Content

2 Fluid Pressures

2.1 Pressure at a Point

2.2 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Depth

2.3 Equality of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static Fluid

2.4 Pressure and Head

2.5 Measurement of Pressure

2.5.1 Piezometer

2.5.2 U-tube Manometer

2.5.3 Bourdon Pressure Gauge

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2 Fluid Pressures

Concept.
A fluid must deform continuously when a shear stress of any magnitude is applied. Since
there is no relative between adjacent particles and there will be no shear forces acting,

All forces exerted between a fluid and a solid boundary must be normal

The equation of pressure:

kN
kPa= 2
m

N
MPa=
mm 2

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2.1 Pressure at a Point

Concept.
Considering
p x =Pressure∈ x−direction
p y =Pressure∈ y−direction
ps =Pressure∈normal ¿ any plane

The equation of motion in the x-directions and y-directions:

∑ F x=( p x d y d z ) −( ps d z d s sin θ )

d x d y dz
∑ F Y =( p y d x d z )−( p s d z d s cos θ ) −γ 2

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Concept.
Proof

Pascal’s Law: Pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all direction.

Since the fluid is in equilibrium,

∑ F X =0∧∑ FY =0

dx d y d z
( p x d y d z )−( p s d z d s sin θ )=( p y d x d z )− ( p s d z d s cos θ )−γ =0
2

dx d y d z
let u=γ
2

d y d z ( p x − ps ) =d x d z ( p y − pz )−u=0

d y d z p y − ps
= −u=0
d x d z p x −p s

Take lim dy
y →0

p y = p s∧ p x =p s

∴ p s= p x = p y

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2.2 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Depth

Concept.
Proof:

For any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure ∝ water depth.

Considering

∑ F Y = pA−( p +dp ) A− ρgA ( dh )=0

A(dp− ρg∙ dh)=0

dp=ρg ∙ dh

dp
∴ =−ρ ∙ g
dh

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2.3 Equality of Pressure at the same level in a static fluid

Concept.
Proof:

The pressure at any two points at the same level in a body of fluid at rest will be the same

Considering

∑ F x=0

p1 A= p2 A=0

∴ p 1= p2

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2.4 Pressure and Head

Concept.
The depth of liquid is usually measured from the top free water surface downward.
(i.e. h−h)
p=−ρgh+ constant ❑ p=ρgh+constant
⇒

Since the pressure at the free surface will normally be atmospheric pressure, the constant is
atmospheric pressure.(i.e. At h=0, p= p atm)

p= ρgh+ p atm

Concept.
Usually take atmospheric pressure as datum.

Pressure measured above atmospheric pressure are named gauge pressure.

Pressure measured above prefect vacuum are named absolute pressure.

Absoulte pressure=Gauge pressure+ Atmospheric pressure

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Concept.
Vacuum, which is the area of pressure below atmospheric pressure.

Perfect vacuum, which is the pressure is at absolute zero.

Partial vacuum, which is the pressure is between atmospheric pressure and absolute zero.

Standard atmospheric pressure, which is the air pressure at sea level.

1.0 atm=1.0 ¯¿ 760 mm Hg=101.4 kPa

Concept.
By equation
p= ρgh
If g and ρ are constant, the pressure increases linearly with depth. (i.e. p ∝h)

Head or Pressure head (h), which is the gauge of pressure at a point by stating the vertical
height of a column of a given fluid of mass density.

p
h=
ρg
Unit: Meter(m)

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Training 1

Example.
Calculate the pressure at a point on the seabed 1km deep. The density of sea water is
1025kg/m 3.
Ans: 100.55bar

Example.
The pressure at a point on the seabed is 100.55bar
(a) Express this pressure as a head of fresh water.
(b) What is the pressure as a head of mercury of S.G.=13.6?
Ans: (a) h = 1025m (b) h = 75.37m of mercury

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2.5 Measurement of Pressure

Concept.
Principle of many instruments for pressure measurement: The value of pressure is equal to
a head of liquid.

2.5.1 Piezometer

Concept.
Piezometer, which is the simplest pressure-measuring instrument.

Principle: Inserting a transparent tube into some point of a liquid under pressure. The liquid
will be risen in the tube. The pressure in the liquid is the height of liquid in the tube when
they have been balanced.

Piezometer is only suitable

The pressure∈the container is greater than atmospheric pressure

Therefore, the required height of column is reasonable.

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2.5.2 U-tube Manometer

Concept.
Provide enough of the heavier liquid if use U-tube manometer to measure pressures. It is
because to ensure that the heavier liquid always occupies the bending part of the tube.

If the liquid is higher than the level of separation, the equalizing of pressure should be
considered.

Advantage of U-tube: The pressure which the gauge fluid, which can be different from
other fluid in the container can be determined.

Concept.
A continuous mass of liquid is at rest, the pressure must be same when they are at equal
levels.

Assume downward is positive, upward is negative.

The pressure at point 1:

p A = p1

The pressure will be increased by γ 1 h1 when the liquid moving from point 1 to point 2.

Therefore, the pressure at point 2:

p2= p1 + γ 1 h1= p A + γ 1 h1
The pressure at point 3:
p3= p2 =p A +γ 1 h1

The pressure will be decreased by γ 2 h2 when the liquid moving from point 3 to point 4.

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 Therefore, the pressure at point 4:

p4 = p3−γ 2 h2= p A −γ 1 h1−γ 2 h2

At open end, pressure is zero when considering as gauge pressure.

p A + γ 1 h1−γ 2 h2=0

2.5.3 Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Concept.
Bourdon pressure gauge is used for measuring the high air pressure.

When the internal pressure is greater than the outside pressure, the tube tends to straighten,
and the pointer will be moving.

Disadvantage of Bourdon pressure gauge: Only measure static pressure or changing slowly
pressure.

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Training 2

Example.
In the following figure, determine the pressure of the water flowing in the pipeline at point
A based on the manometer reading shown. ( S .G Hg=13.6 )

Ans: p A =4.36 kPa

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 Example.
Determine the difference in pressure between pipeline A and pipeline B in the following
figure.

Ans: p A −B=6.09 kPa

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 Example.
Water is flowing through a pipe device as shown below. The pressure between the two
pipes is measured by a mercury manometer. Determine the pressure difference between
point 1 and 2.

Ans: p2−1=14.83 kPa

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 Example.
In the arrangement shown below, the two open-ended limbs are initially subjected to
atmospheric pressure with the inside diameter of the tube equal to 7mm, while the open-
ended diameters between A and B are both 44mm. Find the pressure difference between A
and B in mm water head due to an increased pressure applied to side B if the surface of
separation moves 100mm. The oil has a specific gravity of 0.83.

Ans: 21.63mm water

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 Example.
A mercury manometer connects the entrance 1 and throat 2 of a Venturi meter. Find the
head difference(h1 −h2) between the entrance and the throat if a liquid of specific gravity, s
is flowing through the meter. (h1 ∧h2 are measured as heads of the liquid ∈themeter . ¿

Ans: ( 13.6s −1)h

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 Example.
For a gauge pressure at A of -10.89kPa, find the specific gravity of the gauge liquid L in
the figure below.

Ans: 0.994

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All Training of Chapter 2

Example.
The tank in figure below is at 20 ℃ . If the pressure at level A is 200kPa, determine the
pressure at level B and C.

Ans: pB =160.8 kPa , p C =219.6 kPa

Example.
The tube in the figure below is filled with oil. Determine the pressure at A and the pressure
head at B in m of water.

Ans: p A =−20.8 kPa , p B=−4.17 kPa

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 Example.
For the inclined-tube manometer shown below, the pressure in pipe A is 5kPa. The fluid in
both pipes A and B is water and the gauge fluid in the manometer has a S.G. of 2.6. What
is the pressure in pipe B corresponding to the differential reading shown?

Ans: 2.45kPa

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 Example.
Vessels A and B contain water under pressure of 276kPa and 138kPa, respectively. What is
the deflection of the mercury, h in the differential gauge?

Ans: 1.26m

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 Example.
Calculate the pressure difference between A and B for the setup shown in the figure below.

Ans: 13.3kPa

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 Example.
Determine the pressure p A for the setup shown below if the S.G. of oil is 0.8.

Ans: 785Pa

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 Example.
In the system shown in figure below, the pressure gauge at A reads 2 kN /m 2. Specific
gravity, S.G. of oil is 0.8. Determine
(a) The length of the water column y in the open piezometer B.
(b) The reading of the mercury, Hg column h in the U-tube manometer.

Ans: (a) y = 1.404m (b) h = 0.147m

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 Example.
For a gauge reading at A of -15kPa, determine
(a) The level of the liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F and G.
(b) The deflection of the mercury in the U-tube gauge in the figure below.

Ans: Level of L = 10.32m, Level of N = 10.07m, Level of Q = 8.544m, h1 =0.593 m

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