC61024-1 Standard):

Volume protected with vertical rod near building’s edge.

69 70

3 Collection Volume Method

An improved Electrogeometric
model developed by Eriksson.

Allows for computation of

parabolic-like lightning
collection volumes for all
potential strike points on a
building .

www.erico.com

71
 The University of New South Wales
Power quality (PQ) problem = any problem that
causes voltage, current, or frequency
deviations in the supply and may result in mal-
operation or failure of end-user equipment.
In majority cases, power quality actually refers to
School of Electrical Engineering quality of the voltage when dealing with utility
and Telecommunications
system or power supply system. Therefore, PQ
standards mostly specify requirements on supply
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems voltage.
Topic 9
Nevertheless, power quality issue has a new
meaning due to the booming of distributed
POWER QUALITY, REACTIVE POWER renewable energy generation. Both harmonic
AND POWER FACTOR CORRECTION voltages and currents become concerns in such
cases.
1 2

Some effects

 C/B trips when it shouldn’t.

 Computers lose data or crash
 Neutral conductors overheat
 Digital clocks show erratic time
 Adjustable speed drives trip or suffer damage
 Power factor correction capacitors blow up
 Lights flicker

3
Power quality definitions [Ref: R.C. Dugan] 4
 Simplified classification of quality of supply by EnergyAustralia
Factors that cause an increased need to solve and (ENOS Electricity Network Operation Standards, June 2006)
prevent power quality problems:
 Increased use of power quality-sensitive equipment, such
as computers, microprocessors, consumer electronic and
telecommunication appliances, etc.
 Increased use of equipment that generates power quality
problems. Adjustable-speed drives, electronic ballasts for
fluorescent lamps, arc welders etc.
 Increased inter-connection of power system: power quality
problems can propagate through inter-connection and are
difficult to isolate.
 Deregulation of power industry: power supply changes from
a single full-service, vertically integrated supply authority to
competitive, decentralized supply industry.
5 6

Summary of power quality problems [Ref: R.C. Dugan]

pp. 8-46
Tolerance envelope for IT equipment.
Developed by Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC), formerly
Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA).
7 8
 Reliability measures for distribution systems:
Summary of power quality problems [Cont’d]

 Supply availability: actual time that supply is available to

customers, expressed as percentage. Utilities aim to deliver 4-
nine (99.99%) or higher availability.
 Reliability Index or SAIDI (System Average Interruption Duration
Index): average duration in minutes lost per customer per year
 SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index): average
number of interruptions that a customer experiences each year.
 CAIDI (Customer Average Interruption Duration Index): average
duration (in minutes) that a customer is without power when
affected by an interruption to supply
 MAIFI (Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index)

9 10

Voltage imbalance (unbalance): Voltage imbalance (or unbalance)

 Result from unbalanced network impedances or unequal

distribution of single-phase loads.
 can cause overheating and mal-operation of certain
types of 3 motors.
 EnergyAustralia’s objective is not to exceed 6%
difference between highest and lowest phase or line
steady state voltage (5 minute average) for LV network.

11 12
 Waveform distortion:

 Steady-state deviation from ideal 50Hz sine wave.

 5 different types of waveform distortion.
 DC offset

 Harmonics

 Inter-harmonics

 Notching

 Noise

13 14

Waveform distortion: Inter-harmonics Waveform distortion: Notching

 Caused by waveforms that have frequency components  Periodic voltage disturbance caused by switching
that are not integral multiples of fundamental (50Hz) operation of power electronic devices (current
commutation)
 Main causes are static frequency converters, cyclo-
converters, induction motors, arcing devices.  Extent of distortion determined by depth and width of
notch
 Can cause light flicker, audible noise in audio equipment,
vibration in induction machines.  Frequency components due to notching can be quite
high
 Allowable limits specified in IEC Std 1000.3.9
 Present Australian standards limit notch depth to 20% of
 Mains signaling voltages, injected onto network by the
peak supply voltage at point of common coupling.
utility, e.g. 492, 750 and 1050 Hz.

15 16
Waveform distortion – Notching Waveform distortion: Noise

 Any unwanted signals that cannot be classified as

harmonic distortion or transients and have spectral
content < 200 kHz
 Caused by power electronic devices, control circuits,
arcing equipment, switching power supplies.
 Improper grounding exacerbates problem.
 In Australia, acceptable limits set by Spectrum
Voltage notching caused by three-phase converter
Management Agency.

17 18

Voltage fluctuation: Voltage fluctuation:

 Rapid changes in voltage within allowable limits of

nominal voltage
 AS60038-2000 specifies new standard nominal voltage
to be 230V (reduced from 240V). Tolerance is +10% to -
6% which means actual supply voltage range will not
necessarily be lowered.
 EnergyAustralia aim to maintain steady-state voltage
(ten-minute average) within +/-10% of nominal voltage of
240V (i.e. between 264V and 216V), at consumer’s
terminals. If possible, it will aim for 226-253V range. Voltage flicker caused by arc furnace operation

Note: Flicker can cause lamps to blink rapidly, and is visible to human
eyes at flickering frequencies of 6-8Hz.
19 20
Power frequency variation: Power frequency variation:

 Deviation of power system fundamental frequency from

nominal value (50Hz or 60Hz)
 Power system frequency directly related to generator
rotating speed. Slight variations in frequency as dynamic
balance between load and generation changes. .
 Standards set by NEMMCO (National Electricity Market
Management Co Pty Ltd).
 Affect clock accuracy. Policy of maintaining “electrical
time” in NSW to within 3s of Australian Eastern Standard
time.

21 22

• Very little distortion in sine wave voltage generated at power stations

• Caused by non-linear loads at the end-users
• Harmonic distortion = periodic distortion in every AC cycle

Harmonic distortion

Current distortion caused by non-linear resistance

23 24
 Fourier Analysis

Any periodic waveform can be expressed as a Fourier series.

Advantage of using Fourier series analysis

Harmonic current flowing through system impedance

results in harmonic voltage at the load.

Harmonic control (IEEE Standard 519-1992) can be divided into:

• Limiting harmonic current injected into system which takes
place at end-use application.
• Limiting voltage distortion by utility which has control over
system impedance.
By popular convention, “harmonics” refers to harmonic current
when dealing with load apparatus and harmonic voltage when
dealing with utility system.
25 26

Total harmonic distortion (THD):

Measure of effective value of harmonic components

For voltage:
(IEEE definition)

Note: IEC defines THD as % of total rms.

THDV is a meaningful parameter but THDI may not be.
A small current may have a high THDI but not be a problem. However it can be
mis-interpreted as a serious power quality problem. This can be avoided by
referring THDI to the fundamental of the peak demand current rather than
fundamental of present sample. This is called total demand distortion (TDD).

Crest factor (CF):

27 28
 Effects of harmonics on power factor If there are harmonic distortions:

The first component is called the displacement power factor :

The second component resulting from harmonic distortions is

called the distortion power factor :

The total power factor (also called true power factor) is:

Power quality monitoring instruments commonly provide

29
measurements of these different types of power factor. 30

Equipment for PQ investigations

 Voltmeters, ammeters, multi-meters

 Oscilloscopes

 Harmonic analyzers Fluke 43 power quality Fluke 430 power quality

Analyzer (single phase) Analyzer (three phase)
 Power quality analyzers
 Other devices, e.g. infrared detectors

31 32
 33 34

Harmonic resonance Equivalent circuits:

LC circuits can develop resonance. A common example is the combination of
power factor correction (PFC) capacitors with the inductance of the power
system. If the resonant frequency occurs near a harmonic frequency, even a
small harmonic current can result in very high voltage and current.

Consider the circuit below. For simplicity, ignore all other customer loads at the
point of common coupling (pcc).

The impedance seen by the n-th harmonic current source is:

Parallel resonance develops when which makes

become infinite.
If L is the system inductance and C is the PFC capacitance then the resonant
frequency is:

35
where FL = fault level at pcc; Qc = VAr rating of capacitor. 36
Some important observations:
 At resonance, even a small harmonic current can result in very high voltage REACTIVE POWER AND POWER FACTOR
at pcc.
CORRECTION
 Resonant frequency is lower for larger capacitor bank.

Most loads are net inductive and so they require reactive power to be supplied
In practice, there always exists some small resistance in the system and the
by the source. Similarly overhead lines are net absorbers of reactive power.
harmonic voltage developed is still substantial but somewhat reduced.
The presence of inductive reactive power in a load means that the power factor
is reduced from unity.

In principle the solution of the reactive power problem is obvious: it is to install

capacitors as required to alleviate the burden on supply for handling the
reactive power. This is the general principle of power factor correction.

37 38

Shunt connection:
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Series connection:

 Comparison with series compensation:

 Improves power factor and reduces line current significantly and thus
reduces line losses significantly
 Advantages and disadvantages:  Not as good as series connection for voltage smoothing
 Reduction in total current I is small so improvement in loss in the line is  Has much greater flexibility of use than series as change of value has no
very small. effect on load current
 Series capacitance is very good for voltage regulation and for smoothing
voltage fluctuations.  In general, series connection is rarely used, except long transmission lines
 Series capacitance helps to improve stability if line reactance is high. where better voltage regulation is needed.
 Much less flexible in that capacitance value is not easily able to be
changed.  Use of shunt capacitors is almost universal for distribution systems and
loads.
 Flexibility of shunt connection allows automatic compensation using
switched capacitor banks that can adapt to changing load conditions.
39 40
Use of unloaded synchronous motors to
compensate reactive power

 when over-excited, synchronous motor operates CAPACITOR INSTALLATION

at leading power factor and generates VARs

 when under-excited, motor operates at lagging

power factor and absorbs VARs

41 42

 power factor correction (PFC) installations or

static VAR compensators (SVCs).
 modular and separately switchable capacitor
banks, ranging from 7.5kVAR to 100kVAR or
higher
 conventionalautomatic PFC system: switching
using mechanical contactors
 solid-state switching systems: faster switching
with thyristors, typically ~20ms
 resonance problem
Power Factor Correction System rated at 250 kVAr.
43 44
 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

Thyristor switched reactor Thyristor switched capacitor

45 46 Static VAR Compensator (SVC) Ref: abb.com