Oilfield Review

Summer 2012

Microbes in the Oil Field

Automated Drilling
Seismic Detection of Fractures
Logging Through the Bit
Drilling Automation: Generating Greater Reliability and Profitability

Oilfield drilling machinery has evolved from hand tools to Oil companies are using their own software algorithms
robotics. Rig controls have expanded from throttles on as well as those from other providers. The major service
individual machines into integrated systems. What once companies, and a few smaller organizations, have written
was thought to be applicable only to expensive, deepwater software that controls machinery for isolated drilling or
operations is now widely available for conventional land drilling-related tasks. A few drilling contractors have built,
rigs. What comes next? Is the drilling industry ready for or are actively building, “automation ready” rigs. An equip-
automated control of the drilling process? ment provider has announced the design of a new control
Years ago, at an SPE/IADC conference, I spoke with Walt system with an open-style architecture to enable all these
Aldred, who was then Schlumberger director of drilling groups to work together seamlessly. Integrated industry-
research. My company had just commercialized an integrated wide, the automated drilling segments are no longer con-
rig control system in which the driller was seated in a com- fined to one- or two-company initiatives.
fortable chair surrounded by touch screens and joysticks. The answer to the earlier question about the drilling
From a heated and air-conditioned cabin, drilling crews industry’s readiness for automated control of the drilling
could run all the rig floor equipment at the touch of a button. process has to be a resounding “yes.” Interest is focused on
However, the operations below the rotary were manual, automated drilling for several reasons, including high drill-
save that of an autodriller. Schlumberger service engineers ing cost and the need for greater efficiency and additional
used laptops equipped with computer control algorithms to personnel. For example, shale and coal gas prospects
advise the drilling crew and engineers on how to drill more require many hundreds of new wells; for these and other
quickly and safely. projects, the supply of experienced drilling crews will not
We discussed an incident in which the drilling program meet the forecasted demand.
was initially days ahead of the curve. Then disaster struck. The improved reliability of automated drilling equipment
When asked what happened, the driller replied that all was and software will overcome the doubts of some hesitant
going according to plan, but he believed drilling speed could adopters. Efforts to standardize the interoperability of
be increased; unfortunately he did not know all the conse- communication protocols and data have culminated in a
quences of this action. Walt and I discussed the potential system architecture that will allow the introduction of data
value of connecting the computer control algorithms with the interpretation and process commands from new entrants
rig controls to assist the driller and prevent errors by the to our industry. These newcomers bring significant experi-
crew. This conversation, and many others, led to the founding ence from automating other processes once deemed too
of an SPE group focused on automating the drilling process. complex and with too many unknowns.
Founded in 2007, the SPE Drilling Systems Automation Although the main efforts are geared toward helping
Technical Section (DSATS) has grown to more than 200 inexperienced drillers, human-in-the-loop techniques will
members. DSATS has helped advance drilling automation be included to assist, not replace, the driller. As early
through an impressive volunteer effort that included market movers publish the results of successful automa-
writing interface standards, giving live demonstrations of tion efforts, other companies will adopt the new technolo-
multiuser control systems and introducing technology from gies, resulting in higher production rates and decreased
other industries. In collaboration with SPE scientists and personnel and operations costs; such added value will pro-
engineers, DSATS frequently hosts workshops and forums mote rapid acceptance and implementation of this emerg-
and plans new ways to facilitate the development and ing technology.
implementation of this emerging technology.
Today, drilling automation is still in its infancy, but the Fred Florence
science and its application are changing rapidly (see Product Champion for Automation and Drilling Optimization
“Drilling Automation,” page 18). Two oil companies have National Oilwell Varco
Cedar Park, Texas, USA
announced programs to develop automated drilling rigs and
have assembled engineering teams to enable single push- Fred Florence joined National Oilwell Varco in 1996 and currently is a member
button operations for elements of the drilling process that of the Corporate Engineering team as Product Champion for Automation and
have fewer unknowns and risks. The teams are driven by a Drilling Optimization. Prior to joining National Oilwell Varco, he worked for
Sedco-Forex, now Transocean, where he held various positions in engineering
desire to reduce nonproductive time and improve the execu- and operations. Fred holds a BS degree in electrical engineering from Southern
tion of manual tasks that previously depended on the skill of Methodist University, University Park, Texas, as well as an MA degree in inter-
the individual driller. While machines perform the mundane national management and an MBA degree in marketing from the University of
Texas at Dallas.
physical tasks, the driller still controls the process and can
focus on downhole conditions and rig floor safety.

1
 Schlumberger

Oilfield Review
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview

Executive Editor 1 Drilling Automation: Generating Greater Reliability and Profitability

Lisa Stewart
Editorial contributed by Fred Florence, Product Champion for Automation
Senior Editors
Matt Varhaug and Drilling Optimization, National Oilwell Varco
Rick von Flatern

Editors
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
Tony Smithson 4 Microbes—Oilfield Enemies or Allies?

Contributing Editors Microbial organisms have a long history of coexistence

David Allan with oilfield operations. Microbes often cause corrosion and
Erik Nelson reservoir damage, but sometimes they enhance production.
Ginger Oppenheimer
Rana Rottenberg Scientists are using new knowledge of microbe identity
and chemistry to combat microbial damage and to encourage
Design/Production
Herring Design
microbiologically enhanced oil recovery.
Mike Messinger

Illustration
Chris Lockwood
Mike Messinger
George Stewart

Printing
RR Donnelley—Wetmore Plant 18 Drilling Automation
Curtis Weeks
Drilling automation involves much more than rig floor

Depth of cut
mechanization; with the integration of downhole data with
operations, improved drilling performance can mean the e
orqu
Bit t
difference between economic success and failure. At the
same time, in the large numbers of wells whose conditions
are understood, the repetitive nature of automated drilling
may eliminate the performance variability typically seen
W
from one well to the next within a drilling program. eig
ht
on
bit

On the cover:

A driller monitors rig floor and downhole

measurements displayed in a Helmerich
& Payne FlexRig3® driller’s cabin. The rig
features fully integrated variable AC drive
technology for the topdrive, drawworks
and mud pumps with programmable logic
controller–based drilling controls. The rig About Oilfield Review
Oilfield Review, a Schlumberger journal, Oilfield Review is published quarterly and © 2012 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.
also includes a topdrive system integrated printed in the USA. Reproductions without permission are
within the mast that eliminates the need communicates technical advances in
finding and producing hydrocarbons strictly prohibited.
to rig up and down when moving, thereby Visit www.slb.com/oilfieldreview for
reducing cycle time and increasing safety to employees, clients and other oilfield
professionals. Contributors to articles electronic copies of articles in English, For a comprehensive dictionary of oilfield
and reliability. FlexRig3® is a registered Spanish, Chinese and Russian. terms, see the Schlumberger Oilfield
trademark of Helmerich & Payne, Inc. include industry professionals and experts
from around the world; those listed with Glossary at www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.
only geographic location are employees
of Schlumberger or its affiliates.

2
 Summer 2012
Volume 24
Number 2
ISSN 0923-1730

28 Seismic Detection of Subtle Faults and Fractures Advisory Panel

Gretchen M. Gillis
Natural fractures complicate the development and production Aramco Services Company
of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Because they are typically smaller Houston, Texas, USA
than seismic wavelengths, fractures are difficult to detect Roland Hamp
and characterize. Advances in seismic processing and visual- Woodside Energy Ltd.
ization are helping operators place wells inside fractured Perth, Australia
formations and manage fractured reservoirs better. Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi, India
George King
Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas
Alexander Zazovsky
Chevron
44 Logging Through the Bit Houston, Texas

High-angle or extended-reach well trajectories sometimes

cause operators to forgo openhole logging. However, without
petrophysical data, operators have scant information for making
important decisions that could affect the producibility of
their wells. By deploying small-diameter logging tools through
specially developed drill bits, operators are obtaining the data
they need for evaluating reservoirs and optimizing completions.

54 Contributors

57 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review

59 Defining Cementing:
Well Cementing Fundamentals
This is the sixth in a series of introductory articles describing basic concepts of the E&P industry.

Editorial correspondence Subscriptions Distribution inquiries

Oilfield Review Client subscriptions can be obtained Tony Smithson
5599 San Felipe through any Schlumberger sales office. Oilfield Review
Houston, Texas 77056 USA Additional subscription information can 12149 Lakeview Manor Dr.
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3
Zdenko Augustinovic
DONG E&P Microbes—Oilfield Enemies or Allies?
Hoersholm, Denmark

Øystein Birketveit
M-I SWACO
Bergen, Norway
Microbes have a long history in the oil and gas industry. New molecular analysis
Kayli Clements
Mike Freeman methods, coupled with increased knowledge of microbe identity and chemistry, have
M-I SWACO
Houston, Texas, USA led to advances in combating microbiologically influenced corrosion and reservoir
damage. Scientists are also using these advances to develop new methods for
Santosh Gopi
M-I SWACO microbiologically enhanced oil recovery and bioremediation.
Accra, Ghana

Thomas Ishoey
Glori Energy, Inc.
Houston, Texas We live in a natural world of extremes in size and microbes to thrive. Initiation of North Sea oil and
scale. Topographical extremes range from moun- gas production in the 1960s, however, demon-
Graham Jackson tains to deserts to ocean trenches. These extremes strated that early assumptions were incorrect.
Husky Energy Inc. include a place so small that we cannot directly Microbes in these reservoirs not only lived in
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
view it: the unseen world of microbes. extreme conditions, they produced hydrogen sul-
Microbes are the most abundant life form on fide [H2S]. Souring, or increases in H2S, resulted
Gregory Kubala
Sugar Land, Texas the planet—no other life form approaches them from injection of sulfate-rich seawater in North
in terms of numbers, diversity or habitat. Sea reservoirs and ultimately led to corrosion of
Jan Larsen Microbes were the first link in the evolutionary both surface and downhole equipment. Formation
Maersk Oil chain and are an essential part of the Earth’s plugging by biomass during waterflood operations
Copenhagen, Denmark biota.1 Microbes catalyze important transforma- was another early negative effect of microbes.3
tions in the biosphere, produce key components However, not all of the early production-
Brian W.G. Marcotte of the atmosphere and represent a large fraction related experiences with microbes were nega-
Titan Oil Recovery, Inc. of the genetic diversity on this planet. The num- tive. Some operators found that injection of
Los Angeles, California, USA ber of microbial cells on Earth has been esti- sugar-based materials that resident microbes
mated at 4 to 6 × 1030 cells, and this aggregate could use as food caused an increase in oil pro-
Jan Scheie
mass contains 350 to 550 × 1015 g of carbon. duction, although results were often temporary
M-I SWACO
Stavanger, Norway Microbes are distributed everywhere, including and inconsistent.4 In the past several decades,
places that are hotter, colder, drier and deeper much of the oilfield research on microbes focused
Torben Lund Skovhus than humans can tolerate. This wide distribution on short-term strategies to either mitigate nega-
Danish Technological Institute suggests that oil exploration and production tive effects or enhance positive ones—but that
Aarhus, Denmark operations must always contend with microbes. work was based on a partial understanding of
Microbes have a long history in the oil field. microbiological mechanisms.
Egil Sunde Analysis of produced water from shallow reser- The ability to control and harness microbes is
Statoil voirs in the 1930s and 1940s showed abundant key to some of the major advances in microbial
Stavanger, Norway populations.2 Despite these findings, scientists at oilfield science. This progress has been aided
the time believed that temperature, pressure and by new analytical methods that give a more
Oilfield Review Summer 2012: 24, no. 2.
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger. salinity in most reservoirs were too hostile for complete picture of microbe identity, quantity,
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Sonny Espey,
M-I SWACO, Houston; and Dietmar Schumacher, 1. Whitman WB, Coleman DC and Wiebe WJ: “Prokaryotes: 3. Chang CK: “Water Quality Considerations in Malaysia’s
Geo-Microbial Technologies Inc., Ochelata, Oklahoma, USA. The Unseen Majority,” Proceedings of the National First Waterflood,” Journal of Petroleum Technology 37,
Academy of Sciences 95, no. 12 (June 9, 1998): 6578–6583. no. 9 (September 1985): 1689–1698.
AERO is a registered trademark of Glori Energy, Inc.
2. Bass C and Lapin-Scott H: “The Bad Guys and the Good 4. Rassenfoss S: “From Bacteria to Barrels: Microbiology
Guys in Petroleum Microbiology,” Oilfield Review 9, no. 1 Having an Impact on Oil Fields,” Journal of Petroleum
(Spring 1997): 17–25. Technology 63, no. 11 (November 2011): 32–38.

4 Oilfield Review
behavior and function. Advances include simple
chemicals added to injection water that provide
environmentally safe control of reservoir souring
and associated corrosion as well as new direc-
tions for microbiologically enhanced oil recovery This article focuses on microbes in the oil field positive characteristics. Case studies from Canada
(MEOR). Other progress includes bioremediation and describes techniques for their analysis and for and the US demonstrate how these techniques are
research that allows safe disposal of oilfield solid controlling their negative effects and harnessing employed in production environments.
waste into ordinary soil.

Summer 2012 5
 Bacteria Archaea Eucarya The Microbial World
Biological classification systems have evolved in
Entamoeba
Slime
Animals
tandem with methods for microbe detection. In
Green molds
filamentous the early 1800s, what was not a mineral or plant
Spirochetes Methanosarcina
Gram- Fungi was considered an animal. The discovery that
Proteobacteria positive Methanobacterium Halophiles bacteria could be considered either plant or ani-
bacteria Plants
Cyanobacteria
Methanococcus mal led to reformulations of the biological classi-
Thermococcus Ciliates fication system for living organisms that continue
Planctomyces to the present era. Proposed more than 30 years
Thermoproteus Flagellates
Pyrodictium
ago, today’s accepted classification into three pri-
Bacteroides Trichomonads mary domains has its roots in molecular analysis
Thermotoga Microsporidia methods, including genome sequencing.5 The
three domains are bacteria, archaea and eucarya
Aquifex Diplomonads
(left). Bacteria and archaea—collectively called
prokaryotes—are the organisms that affect the
oil field (below left).
> Tree of life. Life on Earth is divided into three primary domains—bacteria (left, blue), archaea Fossils of prokaryotic organisms that lived
(middle, pink) and eucarya (right, green). This classification encompasses the entire realm of living 3.5 billion years ago have been found in Western
organisms, from the proteobacteria that contain the digestive disease salmonella to the more familiar Australia and South Africa; for 2 billion years
plants and animals. Branch order and length are based on genetic sequencing.
they were the only form of life on Earth. Larger
and more-complex eucaryotic cells did not
appear until much later—about 1.5 to 2 billion
years ago. The archaea and bacteria that consti-
tute the prokaryotes differ from the cells in com-
plex eucaryotic organisms such as plants and
animals. Prokaryotic cells have no compartmen-
Plasma Cell wall Capsule talized nucleus, and each cell is capable of inde-
membrane pendent existence.6 Unlike plants and animals,
Cytoplasm
prokaryotes are not typically thought of as organ-
Ribosome isms able to interact with their environment, but
Plasmid that view may be changing. Researchers have
shown that many bacteria have cell to cell com-
munication through signaling molecules called
autoinducers. This signaling is called quorum
sensing and allows the microbes to monitor and
respond to their surroundings.7
Prokaryotes are found everywhere on Earth
and thrive in extreme habitats. From hot springs,
Flagellum arid deserts and ocean depths to polar caps and
underground formations, these single-cell organ-
10 –3 isms withstand conditions that humans cannot.8
Eukaryotes These microbes may remain dormant for thou-
Nucleoid 10 –4
sands of years but can reactivate rapidly—often
10 –5
Prokaryotes in days or weeks. Their wide distribution in a vari-
10 –6 ety of habitats and conditions means that
Size, m

Viruses
microbes are always present during E&P activi-
10 –7
ties. Some microbes are indigenous to reservoirs,
10 –8 Proteins while others may be introduced during drilling,
10 –9 workover or waterflood. These single-cell life
Small molecules
forms have an innate tendency to cling to rock
10 –10 Atoms
and metal surfaces and may assemble into
> Bacteria. The bacterial cell is enclosed by a capsule, cell wall and plasma membrane. The interior of masses called biofilms. Microbe-generated bio-
the cell is filled with cytoplasm, a homogeneous, gel-like substance. The primary interior component is films provide a safe harbor for growth and may
the nucleoid, which contains the chromosome material. Plasmids, containing deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), and ribosomes, containing ribonucleic acid (RNA), are other essential interior components. eventually lead to serious problems in both
Although not all bacteria are motile, many use a whip-like flagellum to move in aqueous media. equipment and reservoirs (next page).
Bacteria and other prokaryotes range in size from 10–5 to 10–6 m.

6 Oilfield Review
 Biofilm
Microbes

Metal or rock surface

A B C D E
> Biofilm formation. The growth of biofilms is a stepwise process that begins with the transport of microbes to a metal or
rock surface (A). The microbes absorb organic molecules from their surroundings to form a film (B) composed of
exopolymers—sugars—that allow the microbes to stay attached to the surface as well as to each other (C). As the biofilm
expands (D), its size gives the interior microbes protection from biocides. Eventually, when the biofilm grows to a certain
size, some microbes are released (E) to form new areas of growth.

New methods for enumeration and identifi- nized only in the recent past. In the fight against formation surfaces as a biofilm.12 This biofilm is
cation of bacteria and archaea have led scien- infectious diseases, bacteria were identified the glue that holds the microbes together. Given
tists to a better understanding of microbial about 150 years ago as one of the culprits.9 As the right conditions, the microbes will continue
behavior and chemistry. Their efforts, in turn, industrial allies, microbes played a key role in the to grow, divide and plug rock pores, thus decreas-
have led to more accurate identification of prob- leaching of copper from mine drainage water, ing the effectiveness of water injection in displac-
lems caused by microbes as well as better means a practice in the Mediterranean region about ing oil. As a result, early water quality control
for their solution. Taken together, these meth- 1000 BCE, but their role in the process was methods included membrane filtration and the
ods give the operator tools to control microbes unknown until the 1950s.10 use of strong oxidizing agents as biocides.13 Later
in places where their effects are harmful and to The bulk of experience with microbes in oil waterflood control applications employed nonox-
exploit their positive characteristics. and gas exploration and production has occurred idizing biocides.
in the past 75 years. One of the early encounters Shortly after operators learned to manage
Enemy and Ally with microbes in a production environment microbe plugging during waterflooding, they
Although microbes and humans have existed as occurred in the late 1950s during waterflooding.11 encountered another significant problem—
both enemy and ally for ages, the roles of Microbes produce high molecular weight polysac- microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC)—
microbes in those relationships have been recog- charides that deposit on the sandface and other corrosion caused by microbial action.14 This type
5. Woese CR and Fox GE: “Phylogenetic Structure of the 8. Bass and Lapin-Scott, reference 2. 11. Lee D, Lowe D and Grant P: “Microbiology in the Oil
Prokaryotic Domain: The Primary Kingdoms,” Danish scientists have discovered microbes living in Patch: A Review,” paper 96-109, presented at the Annual
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 74, undisturbed sediments that are more than 86 million Technical Meeting of The Petroleum Society, Calgary,
no. 11 (November 1, 1977): 5088–5090. years old. The microbes consume oxygen in quantities June 10–12, 1996.
Woese CR, Kandler O and Wheelis ML: “Towards a too small to be directly measured. For more: Bhanoo SN: 12. Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules
Natural System of Organisms: Proposal for the Domains “Deep-Sea Microbes That Barely Breathe,” The New composed of repeating units and are common sources
Archaea, Bacteria and Eucarya,” Proceedings of the York Times (May 21, 2012), http://www.nytimes. of energy for bacteria. For more: Todar, reference 5.
National Academy of Sciences 87, no. 12 (June 1, 1990): com/2012/05/22/science/deep-sea-microbes-that-barely- 13. Mitchell RW and Bowyer PM: “Water Injection
4576–4579. breathe.html (accessed May 22, 2012). Methods,” paper SPE 10028, presented at the SPE
Todar K: “Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology,” 9. Santer M: “Joseph Lister: First Use of a Bacterium as a International Petroleum Exhibition and Technical
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net (accessed ‘Model Organism’ to Illustrate the Cause of Infectious Symposium, Beijing, March 17–24, 1982.
May 24, 2012). Disease of Humans,” Notes & Records of the Royal 14. The literature on microbes associated with oilfield
6. Although the bacteria and archaea that make up the Society 64, no. 1 (March 2010): 59–65. environments uses numerous acronyms for microbe-
prokaryotes are similar in size and structure, their 10. Brierley CL: “Microbial Mining,” Scientific American 247, driven processes such as MIC or MEOR. It is not
genome structures and metabolism differ. no. 2 (1982): 42–50. uncommon to encounter both “microbial” and
7. Taga ME and Bassler BL: “Chemical Communication “microbiologically” as the initial term in these acronyms,
Among Bacteria,” Proceedings of the National Academy depending on the reference—the terms are essentially
of Sciences 100, supplement 2 (November 25, 2003): equivalent.
14549–14554.

Summer 2012 7
 Nini
Siri
Cecilie

Water injection

32 km

9 km
m
13 k
Stine

Oil storage
Water injection
Gas lift
Multiphase
Oil
Umbilical

> Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC). Operated by DONG E&P, the Siri platform (center) is located in the North Sea 220 km [137 mi] west of the
Danish coast and is flanked by the smaller Cecilie (left) and Nini (right) satellite platforms. Five fields—Siri, Nini, Nini East, Cecilie and Stine—produce from
reservoirs 1,800 to 2,200 m [5,900 to 7,220 ft] below sea level. Seafloor lines between the three structures and wells carry oil and gas, gas for lift, and
injection water for pressure support. In 2007, a 25.4-cm [10-in.] water injection line ruptured (inset) 3 km [2 mi] from the Siri platform. Subsequent
investigation revealed that the MIC deposit at the rupture site was a mixture of iron sulfide and other corrosion by-products plus microbes and polysaccharide
slime. These deposits allow sulfate-reducing prokaryotes (SRPs) and other troublesome microbes to grow protected from biocides. (Adapted with
permission from DONG E&P.)

of corrosion can occur anywhere in the produc- as nutrients, oxidizing the nutrients while reduc- MIC is a common occurrence in the oil field,
tion environment—in downhole tubulars, in top- ing the sulfate in the water to H2S. The role of and to control it, operators usually treat injected
side equipment and in pipelines. This type of SRB in initiating MIC is complex and involves not and produced water to mitigate microbial action.
corrosion can cause ruptures that seriously only biofilms that trap corrosive microbial waste Complete sterilization of the water is impossible,
impede operations (above). Reports in the 1980s products but also electrochemical reactions at and microbe control strategies have usually been
showed that sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) the metal surface. Early explanations pointed directed toward disinfection—that is, reduction of
were the cause of MIC.15 SRB typically live in an toward an SRB produced enzyme that removes microbe numbers to acceptable levels by killing a
anaerobic, aqueous environment and use organic cathodic hydrogen from steel, which causes rapid large portion of the population with a biocide.
acids and hydrogen from decomposing biomass pitting of the surface.16
15. Cord-Ruwisch R, Kleinitz W and Widdel F: “Sulfate- 17. Campbell S, Duggleby A and Johnson A: “Conventional 18. Maxwell S and Campbell S: “Monitoring the Mitigation
Reducing Bacteria and Their Activities in Oil Application of Biocides May Lead to Bacterial Cell Injury of MIC Risk in Pipelines,” paper NACE 06662, presented
Production,” Journal of Petroleum Technology 39, no. 1 Rather Than Bacterial Kill Within a Biofilm,” paper at the NACE Corrosion Annual Conference and Exposition,
(January 1987): 97–106. NACE 11234, presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual San Diego, California, USA, March 12–16, 2006.
16. Lee et al, reference 11. Conference and Exposition, Houston, March 13–17, 2011. 19. Eckert R and Skovhus TL: “Using Molecular
Microbiological Methods to Investigate MIC in the Oil
and Gas Industry,” Materials Performance 50, no. 8
(August 2011): 50–54.

8 Oilfield Review
 If the biocide is a strong oxidizing agent such
as chlorine, it is added to the injection water con- 5 1,000

tinuously. Nonoxidizing biocides, typically used

in current operations, are added intermittently 4 800

(right). Each batch of biocide kills a portion of

Biocide, ppm
Sulfide, ppm
the microbe population, but the survivors may 3 Biocide 600
recover between doses. Recent research has
shown biocides may not be as effective as previ- 2 400
Sulfide
ously thought—they may only injure or inhibit
but not kill microbes.17 1 200
Although biocides can be effective in combat-
ing MIC, there are reports of equipment failure in 0 0
spite of treatment, and examination of these inci- Start Stop 1 2 3
Biocide Time, d
dents revealed that the biocide application was
erratic and haphazard.18 Until recently, unlike > Biocide treatment. Offshore topside equipment is commonly treated with
with common corrosive agents, there were no biocides to prevent MIC and precipitation of iron sulfide from produced
H2S. In the North Sea, engineers treated a reclaimed oil sump tank with
effective tools to predict and quantify the risk of glutaraldehyde to obtain data showing how the biocide and H2S
corrosion influenced by microbes. The juncture concentrations changed with time. The sump tank effluent was analyzed
of genome-based test methods and the inadequa- for residual glutaraldehyde and sulfide as a marker for H2S. Data from the
cies of biocides and their risks has led to a new study show expected results after biocide treatment. As the high
concentration of biocide kills troublesome microbes, the sulfide
approach in managing MIC in production envi- concentration drops sharply. At the highest concentration of biocide, the
ronments. This approach uses molecular micro- sulfide concentration reaches a minimum. Both trends reverse as the
biological methods (MMMs) and represents a biocide is flushed from the system. Biocide is reapplied when the sulfide
fundamental change in assessing microbe returns to a threshold level.
effects.19 These methods—fluorescence in situ
hybridization (FISH), quantitative polymerase
chain reaction (qPCR) and a microbe staining
technique using a fluorescent stain known as Microbe Characterization and Relative Proportions
4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)—allow
scientists to gain a more complete understanding MPN: most probable number
of identities, quantities and behaviors of the FISH: flourescence in situ
microbes involved in MIC. hybridization
To appreciate the significance of these meth- DAPI: 4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
ods, it is important to understand how microbes qPCR: quantitative polymerase
were handled in the laboratory prior to the intro- Dead chain reaction
duction of MMMs. Traditional microbiological
methods for identification and enumeration Active
relied on serial dilution and cultivation in nutri-
ent media for relatively long periods—often up to
30 days. Even after these long periods, less than Inactive
10% of the viable microbes could be cultured. It is
no surprise that laboratory results based on tradi-
tional serial dilution and culturing methods did
not correlate well with field results.
In contrast, results from application of FISH,
DAPI and qPCR techniques reveal nearly com-
plete identities and distribution of the microbes
of interest in oil production systems. These new
methods utilize a combination of microscopy, > Molecular microbiological methods. These laboratory methods allow characterization and determination of
analysis of cell genetic material and enzymatic the relative proportions of microbes present in oil production systems. Traditional microbe culturing using serial
reactions to give a complete enumeration of dilution produces the most probable number (MPN) of microbes, which may represent only a small fraction of
the total number actually present. In contrast, MMMs represent a trio of new methods—FISH, DAPI and
microbes present in the sample (right). In addi-
qPCR—that divide the microbe population into organisms that are active, inactive and dead. FISH analysis
tion, the results are available in days rather than involves staining and microscopy to examine living, or active, microbes. The fluorescent stain, DAPI, binds to
weeks. These methods permit scientists to more DNA and quantifies both active and inactive microbes. The qPCR method employs an enzymatic reaction that
completely understand the chemistry of MIC on a gives additional information on all the microbial groups. When these methods are used together, scientists
obtain a complete enumeration and characterization of the microbes in a sample. (Adapted with permission
from DTI Oil & Gas, Danish Technological Institute.)

Summer 2012 9
 showed high corrosion rates in the carbon steel outlet.27 New research relies on data that show
Water
H2S Sulfate- water outlet piping. The pipe showed severe the amount of H2S produced is consistent with
reducing
prokaryotes metal pitting and scaling, and scientists deter- production only in the immediate vicinity of the
SO42 – mined that MIC was the cause (next page).21 The wellbore but not throughout the formation.
S2 –
FeS CO2 microbes responsible for corrosion problems at Scientists have concluded that elevated levels of
H+ CH4 Halfdan field are not the only varieties that can heavy metals, water-soluble hydrocarbons and
Fe 2+
e– H2 Methanogens cause MIC in production systems. Acid-producing microbe activity by-products inhibit microbe
bacteria (APB) are microbes that produce growth in the reservoir. Another result of this
Fe0 Metal organic acids under certain conditions. These research is a model showing how H2S produced
acids can cause the pH to drop enough to create in the vicinity of the wellbore moves through
Net reactions conditions favorable to corrosion on metal the reservoir. Early theories relied on a simple


 
 surfaces such as those of submersible pumping mixing-zone model that predicted rapid H2S
4Fe0 + 3H2S + SO42 – + 2H+ 4FeS + 4H2O
components.22 Control of APB is typically accom- breakthrough. Data show the opposite—several



 
n plished by biocide disinfection that may aid in reservoir pore volumes must be displaced before
4Fe0 + 4H2S + CO2 4FeS + 2H2O + CH4
control of SRB as well.23 H2S breakthrough. This newer model assumes
that most of the H2S generation takes place in a
> Corrosion reactions. A complex set of reactions
New Theories and Solutions biofilm near the injector and that the reservoir is
underlies the production of MIC on a metal
surface. These reactions are strongly influenced The H2S produced during MIC in the wellbore merely a zone for transport and adsorption.
by sulfate-reducing prokaryotic and methanogenic and reservoir by sulfate-reducing prokaryotes Regardless of how it occurs, souring creates
respiration (blue and red paths, top). This set of (SRPs) contributes to reservoir souring.24 There many problems for the industry, including corro-
reactions is best illustrated by listing the net
reactions for sulfate reduction and CH4 production
are new and effective ways to control souring, but sion of pipelines and topside equipment, reser-
(bottom). In the net sulfate reduction reaction, iron souring is not a new problem for producers. Some voir plugging from sulfides, health risks from H2S
[Fe], H2S and the sulfate ion [SO42–] combine to reservoirs are sour as a result of high levels of H2S toxicity and increased refining costs.28 The effects
give FeS and water. In the net CH4 production that have been present over geologic time frames. of souring are serious enough that oilfield pro-
reaction, Fe, H2S and carbon dioxide [CO2]
combine to give FeS, water and CH4. (Adapted Many reservoirs are sour, however, as a conse- ducers have investigated several ways to control
from Larsen et al, reference 20.) quence of seawater injection for secondary recov- it. These include biocides, nanofiltration to
ery.25 The SRPs that live near the wellbore and in remove sulfate and manipulation of injection
the reservoir have simple needs for growth—they water salinity levels to inhibit microbe growth.
require sulfate, carbon and nutrients. Seawater Because processes such as nanofiltration have
is rich in sulfate, and reservoir formation water high capital costs, biocides have usually been the
metal surface. By using MMMs, scientists discov- usually contains abundant short-chain fatty acids first choice for controlling microbial growth to
ered that corrosion involves not only SRB but also that supply the carbon and other nutrients.26 Add prevent souring.
other microbes that contribute to H2S and meth- a suitable temperature regime, inject seawater New methods employed for control of reser-
ane [CH4] production (above).20 and the end result is inevitable—souring. voir souring have helped scientists further under-
This complexity in MIC is illustrated by recent Exactly how and to what extent souring stand microbial identities and their chemistry
laboratory work on topside equipment in the occurs have been recently challenged, and the during secondary recovery. Although earlier inves-
Danish sector of the North Sea. In 2008, a pro- picture may not entail simple microbe growth tigations into souring focused almost exclusively
duced water separator in the Halfdan field from water injector all the way to produced water on SRB, seawater and reservoir formations con-
20. Larsen J, Rasmussen K, Pedersen H, Sørensen K, 24. Larsen J, Sørenson K, Højris K and Skovhus TL: 29. SRB use anaerobic respiration while NRB use anoxic
Lundgaard T and Skovhus TL: “Consortia of MIC “Significance of Troublesome Sulfate-Reducing respiration.
Bacteria and Archaea Causing Pitting Corrosion in Top Prokaryotes (SRP) in Oil Field Systems,” paper 30. Thorstenson T, Bødtker G, Lillebø B-LP, Torsvik T,
Side Oil Production Facilities,” paper NACE 10252, NACE 09389, presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual Sunde E and Beeder J: “Biocide Replacement by
presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual Conference and Conference and Exposition, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, Nitrate in Sea Water Injection Systems,” paper
Exposition, San Antonio, Texas, USA, March 14–18, 2010. March 22–26, 2009. NACE 02033, presented at the NACE Corrosion Annual
21. Skovhus TL, Holmkvist L, Andersen K, Pedersen H and 25. Kuijvenhoven C, Bostock A, Chappell D, Noirot JC and Conference and Exposition, Denver, April 7–11, 2002.
Larsen J: “MIC Risk Assessment of the Halfdan Oil Khan A: “Use of Nitrate to Mitigate Reservoir Souring in 31. Rassenfoss, reference 4.
Export Spool,” paper SPE 155080, presented at the Bonga Deepwater Development Offshore Nigeria,”
32. Zahner RL, Tapper SJ, Marcotte BWG and Govreau BR:
SPE International Conference and Exhibition on Oilfield paper SPE 92795, presented at the SPE International
“What Has Been Learned from a Hundred MEOR
Corrosion, Aberdeen, May 28–29, 2012. Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, Houston,
Applications,” paper SPE 145054, presented at the
22. Adams DL: “Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of February 2–4, 2005.
SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery Conference, Kuala Lumpur,
Electrical-Submersible-Pumping-System Components 26. Bass and Lapin-Scott, reference 2. July 19–21, 2011.
Associated With Acid-Producing Bacteria and 27. Sunde E and Torsvik T: “Microbial Control of Hydrogen 33. Brisbane PG and Ladd JN: “The Role of Microorganisms
Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria: Case Histories,” paper Sulfide Production in Oil Reservoirs,” in Ollivier B in Petroleum Exploration,” Annual Review of
SPE 136756, presented at the SPE Latin American and and Magot M (eds): Petroleum Microbiology. Microbiology 19 (October 1965): 351–364.
Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, Lima, Washington, DC: ASM Press (2005): 201–214.
Peru, December 1–3, 2010. 34. Tucker J and Hitzman D: “Detailed Microbial Surveys
28. Youssef N, Elshahed MS and McInerney MJ: “Microbial Help Improve Reservoir Characterization,” Oil & Gas
23. Bagchi D, Periera AP, Chu J, Smith JP and Scheie J: Processes in Oil Fields: Culprits, Problems, and Journal 92, no. 23 (June 6, 1994): 65–68.
“Successful Mitigation of Microbiologically Influenced Opportunities,” in Laskin AI, Sariaslani S and Gadd GM
Corrosion in Waterflood Pipelines and Process (eds): Advances in Applied Microbiology, vol. 66.
Equipment,” in Blackwood DJ (ed): Proceedings of Burlington, Vermont, USA: Elsevier (2009): 141–251.
Corrosion Asia 2000. Singapore: Corrosion Association
Singapore (2000): 55–65.

10 Oilfield Review
tain several other species of microbes, including out, but it also distributes the nutrients through- nutrients stimulate microbes that outcompete
nitrate-reducing bacteria (NRB). SRB and NRB out the system. Data show that MEOR can SRPs for food and thereby depress SRP growth.
can live and thrive in the wellbore and formation, enhance recovery in reservoirs with a wide These trials demonstrate that MEOR processes
provided they have a sufficient carbon source range of oil densities—from 16 to 41 degree API can economically free up oil trapped in mature
such as short-chain fatty acids. gravity and with reservoir temperatures as high fields. Although most work to date has been on
On the molecular level, SRB reduce the sul- as 93°C [200°F] and salinities as high as mature, noneconomic wells, there is potential
fate to sulfide, and NRB reduce the nitrate to 142,000 parts per million (ppm) total dissolved for application of MEOR at an earlier stage in
nitrogen.29 SRB and NRB compete for food, and solids. It is also possible to apply MEOR to dual- the life of a producing reservoir.
where it is limited, that competition is intense. In porosity reservoirs if the added nutrients are In addition to using microbes to stimulate pro-
the wellbore and reservoir, if oxygen is absent, able to penetrate the matrix and not bypass the duction and mitigate reservoir souring and corro-
introduction of nitrate, via injection water, favors formation via high-permeability streaks. In sion, scientists are using them in exploration via
NRB growth over SRB growth. Nitrate, in the some cases, MEOR treatment may reduce reser- biomonitoring.33 In one application of biomonitor-
form of calcium nitrate [Ca(NO3)2], is added to voir souring in addition to stimulating produc- ing, a grid of shallow soil samples was analyzed for
injection water to prevent souring.30 This form of tion. Scientists theorize that the added specific microbes.34 Elevated amounts of the target
nitrate may be used in place of biocide and has
minimal health and environmental impacts.
Although nitrate may not completely eliminate
the need for biocides, it can reduce the amount of
other chemicals needed.31 Using their increased
knowledge of SRB and NRB microbe species and
chemistry, scientists have improved treatment
techniques for souring—the same is true for
microbiologically enhanced oil recovery.
Operators have employed MEOR for decades. Water separator pipe
Much of the past work relied on trial and error
and produced mixed results. A more complete
understanding of microbe behavior and chemistry
is resulting in a resurgence of MEOR field trials.
These trials have two common objectives—iden-
tify the indigenous microbes in the formation and 2 to 3 cm of corrosion scale Inner
surface
design formulas for nutrient injection to
stimulate their growth; that is, find the helpful
microbes and feed them what they like. Outer solids Pitting corrosion
Inner solids
Just as there are many types of indigenous
microbes, there are several mechanisms
microbes employ that may stimulate oil produc-
tion from mature wells. First, natural microbe
metabolic processes produce downhole gases Pipe metal
that may increase pressure and decrease oil vis-
cosity. Second, microbes produce surfactants
that decrease the surface tension between oil
and water. In addition, biomass and polymers
from microbes selectively plug oil-depleted areas
in the reservoir, diverting fluids into oil-rich
zones. Successful MEOR projects typically
depend on a combination of these mechanisms
rather than any single one.
After reviewing MEOR field trial results, sci- > Halfdan corrosion. Visual examination of a cross section of the produced-
entists have made important observations water separator pipe (top) revealed a 2- to 3-cm [0.8- to 1.2-in.] layer of
corrosion scale (middle). The scale had an orange outer layer and a black
regarding its application.32 Although MEOR tech-
inner layer adjacent to the metal (bottom). Scientists observed areas of
nology has been used in both oil-producing and severe pitting corrosion at various points on the inner layer. Laboratory
water injection wells, it probably has the best studies, including examination by the new MMMs, showed that the outer
chance of success in reservoirs with active water scale layer was composed of salts, iron oxides and decomposed biomass—
primarily SRB and sulfate-reducing archaea (SRA). The inner scale layer
injection programs for secondary recovery. Not was composed of salts, iron sulfides and decomposed biomass that had
only does the water provide the energy to push oil high levels of methanogens. (Adapted from Skovhus et al, reference 21.)

Summer 2012 11
 Smoothed Microbial Concentrations Contoured Microbial Concentrations

High

Presence of
butane-utilizing
microbes Low

Relative
microbe
concentration

0 km 1 0 km 1

0 mi 1 0 mi 1

> Microbial surveys. Soil samples in Osage County, Oklahoma, USA, were analyzed to detect the
abundance of butane-utilizing microbes. More than 1,200 samples were analyzed from a grid
measuring 3.5 mi [5.6 km] by 7.5 mi [12.1 km] (left). The orange circles indicate samples with the
highest 30% of the microbe concentration; the size of the circle is proportional to concentration. The
smoothed data are contoured to provide a more informative picture of the microbe distribution (right).
The strongest microbial anomaly (purple) corresponds to structural data from a 3D seismic survey
covering the same grid area. Several years after the microbial survey was conducted, an operator
drilled and completed a producing oil well at the microseepage anomaly. (Adapted with permission
from Geo-Microbial Technologies Inc.)

microbes indicated microseepage of oil and in 1979, this field produces about 30,000 m3/d Although Statoil employed stringent filtration
gas from underground formations (above). [189,000 bbl/d] of oil from three large plat- and biocides to control injected water quality at
Operators use this type of data to rank drilling forms—Gullfaks A, B and C.36 The platforms Gullfaks, those approaches were not entirely
prospects, characterize heterogeneities and iden- started production in the late 1980s and cur- effective. In the early 1990s, Gullfaks A experi-
tify bypassed oil. rently use seawater injection for pressure sup- enced high H2S levels in produced gas and water.
port. The seawater intake depth for Gullfaks A The high H2S levels, coupled with laboratory data
Controlling and Harnessing Microbes and B is 70 m [230 ft] below the surface; the that showed rapid increases in the Gullfaks SRB
Armed with these new insights on microbe Gullfaks C intake depth is at 120 m [394 ft]. population from 1994 to 1996, gave Statoil reason
behavior and chemistry, producers are putting Injection water volumes vary from 30,000 m3/d to rethink the microbe control strategy.37 A suc-
this knowledge to work in the oil field. Statoil is [189,000 bbl/d] to 70,000 m3/d [440,000 bbl/d]; cessful application of nitrate added to injected
using nitrate to control corrosion and H2S at its the pressure downstream of the pumps is about seawater at Statoil’s Veslefrikk platform in early
Gullfaks platforms in the North Sea.35 20 MPa [2,900 psi]. Injection water undergoes 1999 provided engineers with the confidence to
The Statoil Gullfaks field is located 175 km vacuum deaeration to remove oxygen, and the use it at Gullfaks.38
[109 mi] northwest of Bergen, Norway. Discovered final water temperature downstream of the
deaerator is 25°C [77°F].

12 Oilfield Review
 In late 1999, Statoil switched from biocide to
Gullfaks field
nitrate to treat the injected seawater for reser-
NORWAY
voir microbe control at the Gullfaks B and C plat-
forms.39 Nitrate was added to the injection water
at 30 to 40 ppm as a 45 weight percent solution of ort

N
h Se
Ca(NO3)2. At both platforms, scientists observed a
decreases in SRB counts about one month after
the start of nitrate injection. Decreases in the 1.2 25
Nitrate added, Gullfaks B
SRB population were accompanied by increases 1.0 UK 0 km 200
Corrosion rate 20
in the NRB counts. These changes in microbe dis- 0 mi 200

Corrosion rate, mm/yr

SRB activity
tribution are consistent with how these two 0.8

μg H2S/cm2/d
SRB activity,
15
microbe groups compete for nutrients. As nitrate
0.6
injection continued, the changes in microbe dis-
10
tribution led to major changes in the corrosion 0.4
rate (right). Engineers also noted decreases in
5
H2S levels in the produced water at Gullfaks 0.2

(below right). Tangible benefits for Statoil 0 0

include reduction of H2S in the produced water in April May February February
1994 1997 2000 2003
most parts of the field and a 50% decrease in cor-
Date
rosion rates on metal coupons in the seawater
> Gullfaks microbe activity. Before nitrate was used in injection water at Gullfaks B, enrichment
injection system.
cultures from water and biofilm showed a stable and diverse SRB population. Although at lower
Nitrate controls certain undesirable aspects concentrations, NRB were also present (not shown) and used the same carbon sources as nutrients.
of microbe behavior, but MEOR does the oppo- After nitrate addition, SRB activity significantly decreased and NRB numbers in the biofilm increased
site—it exploits microbes’ positive characteris- by three orders of magnitude (not shown). Corrosion measurements on carbon steel coupons in the
water injection system showed similar trends. Beginning in early 1994, corrosion rates at Gullfaks B
tics. The rationale for bringing microbes into the
rose, peaking shortly before nitrate addition was started. After nitrate addition, corrosion rates
oil recovery process is simple—about 80% of the trended downward and were reduced by at least half. (Adapted from Sunde et al, reference 35.)
oil currently produced is from fields discovered in
the early 1970s. More than 50% of the oil in these
fields remains trapped and cannot be economi-
cally recovered.40 In the last few years, scientists
have developed MEOR processes that use new
analytical technology to selectively identify and 10
Nitrate added, Gullfaks C
exploit beneficial microbes living in oil reser-
voirs. These MEOR processes have given opera- 8

tors a new tool to inexpensively free oil trapped

in mature reservoirs. Husky Energy Inc. used this 6 Predicted H2S
H2S, mg
water, L

approach in a pilot oil recovery project in Canada. Measured H2S

35. Sunde E, Lillebø B-LP, Bødtker G, Torsvik T and 4

Thorstenson T: “H2S Inhibition by Nitrate Injection on the
Gullfaks Field,” paper NACE 04760, presented at the
NACE Corrosion Annual Conference and Exposition, 2
New Orleans, March 28–April 1, 2004.
36. Hesjedal A: “Introduction to the Gullfaks Field,”
http://www.ipt.ntnu.no/~tpg5200/intro/gullfaks_ 0
introduksjon.html (accessed May 24, 2012). Nov July Feb Oct
37. Statoil collected samples of injection water downstream 1997 1999 2001 2002
of the vacuum deaerator using a bioprobe. Bioprobes Date
allow collection of samples from a biofilm that deposits
> Gullfaks H2S production. Statoil engineers measured H2S in the produced
on a metal surface within the probe. These instruments
are commonly used in oil and gas systems to detect water before and after nitrate addition. At Gullfaks C, produced water H2S
corrosion-causing organisms. levels were slowly increasing prior to introduction of nitrate. After nitrate
38. Thorstenson et al, reference 30. addition, H2S levels fell significantly but only after a delay. This delay is a result
39. Statoil started nitrate injection at Gullfaks B in of the time it takes H2S to equilibrate in the reservoir. Statoil scientists estimate
October 1999 and about a month later at Gullfaks C. that several pore volumes must be displaced in the reservoir before a new or
40. Marcotte B, Govreau B and Davis CP: “MEOR Finds Oil reequilibrated H2S value is observed in the producers. Statoil researchers
Where It Has Already Been Discovered,” E&P, have also developed a reservoir souring model—predicted H2S values are
(November 4, 2009), http://www.epmag.com/
shown for Gullfaks C. The predicted values indicate levels that would have
Exploration-Wildcats-Stepouts/MEOR-finds-oil-it
already-discovered_47917 (accessed July 15, 2012). been experienced had there been no nitrate addition. (Adapted from Sunde et
al, reference 35.)

Summer 2012 13
 The Husky pilot MEOR project is located
within a field in the southwest corner of
Saskatchewan, Canada (left).41 This field, discov-
ered in 1952, has a reservoir depth of about
1,200 m [3,940 ft] and an average temperature of
Well A
Saskatchewan 47°C [117° F]. Current production from the field
Pilot area
is 60 m3/d [380 bbl/d] of 22 to 24 degree API
gravity oil and 4,250 m3/d [150 Mcf/d] of gas.
MEOR pilot Well E Husky began waterflooding in 1967, and current
C A N A D A
water injection is 1,300 m3/d [8,200 bbl/d]. In
Well C 2010, cumulative oil production from this field
U N I T E D S T A T E S reached 3.3 million m3 [21 million bbl] since
Well D discovery—estimated to be about 29% of the
original oil in place (OOIP).
Injector B Husky teamed with Titan Oil Recovery to
investigate the feasibility of using MEOR to
recover crude oil trapped in this field. The Titan
technology is simple—identify and quantify
Water injector 0 km 1 microbes that are indigenous to the reservoir.42
Producing well 0 mi 1 Using these data plus results from other field
tests, Titan engineers formulated a nutrient mix-
ture to release in the reservoir by way of the
> Husky-Titan pilot location. The pilot area encompassed four producing
water injection system. The engineers theorized
wells and one water injector in the Saskatchewan, Canada, field. Nutrient
that the injected nutrients would stimulate
injection was carried out in two steps. Husky first used Well A to confirm
the laboratory-derived nutrient formula by batch treating the well. The changes in certain species of resident microbes,
operator next used Injector B to deliver the nutrients while production was allowing the microbes to affect the interfaces
monitored at nearby Wells C, D and E. (Adapted from Town et al, reference 41.) between oil, water and rock to release small
droplets of oil into the active flow channels.
Husky applied the Titan process in two
steps—batch nutrient treatment of a single well
Nutrient Injections at Injector B followed by water injection to spread nutrients to
Treatment Treatment Treatment nearby wells. For the single-well treatment,
1 2 3 Husky injected 1.3 m3 [8.2 bbl] of nutrients and
100
14 13 m3 [82 bbl] of injection water through the
95
wellbore, then shut in the well for a week. When
12 90
the well was returned to production, results were
Oil production 85 encouraging—oil production increased from 1.2
10
Oil production, m3/d

Water cut to 4.1 m3/d [7.5 to 25.8 bbl/d] and water cut
Water cut, %

80
8 decreased from 94% to 80%. Because these results
75
showed that the nutrients were appropriate for
6 70 the reservoir and its resident microbes, Husky
65 shifted its focus to the water injector for treating
4
nearby wells in the pilot area.
60
2
Starting in early 2008 and using procedures
55 similar to treatment of the single well, Husky
0 50 injected the custom nutrient via the water
Jan Aug Feb Sep Mar
2007 2007 2008 2008 2009 injector in the pilot area. After three weeks, the
Date closest producing well showed a significant
> Husky-Titan pilot results. From early 2007 until the beginning of 2008, oil oil production increase and a corresponding
production at Well C in the Saskatchewan MEOR pilot was reasonably decrease in water cut (left). After an appropriate
steady, between 2 and 4 m3/d [13 and 25 bbl/d]. The water cut for the same interval to allow underground transit of nutri-
period was about 95%. After the first and subsequent nutrient injections at
Injector B, oil production at Well C increased to 7 to 9 m3/d [44 to 57 bbl/d]. ents, engineers observed these positive results at
For the same period, water cut fell to about 88%. Because Well C was not
treated directly, the pilot confirmed response through the reservoir from
injector to producer. (Adapted from Town et al, reference 41.)

14 Oilfield Review
other wells in the pilot area. In addition, engi- Rock grain Microbes
neers used the same treatment in wells and
injectors outside the pilot area, achieving posi- Oil trapped Oil released
in pore into pore
tive results, which confirmed the response from
injector to producer. Water
Success with microbe stimulation to enhance
oil production from a mature waterflood was also
seen at a field in Kansas, USA.43 The Stirrup field, Flow path
discovered in 1985, is located in the southwest
corner of Kansas. The reservoir depth is about
5,200 ft [1,600 m], and current production is
490 bbl/d [78 m3/d] of 38 to 41 degree API gravity
oil. The initial reservoir pressure was 1,650 psi
[11.4 MPa] and had declined to less than 100 psi
[0.69 MPa] at the start of waterflood in 2003.
Primary recovery from the Stirrup field was cal-
culated at 19.1 million bbl [3.04 million m3] of oil, Microbes reduce Microbes affect
and waterflood is estimated to add another oil-water tension. preferential flow.
2.8 million bbl [0.44 million m3], for an ultimate
recovery of about 15% of the OOIP. In mid-2010,
Glori Energy, in collaboration with Statoil, tested
the AERO activated environment for recovery of
oil technology in the Stirrup field to see if there
was potential to boost recovery based on micro-
bial stimulation (right).
Detailed characterization of the existing
microbe population using both traditional and
genome-based techniques was the first step in
implementing the AERO technology at Stirrup.
Once Glori Energy had characterized the indig-
enous microbe population, engineers devel-
oped a custom nutrient formulation and micro-
bial inoculant.
Glori Energy started the AERO technology
pilot at Stirrup in May 2010 by continuously
injecting the custom nutrient using two of the Microbes disperse. New water flow
water injectors. The initial test pattern for the paths open.
pilot included two injectors and five producing > AERO technology. Glori Energy has theorized that the AERO technology stimulates oil production in
wells. After several months of operation, it was four steps. The microbes in the reservoir use existing oil as a carbon source to produce surfactants
clear that water from one of the injectors was not that reduce the oil-water surface tension, helping to release trapped oil (top left). The microbes then
multiply and block some existing water flow paths, thereby forcing the opening of new flow paths that
entering the test pattern, so that injector was move trapped oil out of the reservoir (top right). When some of the trapped oil has been released and the
withdrawn from the pilot. Some of the five test local carbon source depleted, the microbes disperse and former water flow paths reopen (bottom left). If
wells experienced similar problems when follow- the stimulated microbes are active and have sufficient nutrients, the process is continuously repeated
until trapped oil is brought to the surface and production increases (bottom right). (Adapted with
up work showed that injectors not included in the
permission from Glori Energy.)
test pattern program were influencing perfor-
mance. Since this field does not have a dedicated
system for separation and testing, evaluation can
be made only on a well-by-well basis. Stirrup
Well 12-2 demonstrated the predominant response.
Analysis of the data from Well 12-2 suggests that

41. Town K, Sheehy AJ and Govreau BR: “MEOR Success in 42. Analysis for resident microbes is typically carried out on 43. Bauer BG, O’Dell RJ, Marinello SA, Babcock J, Ishoey T
Southern Saskatchewan,” paper SPE 124319, presented produced water samples. and Sunde E: “Field Experience from a Biotechnology
at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Approach to Water Flood Improvement,” paper SPE
New Orleans, October 4–7, 2009. 144205, presented at the SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, July 19–21, 2011.

Summer 2012 15
the AERO treatment, when properly applied, is posed of in a safe and environmentally responsi- Although researchers have shown that heavily
capable of significantly boosting ultimate recov- ble manner. Microbes are currently playing an weathered, high–molecular weight hydrocar-
ery (below). important role in disposal of these waste streams, bons are essentially nonbiodegradable, these
particularly in the realm of solid waste. Two solid same hydrocarbons can be rendered less detri-
Microbes on the Surface waste streams that arise from oil and gas produc- mental by treatment with a mixture of nutrients
While many microbe applications are designed tion may be amenable to bioremediation: hydro- and cultured microbes.44 Currently, bioremedia-
for the subsurface, others contribute to shallow carbon-impacted soil and drilling waste. tion is usually the preferred method for dealing
and surficial processes such as the management During the last 100 years, some production with crude oil–impacted soil.45 Because not all
of oilfield waste or remediation of production facilities have experienced contaminated soils crude oils respond to bioremediation in the
from oil sands and spills. because of leaks or uncontrolled discharges of same way, engineers have developed predictive
Oil and gas production generates a variety of crude oil and other liquids. Natural weathering models to allow quick assessment of ex situ bio-
vapor, liquid and solid waste that not only must can significantly reduce the hydrocarbon con- remediation without resorting to time-consum-
meet governmental regulations but also be dis- centration in soil but does not eliminate it. ing laboratory trials.
Drilling waste, a by-product of oilfield opera-
tions, is mostly nonhazardous, although the vol-
umes of such waste are significant for both marine
and onshore operations. For example, a midsize
operator in the Gulf of Mexico may routinely gen-
erate 250 tonUS [227,000 kg] of waste monthly.46
100 Some operators dispose of water-base drilling
Estimated increase
50,000 to 55,000 bbl wastes from marine operations directly to the
Before AERO nutrient addition ocean. Although harm to the ecosystem from this
95
After AERO nutrient addition type of disposal has not been demonstrated, it
remains a controversial practice.47
90 As in marine environments, onshore drilling
generates a significant volume of waste. A 509-m
Water cut, %

[1,670-ft], 61/2-in. hole produces 21 m3 [130 bbl] of

85
cuttings, and disposal of onshore cuttings pres-
ents a different challenge from that of marine
80 environments. Scientists are designing synthetic
AERO nutrient start drilling muds that, when added to soil, enhance
soil quality and stimulate more rapid bioremedia-
75
tion.48 In addition, engineers have developed a
standardized screening protocol for drill cut-
70 tings. This protocol compares rates of bioreme-
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275
diation using greenhouse-scale models to
Cumulative production, 1,000 bbl
simulate field conditions (next page). Scientists
> AERO technology results. Data from the Stirrup Well 12-2 are plotted as at M-I SWACO, a Schlumberger company, use
water cut versus cumulative production from the well with approximate
results from the greenhouse simulations to pre-
trend lines drawn for periods both before and after nutrient injection. When
these trend lines are extrapolated to constant 95% water cut, they imply a dict the length of time for treatment, final condi-
50,000- to 55,000-bbl [7,950- to 8,740-m3] oil production increase as a result tion of the material following treatment, the
of the treatment. (Adapted with permission from Glori Energy.) capability of the material to comply with environ-
mental targets and the likelihood of technique
effectiveness.

44. Adams RH, Díaz-Ramírez IJ, Guzmán-Osorio FJ and 46. Louviere RJ and Reddoch JA: “Onsite Disposal of 48. Curtis GW, Growcock FB, Candler JE, Rabke SP and
Gutiérrez-Rojas M: “Biodegradation and Detoxification Rig-Generated Waste via Slurrification and Annular Getliff J: “Can Synthetic-Based Muds Be Designed to
of Soil Contaminated with Heavily Weathered Injection,” paper SPE/IADC 25755, presented at the Enhance Soil Quality?,” paper AADE 01-NC-HO-11,
Hydrocarbons,” presented at the 13th Annual SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, presented at the AADE National Drilling Conference,
International Environmental Petroleum Conference, February 22–25, 1993. Houston, March 27–29, 2001.
San Antonio, Texas, October 16–20, 2006. 47. Neff JM: “Composition, Environmental Fates and Clements K, Rabke S and Young S: “Development of a
45. Hoffman R, Bernier R, Smith S and McMillen S: Biological Effects of Water Based Drilling Muds and Standardized Screening Procedure for Bioremediation
“A Four-Step Biotreatability Protocol for Crude Oil Cuttings Discharged to the Marine Environment: of Drill Cuttings,” presented at the 14th International
Impacted Soil,” paper SPE 126982, presented at the A Synthesis and Annotated Bibliography.” Report Petroleum Environmental Conference, Houston,
SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and prepared for the Petroleum Environmental Research November 6–9, 2007.
Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Forum and API, January 2005, http://perf.org/pdf/ 49. Orwig J: “Scientists Grow Bacteria to Improve Oil Sands
Rio de Janeiro, April 12–14, 2010. APIPERFreport.pdf (accessed August 2, 2012). Remediation,” EARTH 57, no. 4 (April 2012):18.
50. Phan CM, Allen B, Peters LB, Le TN and Tade MO:
“Can Water Float on Oil?,” Langmuir 28, no. 10
(March 13, 2012): 4609–4613.

16 Oilfield Review
 10
Total petroleum hydrocarbons, weight percent

4
Linear paraffins
Diesel oil
Mixed olefins
2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time, d
> Bioremediation. Scientists at M-I SWACO in Houston use a greenhouse to study bioremediation rates by composting tub-sized
samples of drill cuttings (right). These specialists have developed bioremediation protocols using 2.7- to 4.0-ft3 [0.08- to 0.1-m3] size
samples of a drill-cutting mix containing sand, bentonite clay, an additional nonswelling silica clay and water, followed by coating with
hydrocarbons at the 10 weight percent level. Typical soil amendments and nutrients are added to the resultant hydrocarbon-compost
mix before it is allowed to sit for long periods under greenhouse conditions. During this extended period, constant conditions for the
compost are maintained by introducing oxygen via periodic mixing and adding water and nutrients as required. Bioremediation as
measured by total petroleum hydrocarbons is plotted for three hydrocarbon proxies (left). These data show that after 30 days, linear
paraffins and mixed olefins have nearly completely dissipated, while diesel oil is significantly reduced but does not fall below about
1 weight percent. M-I SWACO uses this test to screen onsite remediation as well as to train field personnel to maintain optimal
compost conditions.

Microbe Frontiers reintroduced to shorten the current 20- to 30-year volume, water droplets can float on an oil sur-
The ubiquity of microbe distribution on the compound breakdown time. Researchers are face.50 Acceleration of aerobic biodegradation of
planet ensures that scientists associated with the making progress; by simulating tailings pond con- spills is one application of this finding—small
oil and gas industry have an abundance of oppor- ditions, they have reproduced 30% to 60% of the water droplets that float on the oil surface have
tunities ahead of them. These opportunities microbes in the sludge and expect to have pilot more contact with airborne oxygen, thus acceler-
include oil sands remediation and cleanup of bioreactors running in a few years. ating the microbe-driven cleanup.
ocean oil spills. Drillers and producers in offshore operations New analytical methods and scientists’
Production of hydrocarbons from Canadian oil must take significant precautions to avoid spills increased understanding of microbes have led to
sands has been successful in adding to the world’s and must be prepared to deal with them if they developments in controlling souring and corro-
sources of petroleum, but such hydrocarbon pro- occur. Use of dispersants remains controversial sion and improving oil recovery from mature
duction is not without environmental cost. Tailings because the dispersants may have environmental wells. These advances are stimulating further
ponds, which must be fenced off to protect wild- impacts. Researchers in Australia, studying the work in the use of microbes for bioremediation in
life, are one consequence of oil sands production. physical chemistry of oil-water interactions, have both onshore and offshore settings. Today, engi-
Biologists and engineers have found that certain reported a seemingly contradictory finding that neers are bringing the negative characteristics of
microbes thrive on potentially hazardous com- may improve the odds in oil spill cleanup. These microbes in the oil field under tighter control and
pounds in that environment.49 These scientists researchers found that, given certain values of are increasingly able to harness their positive
theorize that if the microbes could be cultured, interfacial tension, oil density and water droplet aspects for improved hydrocarbon production
identified and grown into biofilms, they could be and solutions to environmental concerns. —DA

Summer 2012 17
 Drilling Automation

Walt Aldred In pursuit of increased quality and profitability, many in the manufacturing industry
Cambridge, England
have found success in automating processes. The oil and gas industry is looking for
Jacques Bourque ways to replicate this strategy for drilling. Drilling automation may hold the key to
Mike Mannering
Gatwick, England efficiently performing intricate and high-speed tasks and thus make complex wells

Clinton Chapman
technically and economically feasible. When a drilling project involves large
Bertrand du Castel numbers of wells drilled through well-documented lithologies and pressure regimes,
Randy Hansen
Sugar Land, Texas, USA operators can capitalize on the repetitive nature of automated drilling to eliminate
costs associated with the performance variability typically exhibited from one well to
Geoff Downton
Richard Harmer the next within a drilling program.
Stonehouse, England

Ian Falconer
Houston, Texas
Engineers have long viewed drilling as nearly because there are few decisions to make and
Fred Florence equal parts art and science. Today, as autono- there is little uncertainty or variability in their
National Oilwell Varco mous computer-controlled drilling operations— environment and tasks. This is the concept
Cedar Park, Texas drilling automation—approach reality, the view behind the Factory Drilling approach for field
of engineers is leaning decidedly toward development in which a large number of wells—
Elizabeth Godinez Zurita science. The ultimate objective of drilling auto- for which conditions are well-understood—are to
Villahermosa, Mexico mation, as with most upstream innovations, is to be drilled and completed.
deliver financial benefits to the operator. Drilling The drilling industry has lagged other indus-
Claudio Nieto automation seeks to accomplish this through pro- tries in adopting automation, but some advances
Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX)
cess improvements, optimized rates of penetra- have been made; high-end drilling units have
Villahermosa, Mexico
tion (ROPs), consistent hole quality and overall been equipped with remotely operated iron
Rob Stauder drilling performance, all of which allow operators roughnecks and pipe handling machines.
Helmerich & Payne, Inc. to reach their objectives in the shortest time. However, while equipment mechanization repli-
Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA Bringing together rig floor and downhole automa- cates repetitive rig tasks on the drill floor and
tion also promises to improve environmental pro- removes humans from potentially dangerous
Mario Zamora tection and worker health and safety while environments, it is not the same as drilling auto-
M-I SWACO helping operators to economically exploit mation. An automated drilling process provides
Houston, Texas reserves that are out of reach using today’s tech- operators with a way of accessing reservoirs at
nologies. As large numbers of upstream industry lower costs while safely and consistently outper-
Oilfield Review Summer 2012: 24, no. 2.
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger.
experts prepare to retire, automation may offer a forming manual operations.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jonathan way to codify best practices and knowledge and Automation of the drilling process requires a
Dunlop, Cambridge, England; Jean-Paul LeCann, Roissy- thereby preserve expertise. system that has the ability to deal with changing
en-France, France; Eric Maidla, Houston; and Jose Luis
Sanchez Flores, Sugar Land, Texas. On the manufacturing assembly line, automa- and uncertain environments. Fed directly by
Factory Drilling, PowerDrive, PowerV, ROPO and Slider are tion has become ubiquitous, typically taking the downhole and surface data, these systems must
marks of Schlumberger.
form of computer-guided robots performing react to changes such as lithology in a manner
FBRM is a registered trademark of Mettler-Toledo
Autochem, Inc. repetitive tasks. The machines are tireless, pre- that maintains optimal performance, thus
IntelliServ is a registered trademark of National Oilwell cise and do not suffer from the boredom or lapses increasing uptime and efficiency. Reduction of
Varco.
in attention that their human counterparts do. personnel on the rig floor and the system’s ability
They are able to attain a level of autonomy

18 Oilfield Review
to perform some tasks remotely would be only by- system require close cooperation over long peri- Automating the drilling process hinges on not
products of this effort, not objectives.1 In prac- ods of time, but the systems employed in the drill- only availability and interoperability of com-
tice, automated systems will more likely leverage ing process are often owned by a variety of puter-controlled machinery but also on informa-
the knowledge and experience of rig personnel companies and may have different drivers, mak- tion management: gathering the right information
than do away with them. ing automated cooperation difficult. at the right time and coupling it with the experi-
The drilling culture is part of the reason for The current challenge of creating an auto- ence necessary to make optimal decisions. The
the upstream industry’s delay in adopting auto- mated drilling system that is capable of drilling a industry has long used software that assists drill-
mation. Drilling personnel often make opera- well or section autonomously lies in the many ers in making decisions on the rig floor. These
tional decisions based on their overall experience uncertainties associated with making a hole deep systems require human intervention to interpret
and knowledge of the local geology and drilling in the Earth. In manufacturing industries, dra-
1. Pink T, Bruce A, Kverneland H and Applewhite B:
conditions. As a consequence, many are suspi- matic events encountered during the process are “Building an Automated Drilling System Where Surface
cious of systems that seem a threat to their skill the exception, whereas in drilling, they are the Machines Are Controlled by Downhole and Surface
Data to Optimize the Well Construction Process,” paper
set, require them to relinquish some portion of rule. Downhole pressures, temperatures and rock IADC/SPE 150973, presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
control of the drilling operation or move techni- characteristics often change rapidly as the bit Conference and Exhibition, San Diego, California, USA,
March 6–8, 2012.
cal limits away from traditionally conservative progresses toward TD. Therefore, it is difficult to 2. The technical limit is the best possible drilling
drilling practices.2 From an organizational point replicate an experienced driller’s response to any performance for a given set of parameters. It is an ideal
standard, which requires a perfect set of conditions,
of view, the major components of an automated of the many possible scenarios. tools and people.

Suumm
Summer
mer 2012
20112 19
data and carry out the appropriate actions, pro- The drilling industry has taken hesitant steps Controlling the Brake
viding drilling guidance rather than automation. toward automation. Built and tested around Historically, in an imitation of manual drilling
An automated drilling process requires a sys- 1980, the National Automated Drilling Machine operations, automated drilling has centered on
tems engineering approach—a loop that inte- was an early attempt to build an automated drill- using the drilling line brake to control weight
grates real-time downhole and surface data with ing rig.4 Because manufacturers could not over- on bit (WOB). Autodrillers, which mimic human
predrill models. Adjusting to changing condi- come the failure of fragile sensors in a drilling operators by using pneumatic controls to
tions, this system modifies operational settings, environment, the machine was never commer- maintain constant WOB or constant ROP, have
such as pump rates, hook load and rotary speed.3 cialized. In the 1990s, many rigs were built with consistently outperformed humans when drilling
In addition, an automated system updates the mechanized pipe handling equipment, and engi- conditions—formation geology, pressures and
model using real-time data, essentially simulat- neers developed closed loop control, using data temperatures—are well-known and vary gradu-
ing the decisions of an experienced driller adapt- gathered while drilling, to adjust rotary steerable ally. However, autodrillers performed poorly
ing to the results of imperfect predictions. The drilling systems. when these conditions changed abruptly.5
level of integration between surface and down- Only recently, driven by Norwegian operators The introduction of disk brakes gave rise to
hole systems varies considerably and is limited by and regulators concerned with safety and health electronic autodrillers that used computer
sensor availability near the bit and along the issues, has the industry made a sustained effort control algorithms to maintain a constant WOB
drillstring and by bandwidth to send measure- toward drilling automation. In 2007, the SPE cre- or ROP.6 Improvements to autodrillers drove
ments and commands to and from downhole. This ated a technical section devoted to drilling sys- engineers to develop increasingly complex
means the character of drilling automation is tems automation; those involved in the section software that simplified control and adjusted
likely to vary from well to well. However, results are working toward automation in all areas, drilling parameters in response to changing
show that higher frequency data from more including completion and production. This arti- formation characteristics as the bit drilled
sensors improve operator ability to drill to the cle examines the state of those ongoing efforts to ahead (next page).
technical limit. bring to the industry a level of drilling automa- Autodrillers are in the second tier of automa-
The path to drilling automation may be tion as a means to more efficient, safer and tion because they rely on driller approval.
described in terms of three tiers. The first tier is higher quality drilling operations in the future. Although dependent on local rig equipment auto-
a system that offers guidance to drillers, the sec- Case studies from Mexico and the US illustrate mation and mechanization, drilling automation
ond makes decisions with driller approval and various drilling automation applications. seeks to build on those systems by integrating the
the third moves toward an autonomous system in drilling machine with downhole systems and mea-
which the driller—who may be located off site— surements. The objectives are to improve and
acts as the monitor, to intervene only when lower the cost of reservoir access and to outper-
required (below). form manual operations safely and consistently.
Automating the drilling process is complex.
Engineers at Schlumberger have segmented the
process into manageable modules that may be
used either independently or in combination to
10. Decides everything and acts autonomously. eventually deliver an intelligent system able to
Tier 3

9. Executes an action automatically and informs the driller only if it takes action. drill a hole section autonomously. The modules
8. Executes an action automatically and informs the driller only if asked. are the following:
sRIGANDDOWNHOLESYSTEMSINTEGRATION
7. Executes an action automatically, then necessarily informs the driller. s2/0OPTIMIZATION
Tier 2

6. Allows the driller a restricted time to veto an action before automatic execution. 䡩 abnormal event detection and mitigation
5. Selects and executes a suggestion if the driller approves. 䡩 shock and vibration monitoring and

mitigation
4. Suggests a single course of action. sWELLBORESTEERING
3. Offers a set of alternatives and narrows the selection.
Tier 1

sWELLBOREINTEGRITY
2. Offers a complete set of decision and action alternatives. sOPERATIONSSEQUENCEMANAGEMENT
1. Offers no asistance; driller must make all decisions and take action.

> The path to automation. Systems and industries move from manual to Integrating automation modules, which use
automated control systems in a predictable manner. Initially, in the first tier downhole and surface information, with the rig
(bottom), the systems perform a limited analyze-and-advise function by control system requires drillers to exchange their
suggesting an optimal course of action for the human operator to perform. In role of overarching supervisor for that of a criti-
the second tier (middle), the semiautonomous automated system chooses the cal component within a process. The integrated
action and performs it, but only after receiving approval from the driller. In the
third tier (top), the automated system is autonomous and informs the driller of system must be designed so that the driller inter-
its actions as it takes them. acts with it intuitively and is in a position to take
control of the rig at any time. To achieve this, the
driller must understand what the automation sys-
tem is doing as it handles its many tasks, and the

20 Oilfield Review
 1,000 100

900 90

800 80

700 70

WOB, lbf × 1,000; Torque, ft × lbf

600 60
ROP, ft/h; ΔP, psi

500 50
Torque
ΔP
400 40
ROP

300 30

200 20

100 10

WOB
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time, min
> Modern autodrillers. Whereas WOB was the only parameter considered by early autodrillers as input for controlling the drilling process, later
autodrillers used multiple parameters. In this example of multiparameter autodriller output, the multicolor horizontal bar at the top indicates by color which
parameter is controlling the brake at that point. The solid curves at the bottom represent parameter data and the dashed lines are the parameter set
points. The horizontal black line across the middle of the graph shows the status of the autodriller. When the line is at the low value, the autodriller is off;
the upper value signifies it is on. As the 90-ft (27-m) long stand is drilled through a fairly homogenous formation, the ROP function (red) controls when the
autodriller is turned on and the bit is above bottom. When ROP reaches its set point, WOB and torque (dark blue and green, respectively) rise as the bit
automatically finds bottom. Torque takes control as ROP and WOB level off. When torque is recognized as the limiting factor, the autodriller raises the
torque limit and drilling continues on ΔP (light blue)—the standpipe pressure when drilling with a mud motor minus standpipe drilling pressure when just
off bottom—through most of the stand, although ROP experiences brief intermittent control throughout the primary ΔP control period. Toward the end of
the stand, WOB takes over as the bit encounters harder rock. (Adapted from Florence et al, reference 5.)

driller must anticipate what the system is going tiers on the path to full automation. Most pro- Automated ROP optimization relies on the
to do next. Therefore, counter to preconceptions grams based on these algorithms act in an advi- fact that while the bit is on bottom, the driller
held in the industry, human involvement in drill- sory capacity and require human intervention to can control only three things: WOB, drillstring
ing operations may be increased rather than initiate action. Others are, or are nearly, autono- rotation speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)
decreased by automation. mous systems, which take action without seeking and mud flow rate. An automated ROP optimiza-
permission from or notifying the driller and tion system can therefore be created in which the
Faster might be best described as supervised autonomy. set points of WOB and rpm are fed directly to the
Engineers are applying these requisite computer One such algorithm helps optimize ROP and has controls of the drilling rig.7 Building on this idea,
control algorithms to various aspects of the drill- been used in programs that have both advisory engineers at Schlumberger developed the ROPO
ing process; the algorithms fall in each of the and full-control capacities. rate of penetration optimization module.
3. The driller adjusts the block position to keep the weight paper IPTC 14717, presented at the International 6. For more on autodrillers: Aldred W, Belaskie J,
on bit within a desired range. The weight on bit is Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, Isangulov R, Crockett B, Edmondson B, Florence F
calculated as the difference between the measured hook February 7–9, 2012. and Srinivasan S: “Changing the Way We Drill,”
load, which is a measure of the amount of pipe 5. Florence F, Porche M, Thomas R and Fox R: Oilfield Review 17, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 42–49.
suspended below the block, and a datum taken by “Multiparameter Autodrilling Capabilities Provide Drilling/ 7. Dunlop J, Isangulov R, Aldred WD, Arismendi Sanchez H,
measuring hook load when off-bottom. Economic Benefits,” paper SPE/IADC 119965, presented Sanchez Flores JL, Alarcon Herdoiza J, Belaskie J and
4. de Wardt JP and Rogers J: “Drilling Systems at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and Exhibition, Luppens JC: “Increased Rate of Penetration Through
Automation—A Technology that Is at a Tipping Point,” Amsterdam, March 17–19, 2009. Automation,” paper SPE/IADC 139897, presented at the
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam,
March 1–3, 2011.

Summer 2012 21
 The ROPO algorithm is based on a model of 1,400
PDC bit–formation interaction and a data pro-
cessing technique that detects changes in bit 1,600
response. The PDC bit model assumes that bit-
1,800
formation interaction is broken into three linear
phases based on the depth of cut (below). During

Measured depth, m
2,000
the first phase, when the bit is just starting to
turn on bottom and before reaching critical Drilled conventionally
2,200
depth, increasing WOB causes little increase in
depth of cut and, consequently, low ROP. During 2,400
the second phase, higher WOB results in an
increased depth of cut. Phase three begins when 2,600
this increased efficiency has led to the founder Drilled with Auto ROP
point—the time at which the fluid system is no 2,800
longer able to adequately clean the face of the
3,000
bit, and cutting efficiency is reduced.8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The ROPO module characterizes the bit Time, days
response in real time and determines optimal val- > ROPO algorithm advantage. When eight wells were drilled from the same pad, four using the ROPO
ues of rpm and WOB—within a set of complex lim- module (blue) showed significantly faster drill rates on the final tangent section than those drilled
its that includes WOB, torque, surface rpm, ROP conventionally (red). Furthermore, each of the ROPO wells exhibited consistent drilling time results.
and motor limits—to achieve maximum ROP.9 Time to drill the section in wells drilled without the ROPO technique varied from 6.8 to 8.3 days. In wells
drilled with the ROPO approach, time to drill a section varied from 5.3 to 5.8 days. (Adapted from
Chapman et al, reference 10.)

Founder point
In 150,000 m [492,000 ft] drilled through a Engineers first selected wells that appeared
range of environments, wells drilled in the ROPO to be good candidates for ROPO applications and
Depth of cut

advisory mode have shown an average 32% ROP then gathered relevant offset well data. Wells
improvement compared with the ROP in offset were then drilled in ROPO mode and the results
e
orqu wells drilled manually or with an autodriller sys- evaluated against offset well results. Two com-
Bit t
tem (above). When the ROPO algorithm was used parisons were made with results from offset
in closed loop automation, or control mode, dur- wells: rotating ROP and total ROP for the section.
Critical depth
ing which it sent commands directly to the rig When the ROPO algorithm was used through the
control system, ROP improvements were even 81/2-in. section, the rotating ROP increased to
W greater, with the control mode wells experienc- 55.40 m/h [181.8 ft/h]. In the 61/8-in. section,
eig
ht ing a 53.1% ROP gain over the ROP in wells drilled ROPO use increased average ROP to 25.2 m/h
on
bit in advisory mode.10 [82.6 ft/h]. Time savings in the 81/2-in. and 61/8-in.
For operators involved in multiple-well sections were 37% and 39%, respectively.
projects, saving rig time consistently, without
> Automated ROP algorithm. Depth of cut per sacrificing wellbore quality, is a strong incentive Smoother
revolution is estimated by dividing ROP by rpm so to improve ROP. In the Burgos basin in Mexico, In high-angle wells, especially extended-reach
that real-time drilling data can be plotted in three
dimensions of WOB, bit torque and depth of cut. PEMEX planned to drill 400 wells, many of which wells with targets that may have a horizontal
WOB can be described as the sum of two are in the Comitas field where the lithology is displacement of several miles from the surface
components: friction and cutting. The drilling well known. Typical drilling trouble spots location, some engineers view high ROP as a
response of a PDC bit is modeled as three distinct
included an 81/2-in. section through mostly shale secondary objective to well path accuracy. To
operating regimes. During the first phase (blue),
frictional and cutting components both increase and a 61/8-in. section that is characterized by plan an accurate trajectory, the directional
during low WOB as interaction is dominated by interbedded formations of shale and sand. driller must locate the wellbore in three dimen-
friction at wear flats of the bit cutters. The second In their evaluations of the many wells already sions and precisely execute holds and turns. The
regime (tan) begins when WOB is beyond the
critical point and friction is optimal, thus
drilled in the Comitas field, engineers found that objective is a trajectory that is the most efficient
increasing WOB translates into pure cutting ROP averaged 23 m/h [75 ft/h] through the 81/2-in. path to a distant target or one that keeps the
action. The third regime (green) occurs when the section and 16.15 m/h [52.98 ft/h] through the wellbore within often narrow depth ranges to
bit is past the founder point when cuttings are 61/8-in. section. Both rates are well below the maximize formation exposure.
building up around the bit, causing cutting
efficiency to decrease. As the bit drills into a new technical limit. Engineers determined that
formation, the responses will change abruptly reducing drilling time by increasing ROP
and the data points will fall on new lines. represented a singular opportunity to improve
project economics.

22 Oilfield Review
 In directional drilling, certain processes have friction along the toolstring. At the same time, In contrast to mud motors, rotary steerable
already been automated. For directional drilling the system reduces the need to pull the bit off systems (RSSs) do not involve sliding sections
with a bent housing downhole motor, engineers bottom to reset the toolface. so they generally deliver faster ROP and
at PathFinder, a Schlumberger company, have When using bent housing mud motors to smoother wellbores. Additionally, because the
developed the Slider automated surface rotation change BHA direction, directional drillers must drillstring rotates while drilling, hole cleaning
control system. The system is designed to often halt drilling. The Slider control system, is more efficient than when sliding.11 Therefore
increase drilling efficiency of a bent housing however, allows BHA directional change without the well may be drilled with a lower pump
motor when in sliding mode by repetitively rotat- halting drilling and as a consequence may pressure, which reduces the equivalent circu-
ing the drillpipe clockwise at surface, then coun- enhance overall ROP, a secondary objective. For lating density and reduces the threat of frac-
terclockwise without disturbing the toolface example, when engineers used the Slider system turing the formation.12
orientation of the BHA. The Slider system uses in the build section of a well in Wood County, For most rotary steerable systems, trans-
surface torque readings as feedback to an auto- Oklahoma, USA, they increased sliding ROP by mitting steering commands from surface to
mated system that controls the rocking move- 118% compared with results from manual opera- the RSS tool is accomplished using manually
ment of the drillstring to minimize the sliding tions (below).

Average ROP Hook Load Topdrive Rotary Speed

MD, Time, 0 ft/h 50 0 N 300 0 rpm 100
ft h WOB Topdrive Torque
0 N 100 0 ft × lbf 30,000
7,765
7,770

18:00
7,775

19:00

7,780

20:00
Upper section
7,785

21:00

7,785 22:00

7,790

7,795
23:00

7,800
00:00
7,805

7,810
01:00
Lower section
7,815

7,820
02:00

7,825

03:00

> Marked ROP improvements. An operator used slide drilling in two sections of a well drilled in the Marcellus Shale. In the upper section, the well was
drilled manually and had an average ROP of 5.8 ft/h. In the lower section, using the Slider system, ROP was raised to 16.1 ft/h (Track 1). WOB (gold) and hook
load (purple) were essentially equal through both sections (Track 2). The Slider system kept topdrive torque (blue) low by adjusting rotary speed (red)
through the lower sections (Track 3).

8. Detournay E, Richard T and Shepherd M: “Drilling 10. Chapman CD, Sanchez Flores JL, De Leon Perez R and 119761, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference
Response of Drag Bits: Theory and Experiment,” Yu H: “Automated Closed-Loop Drilling with ROP and Exhibition, Amsterdam, March 17–19, 2009.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Optimization Algorithm Significantly Reduces Drilling 12. Equivalent circulating density, or ECD, is the effective
Sciences 45, no. 8 (December 2008): 1347–1360. Time and Improves Downhole Tool Reliability,” paper density exerted by a circulating fluid against the
9. Though rpm and WOB are set by the system, they can IADC/SPE 151736, presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling formation. The ECD is calculated as: ECD = d + P/ (0.052*D),
also limit the system. For example, a PDC bit design may Conference, San Diego, California, March 6–8, 2012. where d is the mud weight in pounds per gallon
include maximum allowed WOB or rpm recommendations 11. Melgares H, Grace W, Gonzalez F, Alric C, Palacio J and (lbm/galUS). P is the pressure drop in the annulus
to prevent bit damage. Akinniranye G: “Remote Automated Directional Drilling between depth D and surface (psi), and D is the true
Through Rotary Steerable Systems,” paper SPE/IADC vertical depth (ft).

Summer 2012 23
 2,400 Such a remote automated steering operation
was performed in the 121/4-in. section of the
2,600
Jacinto 1002 well located about 150 km [93 mi]
2,800 from Villahermosa in southern Mexico. The only
3,000 offset well, the Jacinto 1001, encountered very
hard sands that caused low ROP. The formation
3,200 in this section consists of intercalated zones with
Depth, m

Jacinto 1001
3,400 unconfined compressive strengths ranging from
41 to 83 MPa [6,000 to 12,000 psi], which cause
3,600
high BHA vibrations and abnormal bit wear.
Jacinto 1002
3,800 To address these challenges, drilling engi-
neers used a directional drilling system that com-
4,000
bined RSS tools with a mud motor power section.
4,200 This system, which delivers more energy to the
bit, mechanically decouples the bit from the drill-
4,400
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 string, thus dampening vibrations above the
Rotating on bottom, h motor because the drillstring rotates at a lower
> Downlinking enhancement. Engineers used automated downlinking on the Jacinto 1002 well (blue) rpm than the bit and RSS. Engineers sent 21
to drill a 12 1/4-in. section in 172 fewer hours than were required for the same section in the offset automated downlinks to the RSS tool from a
Jacinto 1001 well (red). The Jacinto 1002 required only one bit on a mud motor and RSS-equipped BHA remotely located control center to build the
compared with the need for four bits in the Jacinto 1001 well drilled using an RSS controlled curve, keeping the well tangent to the next casing
conventionally by the directional driller. (Adapted from Melgares et al, reference 11).
point and drilling the 121/4-in. section with a sin-
gle bit (above left).13
Schlumberger engineers are developing an
controlled timed variation in mud flow; the hold inclination and azimuth commands, sent automated trajectory control system that receives
driller manipulates the mud pumps to change from the surface to the PowerDrive RSS, compel real-time survey data to characterize the steering
tool settings. By allowing the steering command the BHA to maintain a constant course without behavior of a BHA. The system uses that real-time
to be sent directly to the mud pump controller further intervention from the surface. The PowerV downhole information to create more-accurate
via a digital signal, directional drillers are able vertical drilling system maintains a vertical tra- projections and determine the appropriate steer-
to control the well trajectory remotely. jectory, without human intervention, by sensing ing command to keep the drilling tool along the
Many rotary steerable systems today are forces acting on the BHA that may cause it to devi- planned trajectory. Currently, the system is used
equipped with a degree of autonomy. For example, ate and then steering back to vertical. in an advisory capacity, but an updated version in
field tests will be able to act autonomously, issu-
ing downlink commands to the tool to make it a
fully automated trajectory control system.14
Drilled Disposal Changing or unexpected formation character-
solids
Waste management istics may cause bit or BHA dysfunction, requiring
Gas Fluids recycle continuous adjustments to the WOB and rpm in
response. Using surface measurements, an engi-
Clean mud neer may have difficulty recognizing a change or
Solids control Fluids treatment and pumping its cause at the time it is encountered. Usually,
there is a significant time lag between the time an
event occurs and when the driller recognizes it
Flowline Standpipe and takes the proper corrective action. Given the
lag and the many factors influencing surface read-
Kill line outs, it is not surprising when a driller makes an
Choke line Downhole incorrect decision—one that is at best ineffectual
and at worst detrimental.
A new automation array has the potential to
overcome this shortcoming. The array consists of
two elements: newly developed downhole sensors
> Well construction fluids domain. Fluids whose characteristics must be capable of high-frequency sampling and wired
maintained at critical levels during the drilling process are present in various drillpipe capable of transmitting the resulting
environments. An automated drilling measurement system must be able to high volumes of data to the surface. By interpret-
assess the condition of the fluids going into and out of the well and take
necessary corrective actions to condition the fluids between each critical ing large volumes of data quickly, these auto-
stage (arrows). (Adapted from Geehan et al, reference 16.) mated systems alert drillers in real time to

24 Oilfield Review
 Monitoring for bit bounce Bit bounce
Axial acceleration, gn 4

–2

–4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time, s
100
80
Frequency, Hz

60
40
20
Axial motion
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time, s

4 4 4

2 2 2
Axial acceleration, gn

Axial acceleration, gn

Axial acceleration, gn
0 0 0

–2 –2 –2

–4 –4 –4

40 41 42 300 301 302 600 601 602

Time, s Time, s Time, s

> Automated drilling mechanics. High-frequency downhole measurements taken by a downhole sensor placed in the BHA can be processed to detect a
drillstring state. This diagnostic information is sent uphole in real time and processed by an automated surface system that makes the appropriate
modifications to the drilling parameters or to the procedures on surface. In this case, high levels of axial acceleration (top left) indicate the presence of bit
bounce (top right), which can reduce drilling efficiency and potentially damage the bit cutting structure or components within the BHA. A spectral plot
(center) identifies BHA and drillstring resonant frequencies and illustrates the energy present within the axial vibrations as a function of frequency. Red
corresponds to high energy generated by vibrations while green indicates low energy has been generated. The higher the energy, the more damaging the
vibrations are likely to be. The three intervals (bottom) correspond to different levels of risk. High-risk bit bounce (left) triggers a red light alarm on the
surface. Normal drilling conditions, or low-risk drilling conditions (center), display as a green light on the surface to indicate it is safe to drill ahead. The
presence of moderate risk of bit bounce presents a cautionary yellow light (right) to the driller.

threatening BHA phenomena such as stick-slip, system (above). Other algorithms sort the data, a prescribed range of values. Automation of the
whirl, axial shock and bit bounce.15 recognize an event and bypass the driller to initi- well construction fluids (WCF) domain addresses
Wired drillpipe makes it possible to gather ate proper corrective actions if necessary. four major systems. In addition to the fluids, the
annular pressure and temperature measure- WCF domain also encompasses flow conduits,
ments along the drillstring, which allows opera- Automatic Fluids Measurements tanks and process equipment. These four systems
tors to monitor the entire wellbore. Algorithms One of the most important factors influencing the in turn fall into four areas: fluids treatment and
quickly condense these data and convert them success of drilling operations is the operator’s pumping, downhole, solids control and waste
into flags and control signals for the automation ability to maintain drilling fluids properties within management (previous page, bottom).16
13. Melgares et al, reference 11. 15. For more on these drilling phenomena: Centala P, 16. Geehan T and Zamora M: “Automation of Well-
14. Pirovolou D, Chapman CD, Chau M, Arismendi H, Challa V, Durairajan B, Meehan R, Paez L, Partin U, Construction Fluids Domain,” paper IADC/SPE 128903,
Ahorukomeye M and Penaranda J: “Drilling Automation: Segal S, Wu S, Garrett I, Teggart B and Tetley N: “Bit presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and
An Automatic Trajectory Control System,” paper Design—Top to Bottom,” Oilfield Review 23, no. 2 Exhibition, New Orleans, February 2–4, 2010.
SPE 143899, presented at the SPE Digital Energy (Summer 2011): 4–17.
Conference and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, USA,
April 19–21, 2011.

Summer 2012 25
High existing graphical interfaces as concentrations of
the various additives used in the fluid formulation.
185 to 317 μm To create an automated rheometer, the team
19 to 63 μm focused on exploiting existing software and
expanding instrument temperature range capa-
370 to 632 μm bilities. To do so, they based the rheometer
design on the Couette bob and sleeve API speci-
Particle concentration

fied layout and the 10-second and 10-minute gel

542 to 1,002 μm 54 to 100 μm
strength measurements.20 The primary change to
the standard equipment was an electronic load
cell to replace the spring attached to the bob that
measured torque. The load cell is designed to
improve accuracy by reducing the effects of tem-
perature on measurements.
The data from the automated rheometer are
exported directly to software that updates flow
and pressure simulations for comparison with
Low real-time downhole data reported from the rig.
01:19:04 03:00:00 05:00:00 07:00:00 09:00:00 11:00:00 01:00:00 03:00:00 05:00:00 06:19:04
The software also prepares and reports test data
Time directly in wellsite information transfer standard
> Determining particle size distribution with FBRM focused beam reflectance measurement. During the markup language (WITSML) to be displayed on
drilling of a 12 1/4-in. section, engineers grouped particles by size to reflect materials added for formation graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
strengthening. To test FBRM sensors, engineers equipped shakers with weak screens that were
intended to fail quickly. When the first screen failed, at about 3:30 a.m., rig personnel observed a sharp
An automated electrical stability (AES)
increase in the concentration of coarse-size particles ranging from 185 to 1,002 μm (black, brown and instrument was built and designed for the project
blue). The installation of a new screen one hour later was followed by a decrease in the concentration to change the high-frequency electrical stability
of those coarse particles until that screen failed at about 10 a.m. The finer particles of 19 to 63 μm and test from a single-point to a trend analysis. Trends
54 to 100 μm (green and red, respectively) showed steady increase in concentration over the entire
period. (Adapted from Stock et al, reference 18.) may then be displayed beside other measure-
ments such as oil/water ratios and viscosity. Each
test sequence includes seven measurements; the
software excludes the extremes and the remain-
The emergence of managed pressure drilling remotely, fluid analysis must be performed on ing five are averaged, recorded and displayed as a
(MPD), in which engineers use a choke to regu- site and monitored remotely. Engineers identi- trend on a GUI. The AES meter includes real-time
late backpressure on the well to preserve a con- fied existing sensors that allow fluids measure- capacitance measurements of oil-base drilling flu-
stant bottomhole pressure (BHP), has been ments to be accomplished remotely and ids and is installed directly on the rig flowline.
instrumental in the drive to automate the WCF determined which additional sensors required Engineers are thus able to identify instantaneous
domain.17 The set point for the choke is deter- development. trends in water content variation.
mined using a hydraulic model. The hydraulic Traditionally, engineers determine particle
17. For more on MPD: Elliott D, Montilva J, Francis P,
model is built and updated continuously during size distribution (PSD) using a series of sieves. Reitsma D, Shelton J and Roes V: “Managed Pressure
drilling operations using rig-supplied data such as Recently developed techniques rely instead on Drilling Erases the Lines,” Oilfield Review 23, no. 1
(Spring 2011): 14–23.
flow rate, bit depth, rpm, torque and mud density, image analysis and require sample dilution in 18. Stock T, Ronaes E, Fossdal T and Bjerkaas J: “The
temperature and rheological parameters. Because opaque fluids. One such technique uses an auto- Development and Successful Application of an
Automated Real-Time Drilling Fluids Measurement
fluids parameters are measured manually and mated FBRM focused beam reflectance measure- System,” paper SPE 150439, presented at the SPE
because there is often a time lag between when a ment instrument. The sensor is installed directly Intelligent Energy International, Utrecht, The
Netherlands, March 27–29, 2012.
sample is collected and analyzed and when it is in a 5-cm [2-in.] flow loop leading from the active
19. Stock et al, reference 18.
input into the model, the measurements may rep- flow pit or the flowline where it measures the 20. Mud shear stress is measured after a mud has set
resent a source of error in the model.18 PSD of the fluids entering the well or exiting the quiescently for a period of time. The times called for by
the American Petroleum Institute procedure are for
Recently, two Norwegian operators asked annulus at one-second intervals (above).19 10 seconds and 10 minutes, although measurements
M-I SWACO, a Schlumberger company, to develop Engineers designed an automated elemental after 30 minutes or 16 hours may also be made.
automated drilling fluid sensors. In response, a analysis and solids content instrument to replace 21. Stock et al, reference 18.
22. Sadlier A, Laing M and Shields J: “Data Aggregation and
team of M-I SWACO engineers, working with reg- conventional retorting procedures and manual Drilling Automation: Connecting the Interoperability
ulators and supported by the operators, devel- chemical titrations. The new analysis tool uses a Bridge between Acquisition, Monitoring, Evaluation, and
Control,” paper IADC/SPE 151412, presented at the
oped several sensors, most of which were custom 500-eV source and a sensor that can be moved IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and Exhibition, San Diego,
developed or adapted from other industries. along three axes and is capable of monitoring any California, March 6–8, 2012.
Engineers for this fluids measurement automa- element with an atomic weight greater than that 23. Sadlier A and Laing M: “Interoperability: An Enabler
for Drilling Automation and a Driver for Innovation,”
tion project began by determining that while of magnesium. It can also measure high- and low- paper SPE/IADC 140114, presented at the SPE/IADC
most fluids measurement tasks could be executed gravity solids content. Analysis may be displayed in Drilling Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam,
March 1–3, 2011.

26 Oilfield Review
 Hydraulic Geologic systems that are configured for specific rigs, con-
Drilling pressure Formation pressure
tractors or rig types.
Rheology Wellbore quality Improvements in the movement of and access
Hole cleaning Formation evaluation to real-time data are also needed. Engineers are
now working to apply to the drilling industry a uni-
fied architecture standard, which offers a unified
Drilling data access technology stack that combines the
Automation
lessons learned in process control with the auto-
mation used in aircraft, automobile, space and
Mechanical Drilling Process other industries. Engineers working on drilling
Control Reduction of automation are particularly interested in how
Surface measurements nonproductive time
these industries use existing standards, security
Downhole measurements Invisible lost time
management configurations and certifications and real-time
Maintenance
Data analytics interoperability technologies to address redun-
Downhole dynamics dancy and reliability. Of special interest for auto-
> Information for action. Inputs required by a drilling automation system are at mated drilling scenarios is how other industries
once related and distinct, making it difficult to consider which should be a have addressed the concepts of situational aware-
priority. (Adapted from Sadlier et al, reference 22.) ness, human interaction and planning and system
contingencies in the face of unexpected events.
Drilling contractors, service companies,
equipment manufacturers and operators use vari-
ous standards for data portability. WITSML is used
most commonly in the oil industry to standardize
Density measurements using dual real-time A fully automated drilling process depends the interfaces between various well monitoring
sensors present analytical trends and represent a ultimately on the ability of all the components to and control technologies and software programs.23
significant change from standard API measure- share information. This requires that many parts A new standard or extension of an existing stan-
ment techniques that use a conventional industry and processes sift, select and act upon an enor- dard such as WITSML to describe rig and surface
balance. Unlike the balance method, the new mous amount of data autonomously and synchro- equipment is also needed but will require the
density sensor provides real-time updates of nously. LWD and mud logging illustrate why a combined efforts of operators, service companies,
static and dynamic downhole pressures cor- data aggregator system that gathers and coordi- rig contractors and equipment suppliers.
rected for temperature variations. nates various data sources must be developed For automation to occur on a wide scale, rig
Because the vibrating tube densitometer before true drilling automation will be possible. control standards must be applied industrywide.
commonly used today is able to transfer temper- In most cases, LWD tools transmit their data to In addition to providing uniformity across all
ature and density data from the sensors directly the surface via mud pulse, which must be then automated drilling units, contractor compliance
into the simulation software, engineers at translated into usable data. This means the data with these standards will afford service providers
M-I SWACO incorporated the densitometer into are not available to the user in real time but in a reliable platform upon which to integrate their
the project. As a consequence, data may be near real time. Similarly, drill cuttings used as a solutions. Such a platform must allow a generic
used in simulation software and shown on GUI data source by mud logging systems are not avail- view of the rig from a programmatic standpoint.
displays located on rigs and in remote opera- able until they are circulated to the surface, cap- Once that is accomplished, conversion to specific
tions centers.21 tured and analyzed, which may be a matter of rig platforms and specific rig contractor proto-
hours after they are created.22 cols will be necessary, requiring significant cus-
Interoperability: The Bridge to Automation To efficiently use these data to automatically tom coding and rig time to assure each application
As sensor and software capability expands and is and appropriately respond to the drilling situa- is correct. Though early adopters of automation
further enabled by increased network capacity, tion requires systemwide interoperability—the will pay for its development internally, they will
the type and number of well construction tasks linking of people, tools, equipment and informa- reap the financial benefits of automation early,
being moved from human control to machines tion at the right time and in the context of the and standardization will help reduce overall
continue to increase. New automation algorithms drilling operation (above). Complete interopera- costs and engineering time. —RvF
have provided substantial gains in reliability and bility is fundamental to automation. Limited
tool performance, and operators wishing to take interoperability results in islands of automation
advantage of these algorithms will inevitably that must be pulled together by humans to assure
move the industry toward drilling automation. As proper system interaction. Alternatively, custom
part of that process, operators will also drive the solutions incorporated onto a select number of
creation of standards to facilitate deployment of rigs are costly and also require human interven-
these algorithms. tion. Rig contractors may offer a fast path to
interoperability by providing remote control sys-
tems, but this approach may also be hampered by

Summer 2012 27
 Seismic Detection of Subtle Faults
and Fractures

For decades, operators have relied on seismic images for illuminating the geometry
and location of major faults and folds to target their wells. Now, advances in process-
ing and visualization techniques are helping reveal information about the patterns of
small-scale faulting and fracturing that were beyond the detection capabilities of
previous techniques. Operators are using this new knowledge to drill and manage
their reservoirs with greater certainty.

Victor Aarre Over the last decade, oil and gas companies have Fractures tend to be aligned along preferred
Donatella Astratti had increased success placing wells within pro- directions, or azimuths, and often cross strati-
Stavanger, Norway ductive zones—sweet spots—of fractured reser- graphic layers. Fractures occur at many scales
voirs. These fracture zones often display subtle but most are smaller than the seismic wave-
Taha Nasser Ali Al Dayyni expressions in seismic data, but recent advances lengths typically used for surveys, and thus they
Sabry Lotfy Mahmoud in seismic attributes and visualization tech- are not visible in standard seismic displays.
Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations
niques are helping geophysicists identify and Although seismic methods may not be able to
Abu Dhabi, UAE
characterize them. By combining these geophysi- detect individual fractures, the measurable seis-
Andrew B.S. Clark cal results with geologic and engineering data, mic response from the aggregate fracture system
Petroleum Development Oman companies are reducing risk and increasing their may indicate their presence. As an analogy, the
Muscat, Sultanate of Oman drilling and production successes. human eye cannot see a single droplet of water
Optimal well placement requires the operator from a kilometer away, but can see a collection of
Michael J. Stellas to factor the predominant trend of natural frac- water droplets—a cloud—in the sky. The same
Jack W. Stringer tures into the selection of wellbore orientation. applies to seismic methods and fractures.
Spectra Energy Corporation Production may be enhanced by intersecting mul- Accordingly, some of the most successful seismic
Houston, Texas, USA tiple fractures. Fractures may also redirect the fracture detection techniques rely on specialized
path of injected fluids, thus limiting the fluids’ effi- processing designed to highlight seismic attri-
Brian Toelle
cacy in contacting, sweeping and displacing hydro- butes that reveal faults and fracture systems.1
Denver, Colorado, USA
carbons. In this case, production benefits must be Historically, certain seismic methods have
Ole V. Vejbæk balanced by offsetting inefficiencies caused by proved successful in detecting naturally frac-
Gillian White fracture systems. An operator’s objective is, there- tured reservoirs. Such methods include the anal-
Hess Corporation fore, to maximize production from fractured reser- ysis of shear-wave (S-wave) data, vertical seismic
Copenhagen, Denmark voirs while limiting the deleterious effects of those profiling, compressional- and shear-wave (P- and
very same fractures. S-wave) anisotropy and waveform scattering.2
Oilfield Review Summer 2012: 24, no. 2.
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger. 1. Seismic attributes are measurements, characteristics or Kristiansen P and MacLeod M: “Shear Waves Shine
properties derived from seismic data. Attributes can be Brightly,” Oilfield Review 11, no. 1 (Spring 1999): 2–15.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Art Bonett
measured at one instant in time or over a time window Vertical seismic profiles (VSPs) include a variety of
and Ismail Haggag, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
and may be measured on a single trace, a set of traces, a borehole seismic surveys. However, the defining VSP
FMI and PowerV are marks of Schlumberger. surface or a volume extracted from seismic data. Their survey refers to measurements in a vertical well using a
calculation is useful because they help to extract seismic source on the surface near the well transmitting
patterns, relationships or features that may not be to receivers distributed inside the well. For more on
apparent otherwise. The derivation or calculation of VSPs: Christie P, Dodds K, Ireson D, Johnston L,
seismic attributes usually involves data processing such Rutherford J, Schaffner J and Smith N: “Borehole
as windowing, smoothing, averaging, filtering, calculating Seismic Data Sharpen the Reservoir Image,”
statistical measures, finding maxima and minima, performing Oilfield Review 7, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 18–31.
differentiation and integration, analyzing polarity changes
Seismic waveform scattering refers to the changing
or conducting spectral or wavelet analysis.
propagation direction of seismic waves resulting from
2. A shear wave (S-wave) is an elastic wave that travels heterogeneity and anisotropy of the medium. For more on
through a medium and vibrates perpendicular to its waveform scattering: Revenaugh J: “Geologic
direction of travel. For more on shear waves: Caldwell J, Applications of Seismic Scattering,” Annual Review of
Christie P, Engelmark F, McHugo S, Özdemir H, Earth and Planetary Sciences 27 (May 1999): 55–73.

28 Oilfield Review
Summer 2012 29
 σ1 To identify the stratigraphic and structural fab- analysis reveals details of a complex fault sys-
Joint, or ric, texture or grain within the reservoir, state-of- tem. In a UAE giant carbonate field, fracture
tension fracture
the-art seismic methods focus on determining how network modeling helps represent fractures
seismic properties and attributes vary direction- that are too numerous to be picked by hand but
ally. Such reservoir fabric affects the directional— are known to affect the movement and sweep
anisotropic—properties of seismic signals.4 of injected fluid.
Seismic methods include techniques that scruti-
nize the seismic signal for subtle variations in fre- Natural Fractures and Their Detection
quency and amplitude response with azimuth and Rocks respond to stress in predictable ways, form-
σ3 σ3 dip. The orientation or grain of fibers in a piece of ing fractures, joints and faults (left).5 Fractures are
wood is analogous. Woodworkers use the wood rock failure planes that result from stress. Rocks
σ2 grain to maximize strength, minimize splintering experience stress during folding, faulting, burial,
and enhance the beauty of the finished product. uplift, erosion and metamorphism. Additionally, in
With the exception of large-scale faults that shale formations, endogenous fractures can form
the seismic interpreter can pick by hand, most through dewatering and devolatilization during
structural lineaments are ignored as being too thermal maturation of hydrocarbons.
Conjugate faults, small and too numerous to be interpreted manu- The stress field that formed these features
or shear fractures ally. Moreover, it is not straightforward to account may change significantly after their formation.
σ1 for the effects of these small features in reservoir Consequently, the structural configuration of
> Principal stresses and the creation of fractures. models. Advanced seismic imaging and process- faults and fractures indicates the paleostress
The three principal compressive stresses—the ing techniques and workflows have been devel- condition that existed at the time of their for-
maximum stress, σ1, the minimum stress, σ3, and oped to assist geoscientists in this challenging mation but may not correspond to the current
the intermediate stress, σ2—may give rise to
several types of fractures and dictate fracture interpretation task. stress field.
movement (black arrows). The colored arrows This article describes reservoir studies that Natural fractures are ubiquitous and occur in
are compressive stress directions and their size incorporate seismic methods for characteriz- many forms: open, closed, healed or partially
indicates relative magnitude. ing fracture systems. Case studies demonstrate healed. They occur at all scales, from those asso-
how these methods inform operators as they ciated with tectonic faults hundreds of kilome-
make well placement and reservoir manage- ters long to cracks on the micrometer scale.
ment decisions. An example from Pennsylvania, However, the importance of natural fractures
Studies have also indicated that spectral decom- USA, describes the optimal placement of wells in the subsurface has not been fully appreciated
position, typically used in stratigraphic analysis, for an underground gas storage reservoir that until recently. Historically, oil and gas wells have
may be used to locate subtle structural features has shear zones that control fracture orienta- primarily been drilled vertically. Stress condi-
that control the distribution of fractures within tion and distribution. In a North Sea fractured tions in the subsurface often cause open natural
a reservoir.3 chalk reservoir, advanced seismic attribute fractures—the ones of interest for production—
3. Neves FA, Zahrani MS and Bremkamp SW: “Detection of 7. Fingered flow is the instability that arises at the interface 12. For more on seismic attributes: Chopra S and
Potential Fractures and Small Faults Using Seismic between two immiscible fluids when one invades the Marfurt KJ: “Seismic Attributes—A Historical
Attributes,” The Leading Edge 23, no. 9 (September 2004): other. The result of differences in fluid viscosity and Perspective,” Geophysics 70, no. 5 (September–
903–906. mobility, fingered flow may occur during waterflooding October 2005): 3SO–28SO.
4. Anisotropy is the variation of a physical property, when water infiltrates oil or during air sparging when air Chopra S and Marfurt KJ: “Emerging and Future Trends
such as P- or S-wave velocity, with the direction of its bubbles through water. in Seismic Attributes,” The Leading Edge 27, no. 3
measurement. For a discussion of elastic anisotropy: 8. For more on fractured reservoirs: Bratton T, Canh DV, (March 2008): 298–318.
Armstrong P, Ireson D, Chmela B, Dodds K, Esmeroy C, Que NV, Duc NV, Gillespie P, Hunt D, Li B, Marcinew R, Chopra S and Marfurt K: “Gleaning Meaningful
Miller D, Hornby B, Sayers C, Schoenberg M, Leaney S Ray S, Montaron B, Nelson R, Schoderbek D and Information from Seismic Attributes,” First Break 26,
and Lynn H: “The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy,” Sonneland L: “The Nature of Naturally Fractured no. 9 (September 2008): 43–53.
Oilfield Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 36–47. Reservoirs,” Oilfield Review 18, no. 2 (Summer 2006):
13. For more on elastic anisotropy: Armstrong et al, reference 4.
5. A fracture is any break in rock regardless of origin. 4–23.
Hardage B: “Measuring Fractures—Quality and
A joint, or Mode I fracture, is a fracture formed by 9. Dershowitz WS and Herda HH: “Interpretation of
Quantity,” AAPG Explorer 32, no. 7 (July 2011): 26–27.
opening displacement, normal to the fracture plane, Fracture Spacing and Intensity,” in Tillerson JR and
under tensile stress conditions. A fault is a fracture Wawersik WR (eds): Proceedings of the 33rd U.S. Hardage B: “For Fractures, P + S = Maximum Efficiency,”
formed by shearing displacement, in the plane of the Symposium on Rock Mechanics. Rotterdam, The AAPG Explorer 32, no. 8 (August 2011): 32.
fracture, under shear stress conditions. Faults form Netherlands: AA Balkema Publishers (1992): 757–766. 14. For more on azimuthal seismic anisotropy analysis:
under sliding (Mode II) or tearing (Mode III) conditions Crosta G: “Evaluating Rock Mass Geometry from Barkved O, Bartman B, Compani B, Gaiser J, Van Dok R,
depending on whether the shear stress acts Photographic Images,” Rock Mechanics and Rock Johns T, Kristiansen P, Probert T and Thompson M: “The
perpendicular or parallel to the fracture front. Engineering 30, no. 1 (January 1997): 35–58. Many Facets of Multicomponent Seismic Data,”
Pollard DD and Aydin A: “Progress in Understanding Oilfield Review 16, no. 2 (Summer 2004): 42–56.
10. Florez-Niño J-M, Aydin A, Mavko G, Antonellini M and
Jointing over the Past Century,” Geological Society of Ayaviri A: “Fault and Fracture Systems in a Fold and Grimm RE, Lynn HB, Bates CR, Phillips DR, Simon KM
America Bulletin 100, no. 8 (August 1988): 1181–1204. Thrust Belt: An Example from Bolivia,” AAPG Bulletin 89, and Beckham WE: “Detection and Analysis of Naturally
Aydin A: “Fractures, Faults, and Hydrocarbon no. 4 (April 2005): 471–493. Fractured Gas Reservoirs: Multiazimuth Seismic Surveys
Entrapment, Migration and Flow,” Marine and Petroleum in the Wind River Basin, Wyoming,” Geophysics 64, no. 4
11. Zahm CK and Hennings PH: “Complex Fracture
Geology 17, no. 7 (August 2000): 797–814. (July–August 1999): 1277–1292.
Development Related to Stratigraphic Architecture:
6. Within the Earth, open natural fracture planes are Challenges for Structural Deformation Prediction, Lynn HB, Campagna D, Simon KM and Beckham WE:
parallel to the principal stress plane that contains the Tensleep Sandstone at the Alcova Anticline, Wyoming,” “Relationship of P-Wave Seismic Attributes, Azimuthal
maximum and intermediate principal compressive AAPG Bulletin 93, no. 11 (November 2009): 1427–1446. Anisotropy, and Commercial Gas Pay in 3-D P-Wave
stresses. This plane tends to be vertical because the Multiazimuth Data, Rulison Field, Piceance Basin,
vertical stress is often one of these principal stresses. Colorado,” Geophysics 64, no. 4 (July–August 1999):
1293–1311.

30 Oilfield Review
 Sheared joints, Seismic Data Cube
Intermediate faults incipient faults
Fold axis
Joint

x y
Time slice

Time
Amplitude Attribute

y
x

Throughgoing
fault zones Frequency Attribute Low High
> Folds, faults and fractures along an anticline. In folded rocks, faults and fractures may be oriented
parallel or perpendicular to the fold axis. Fractures form in response to stress; joints form by means of
tensile stresses, and faults form by means of shear stresses. Further deformation causes fractures to
extend and may change the direction of motion along fracture planes. Faults and fractures may be y
stratabound and confined to a single layer or become throughgoing—crossing all sedimentary x
sequences and spanning many formations. Their connectivity ranges from isolated individual fractures
to widely spaced fracture swarms or corridors to fully interconnected fracture networks. Drilling > Computing attributes on a time surface in a
horizontal wells parallel to the fold axis should ensure the greatest chance of intersecting fractures.
3D seismic volume. Geophysicists analyze the
(Adapted from Florez-Niño et al, reference 10.)
character of each seismic trace at a selected
time slice surface (top, red) and assign a value.
For example, each trace’s amplitude is mapped
to be vertically oriented.6 Vertical wells rarely direction and fluid content.8 Orientation is quan- onto an amplitude attribute surface (middle).
intersect these vertical fractures. However, in tified by the strike and dip of a fracture surface. Higher amplitudes near the center of the 3D
some types of reservoirs, such as tight sandstone Aperture, the perpendicular width of an open seismic volume plot as higher values in the
center of the 2D amplitude time slice. Other
and carbonate layers, shale gas, oil shale and fracture, is a key parameter for determining frac-
attribute surfaces, such as frequency, are
coalbed methane plays, fracture systems provide ture porosity and permeability, but its measure- computed in the same way (bottom).
the only permeability in the formation; achieving ment is complicated by factors such as fracture
commercial production rates requires that the wall roughness, infill by minerals and gouge, and
wellbore traverse fractures. Drilling wells to con- continuity along fracture planes.
nect as many fractures as possible has become a Density, or intensity, of fracturing is quanti-
principal objective, but the task must be per- fied by measuring the number, length, width, Attribute analyses take advantage of the volume
formed carefully. Fractures are able to dominate area and volume of fractures in a prescribed averaged response from the fracture system to
permeability both positively and negatively. On length, area or volume of rock.9 Fracture density obtain quantitative and qualitative estimates of
the one hand, they provide the essential permea- and size are influenced by lithology, rock proper- seismic properties within the reservoir rock vol-
bility to give tight reservoirs improved productiv- ties, bed thickness and the compressive or ten- ume (above right).
ity and recovery efficiency. On the other hand, sile strain imposed during tectonic deformation.10 Aligned natural fractures in a formation
fractures may harm productive reservoirs by cre- In a tectonic setting, the distribution of fracture cause elastic anisotropy—the variation of elastic
ating thief zones, and in enhanced oil recovery density and dimension ranges from many small wave properties with direction—that, if present,
efforts, they may cause early breakthrough and fractures confined to individual beds, to fewer may be observed in properly acquired and pro-
reservoir flow instabilities—fingered flow.7 intermediate-scale fractures that cut across a cessed seismic data.13 Seismic attributes that
For both exploration and production of a few beds and sometimes to a few kilometer-scale vary with azimuth include velocity, reflection
hydrocarbon reservoir, operators need to charac- tectonic faults that deform entire stratigraphic amplitude and S-wave birefringence, or splitting.
terize natural fracture systems to identify the sequences (above left).11 Azimuthal variations of these properties are
best opportunities for placing wells and planning The scale, displacement and aperture of most deduced from analysis of 3D surface and bore-
horizontal well trajectories. To characterize frac- fractures are too small to be detected by surface hole seismic data and surveys that have been
tures, scientists require information about frac- seismic techniques alone. To delineate fractures acquired in multiple azimuths.14
ture orientation, aperture, porosity, permeability, and quantify their properties, geophysicists use
density, size, location, stress anisotropy and attributes of seismic data derived from the elas-
tic and geometric properties of fractured rocks.12

Summer 2012 31
 Pennsylvania

UNITED STATES

Law
Tyr ren
one cev
-M ille
oun -At
tU tic
nio a
n
Fr
Ho ench
me Cre
-Ga ek
llitz
in
Bla
irsv
ille
-Bro
adt
Pitt op
sbu
rgh
Wa - W
shin ashing
gto t
n C on
oun
ty

Gree
ne C
oun
ty
Pars
ons Steckman Ridge field

0 km 50
Allegheny Plateau Appalachian Valley Piedmont
Province and Ridge Province Province 0 mi 50

> Steckman Ridge gas storage field. The Appalachian Valley and Ridge Province arcs from south-central Pennsylvania to the
northeast (black outline). Many NW–SE structural lineaments cut across the Appalachian axis (red dashed lines), some of
which are unnamed. The western boundary of Bedford County (pink) approximately separates the smoother topography of the
Allegheny Plateau to the west from the more rugged Appalachian Valley and Ridge topography to the east. [Topographic
surface map adapted from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Geophysical Data Center, http://
www.ngdc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/mgg/topo/state2.pl?region=pa.jpg (accessed June 6, 2012).]

In the case of velocity anisotropy caused by edges and interruptions—while coherence horizons do show breaks in coherence. But this
oriented natural fractures alone, P- and S-wave emphasizes their predictability: their connected- is not always the case. For example, if fault
velocities are at their maximum in the direction ness and continuity.15 High variance and low movement has been small relative to the seis-
parallel to the fractures and at their minimum in coherence may indicate faults or fracture zones, mic wavelength, the faulted horizon may appear
the direction perpendicular to the fracture trend. clusters or swarms. Geologists use similar char- to have high coherence.
As the present-day stresses may not coincide acteristics of seismic horizons for interpreting Another sensitive attribute is derived from
with the paleostresses active at the time of frac- faults or fractures when analyzing a seismic data- analysis of the frequency content of seismic sig-
ture formation, this velocity anisotropy may be set; via the graphical data display, geologists fol- nals: Spectral decomposition, or time-to-fre-
modified by the present-day maximum compres- low along a seismic horizon or surface until it quency analysis, is a method for separating
sive stress, preferentially closing fractures per- ends, breaks or becomes displaced up, down or seismic signals into their frequency compo-
pendicular to it and opening fractures parallel to sideways to a different location. nents.17 The spectral content of recorded seismic
it. The resultant velocity anisotropy is the super- The curvature attribute at points on a horizon data depends on cumulative effects of the seis-
position of the anisotropies caused by preexisting can be a measure of structural strain.16 Areas in mic properties and interfaces of rock strata
fractures and the present-day in situ stress field. which curvature is high or tight may have been encountered by the propagating signals. By iso-
Rocks that contain natural fracture systems subjected to high strain to transform them into lating certain frequencies, interpreters may be
have been stressed and strained—compressed, areas of flexure, folding, faulting or high fracture able to extract subtle features. For example,
elongated, bent and broken—which deforms intensity. The attribute of distance to flexure, higher frequency components contain informa-
their original shapes. The seismic attributes of folding and faulting is a geometric strain indica- tion about shorter wavelength structural features
variance, coherence, curvature and distance to tor; fracture intensity is expected to increase hidden within a dominantly long wavelength sig-
flexures, folds and faults are all useful indicators with proximity to these structural elements. nal of the full-frequency seismic data. Scientists
of strain. Variance and coherence have a recipro- Coherence and curvature provide comple- apply spectral decomposition for image enhance-
cal relationship; variance measures the differ- mentary structural information. Folded hori- ment—improving resolution, balancing fre-
ences between seismic traces and coherence zons are expected to display curvature but no quency content or suppressing noise. They also
measures the similarities. Variance emphasizes disruption in coherence; conversely, faulted use it for reservoir characterization—evaluating
the unpredictability of seismic horizons—their sequence stratigraphy and depositional features,

32 Oilfield Review
estimating stratigraphic thickness and determin- wells to storage wells and drilling a substantial of thrust faults (below).20 The original operator,
ing fracture properties and fluid content. number of new vertical storage wells. Each well Pennsylvania General Energy Company (PGE),
Spectral decomposition is a powerful tool for illu- was designed for a 50- to 70-year life span. had acquired 3D surface seismic data and FMI
minating subtle features such as shear faults that Steckman Ridge field contains three anticli- fullbore formation microimager logs in two of the
control the geometry of the fracture system but nal structures that formed along the leading edge production wells. To prepare for conversion to
that are below the resolution of the full-frequency
surface seismic data, as demonstrated in an
Appalachian basin gas storage facility.
–4,250
–4,500
Intersecting Fractures with Horizontal Wells –4,750
–5,000
The Steckman Ridge field is a joint venture –5,250 Anticline A
between New Jersey Resources (NJR) Steckman –5,500

Depth, ft
–5,750
Ridge Storage Company and Spectra Energy –6,000 6,000
Corporation, together known as the partnership. –6,250
–6,500
The facility is operated by Spectra Energy as a mul- –6,750
–7,000
ticycle underground gas storage (UGS) facility, –7,250 5,500
regulated by the US Federal Energy Regulatory –7,500

Commission (FERC). The field is in the Valley

1
and Ridge Province of the Appalachian basin in 5,000

Bedford County, Pennsylvania, USA (previous

page). The reservoir is in the Devonian-age
Oriskany Formation, which at reservoir depths is a

0
4,50
fractured quartzite. It is a Type 1 fractured reser-
5
voir, in which fractures provide the primary poros-
ity and permeability.18
Steckman Ridge LP acquired the depleted gas 2 Gas Wells
field in 2004; the field had yielded 12.5 Bcf 3 1 Clark 1663
[354 million m3] of gas cumulatively from five 2 Quarles 1709
vertical wells. Production from the individual 4
3 Clark 1664
wells varied considerably, leading the partner- 4 Clark 1665
ship experts to suspect that a fracture network, 5 Stup 1557
rather than matrix properties, was controlling
porosity and permeability. The company received Anticline C
approval from FERC in 2008 to convert the field
to a gas storage facility, with an operating capac-
0 km 1
ity of 17.7 Bcf [501 million m3], comprising 12 Bcf Anticline B
0 mi 1
[340 million m3] of working gas and 5.7 Bcf
[161 million m3] of cushion gas, with a maximum
> Top of the Oriskany Formation at Steckman Ridge. Three anticlines, A, B and C, at the leading edge
delivery rate capability of 300 MMcf/d [8.5 mil-
of thrust faults (red lines) formed primarily during the Allegheny (Permian) orogeny, although earlier
lion m3/d] and maximum injection rate of Taconic (Ordovician) and Acadian (Devonian) orogenies also affected the basement and the sedimentary
227 MMcf/d [6.43 million m3/d].19 The original plan cover of the region. Five vertical wells, Clark 1663, Clark 1664, Clark 1665, Stup 1557 and Quarles 1709,
called for converting the five existing production depleted the original gas reservoir.

15. Bahorich M and Farmer S: “3-D Seismic Discontinuity Common types of 3D curvature are the maximum, 19. “Steckman Ridge LP—Order Issuing Certificates,”
for Faults and Stratigraphic Features: The Coherence minimum, strike and dip curvatures. For more on US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Docket
Cube,” The Leading Edge 14, no. 10 (October 1995): curvature: Roberts A: “Curvature Attributes and Their No. CP08-15-000 (June 5, 2008), http://www.ferc.gov/
1053–1058. Application to 3D Interpreted Horizons,” First Break 19, eventcalendar/Files/20080605185040-CP08-15-000.pdf
Caldwell J, Chowdhury A, van Bemmel P, Engelmark F, no. 2 (February 2001): 85–100. (accessed July 14, 2012).
Sonneland L and Neidell NS: “Exploring for Stratigraphic 17. Partyka G, Gridley J and Lopez J: “Interpretational For more on underground gas storage: Bary A,
Traps,” Oilfield Review 9, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 48–61. Applications of Spectral Decomposition in Reservoir Crotogino F, Prevedel B, Berger H, Brown K, Frantz J,
16. Curvature describes how bent a 2D curve or 3D surface Characterization,” The Leading Edge 18, no. 3 Sawyer W, Henzell M, Mohmeyer K-U, Ren N-K, Stiles K
is at a point. At a point on a 2D curve, the curvature is (March 1999): 353–360. and Xiong H: “Storing Natural Gas Underground,”
the reciprocal of the radius of the largest circle capable Castagna JP and Sun S: “Comparison of Spectral Oilfield Review 14, no. 2 (Summer 2002): 2–17.
of touching the point with tangent contact. The curvature, Decomposition Methods,” First Break 24, no. 3 20. Scanlin MA and Engelder T: “The Basement Versus the
or the amount of bending, increases as the radius of the (March 2006): 75–79. No-Basement Hypotheses for Folding Within the
circle decreases because of their reciprocal relation. 18. There are four principal fractured reservoir types based Appalachian Plateau Detachment Sheet,” American
This concept can be extended to 3D surfaces. Many on the importance of fractures in providing reservoir Journal of Science 303, no. 6 (June 2003): 519–563.
curves may be defined through a point on a surface by porosity and permeability. For a more detailed
cutting the surface with planes through the point. discussion of fractured reservoir types: Bratton et al,
reference 8.

Summer 2012 33
Reflection Amplitude Distance to Faults Curvature

Positive Far High

Clark 1663 Clark 1663

Curvature
Amplitude

Distance
Negative Near Low

Stup 1557 Stup 1557

Quarles 1709

Quarles 1709 Quarles 1709

Clark 1664

Clark 1664 Clark 1664

Clark 1665 Clark 1665

0 m 610 0 m 610 0 m 610

0 ft 2,000 0 ft 2,000 0 ft 2,000
> Initial seismic attributes. Maps of seismic attributes—reflection amplitude (left), distance to faults (center) and curvature (right)—show the large-scale
trends consistent with the NNE strike of the Appalachian fold-and-thrust structures of the Oriskany Formation in the Steckman Ridge field.

NW-trending fracture NW-trending fracture

planes that strike 290° planes that strike 330°

Be
dd
NW-trending fracture ip
planes that strike 350°

> Exposures of natural fractures in the Steckman Ridge vicinity. Fractures in an Oriskany quartzite quarry (left) in West Virginia, USA, located about 60 mi
[100 km] southeast of Steckman Ridge field, occur in two main fracture sets that strike to the northwest. The quarry wall faces northwest and the red and
green lines point to fracture planes that strike 330° and 290°, respectively. In a view from the SSE, fractures exposed in a pipeline ditch (right) near Anticline C
are oriented at 350°. FMI data (not shown) from the SR17 well on Anticline C showed the same 350°orientation for open fractures.

34 Oilfield Review
 Law
Tyr ren
one- cev
Mo ille
unt -At
Un tic
ion a
Fr
Ho ench
me Cre
-Ga ek
llitz
in
Bla
irsv
ille
-Bro
adt
Pitt op
sbu
rgh
Wa Was -
shin hing
gto t
n C on
oun
ty

Gree
ne C
oun
ty
Pars
ons

0 km 50

Magnetic anomaly, nT 0 mi 50

–300 –200 –100 –30 0 30 100 200 400

> Cross-strike structural discontinuities (CSDs) on a magnetic anomaly map. Interpretation of a portion of the North American
magnetic anomaly map shows northwest to southeast CSDs (dashed red lines) crossing the Appalachian basin. There is a
clear break in the magnetic field anomaly in southwest Pennsylvania along the Washington County CSD that is interpreted to
be a shear zone related to the NW–SE fractures in the Steckman Ridge field, which is in Bedford County (black outline).
[Magnetic anomaly map adapted from the US Geological Survey (Bankey et al, reference 21).]

0°
gas storage operations, the partnership and NW-oriented cross-strike structural discontinui- 10%
330° 30°
Schlumberger consulting geophysicists reexam- ties (CSDs) or lineaments (above).21 Results from 8%
ined these datasets and conducted field studies. these studies suggested that natural fractures
6%
Initial examination of seismic attributes— may be exerting significant control on the poros- 300° 60°
4%
reflection amplitude, curvature and distance to ity and permeability in the field as well as on the
faults—revealed large-scale trends consistent gross structures of the Steckman Ridge anti- 2%
with the NNE strike of the thrust-and-fold struc- clines. If so, evidence of the NW-oriented fracture 270° 90°
tures that formed the valley and ridge topography system should have been visible in the seismic
in the region (previous page, top). In contrast, attributes extracted from the seismic data.
the field studies revealed a NW orientation of Therefore, the 3D seismic data were reexamined
240° 120°
fractures in pipeline ditches, outcrops and creek using advanced fracture detection analyses to
bottom incisions through topographic ridges identify and map the more subtle effects of the
(previous page, bottom). These observations cor- open fracture systems. 210° 150°
180°
roborated FMI interpretations of WNW- to NNW- Spectral analysis of the seismic data indicated
oriented natural fractures and the NW orientation that the frequency content of the seismic wavelet Fractures and Faults
of the present-day maximum horizontal stress was fairly consistent, ranging from 25 to 75 Hz at Open fractures
deduced from the direction of drilling-induced the well locations. However, the shape of the seis- Fault set 1
Healed fractures
fractures (right). Furthermore, regional satellite mic wavelet along the top of the Oriskany horizon
Partially open fractures
imagery, gravity and magnetic studies indicated varied from location to location across the field.22
> Fracture characterization. An FMI tool was
21. For more on jointing in the Appalachian basin: for the Magnetic Anomaly Map of North America,”
Engelder T, Lash GG and Uzcátegui RS: “Joint Sets Reston, Virginia, USA: US Geological Survey, Open-File
used to detect fractures in the Clark 1663 well.
That Enhance Production from Middle and Upper Report 02-414, 2002. These fracture trends were plotted in a rose
Devonian Gas Shales of the Appalachian Basin,” 22. For a tutorial on seismic wavelets: Henry SG: diagram and helped geoscientists see the
AAPG Bulletin 93, no. 7 (July 2009): 857–889. “Catch the (Seismic) Wavelet,” AAPG Explorer 18, no. 3 predominant NW–SE trend of the fractures. They
Bankey V, Cuevas A, Daniels D, Finn CA, Hernandez I, (March 1997): 36–38. also showed that most fractures in this well
Hill P, Kucks R, Miles W, Pilkington M, Roberts C, Henry SG: “Zero Phase Can Aid Interpretation,” were open or partially open and their directions
Roest W, Rystrom V, Shearer S, Snyder S, Sweeney R, AAPG Explorer 18, no. 4 (April 1997): 66–69. corresponded to the direction of a set of faults.
Velez J, Phillips JD and Ravat D: “Digital Data Grids

Summer 2012 35
 Amplitude Frequency, Hz This variability did not affect large-scale structural
– 0 + 0 75
–400 –400 interpretation but would affect stratigraphic inter-
pretation and the search for small-scale features.
Scientists performed spectral decomposi-
Spectral
decomposition tion on the 3D seismic data volume and exam-
ined selected frequency volumes, which
revealed subtle structures within the data
(left). They extracted the 30-Hz isofrequency
volume through spectral decomposition, iso-
lated the top of the Oriskany horizon as a vol-
Time, ms

Time, ms
0 0 ume slab—bounded 12 ms above and below the
horizon pick—and then, using time slices,
sliced through this 24-ms thick subvolume. They
saw clear evidence of NW-trending shear zones
Spectral cutting across the NNE strike of the anticline
summation
axes (next page, top). These shear zones were
the only structural features discovered with the
same orientation as that of the fracture system
400 400 observed in both the local outcrops and the FMI
data from the nearby Clark 1663 vertical well-
bore.23 The scientists determined that these
shear zones were the structural features con-
trolling the highly permeable fracture system
believed to hold the actual storage capacity for
the field’s gas.
Schlumberger geoscientists designed a dual-
Cube porosity discrete fracture network (DFN) model
orientation to help with designing well trajectories, to
y
update with data from the drilling program and
x
0 to 10 Hz to use for production modeling of gas storage
and retrieval (next page, bottom). Input for the
Time Spectral decomposition 10 to 20 Hz model included the shear zones and fracture
sets mapped from seismic interpretation, frac-
ture aperture, fracture fill, dip angle and dip
azimuth from FMI images and fracture conduc-
tivity from resistivity logs; high electrical con-
ductivity spikes on the resistivity logs correlated
with more open and, presumably, more hydrauli-
20 to 30 Hz cally conductive fractures.24
Input (0 to 125 Hz)
The data revealed two fracture sets within the
field. One fracture set ran west to east in the
southern portion of the field, and the other ran
NW–SE. Moving north across the field, both frac-
ture trends rotated clockwise. Scientists theorize
that this rotation is associated with the rotation
30 to 40 Hz
of the stress field away from the NW-trending
shear zones.
40 to 50 Hz
> Spectral decomposition. Spectral decomposition of a seismic wavelet (top left), which contains a 23. Strike-slip displacement or motion refers to the
movement of the other side of the strike-slip fault
wide range of frequencies, separates it into many single-frequency traces (top right). The spectral relative to the reference side—the side on which one is
decomposition process proceeds from left to right, and spectral summation—the reverse process of standing, facing the fault. The motion is right lateral
spectral decomposition—proceeds from right to left. In spectral decomposition of a volume of 3D when the other side of the fault moves to the right and
full-frequency seismic data (bottom), bandpass filtering produces volumes that contain data of narrow left lateral when other side moves to the left.
frequency ranges. 24. For procedures of DFN model development: Souche L,
Astratti D, Aarre V, Clerc N, Clark A, Al Dayyni TNA and
Mahmoud SL: “A Dual Representation of Multiscale
Fracture Network Modelling: Application to a Giant UAE
Carbonate Field,” First Break 30, no. 5 (May 2012): 43–52.

36 Oilfield Review
 , Isofrequency amplitude of the top of the
High
Oriskany Formation. A seismic time slice map at
746-ms two-way traveltime through the 30-Hz
Amplitude
isofrequency volume, after spectral
decomposition, is centered on the top of the
Oriskany Formation within Anticline A.
Amplitude variations highlight right and left
Low lateral strike-slip offsets through the anticline.
An example is the NW–SE right lateral offset
(dashed red line) cutting the large blue
Clark 1663 amplitude area. To the southwest, left lateral
offsets of the same blue amplitude area parallel
N the dashed red line. These NW–SE offsets are
consistent with NW–SE structural lineaments
mapped throughout Pennsylvania. They are
interpreted to be cross-strike shear zones that
Anticline A E control the gas storage and flow regime of the
Steckman Ridge reservoir.

746 ms
Time
SR9

0 km 0.5

0 mi 0.5

Fracture Dip Fracture Azimuth Matrix Porosity Fracture Trace

Dip angle, Dip azimuth, Porosity,

degree degree %
90 360 8
300
6
60 240

180 4

30 120
2
60

0 0 0

Pole Plot

0°
330° 90° 30°
75°
60°
300° 45° 60°

> Discrete fracture network modeling. A discrete fracture network (DFN) model was constructed for the Oriskany 30°
15°
reservoir, which was divided vertically into five zones. The model incorporated results of seismic and log interpre- 270° 90°
tations. Results from Zone 5 show, from left to right, the fracture dip, fracture azimuth, matrix porosity and traces of
the 27,367 fractures. A fracture trace is a curve formed by the intersection of a fracture crossing a horizon surface.
The radial pole plot (bottom right) summarizes the dips and dip directions of the modeled fracture planes, which dip 240° 120°
45° to 90° in the southwest to northeast directions. A pole is a line perpendicular to a fracture plane; a fracture that
has a strike azimuth of 135° and dip angle of 75° to the NE plots as a point at direction azimuth 45°—reading
210° 150°
clockwise around the plot—and inclination 75°—reading from the center toward the edge—on a pole plot. 180°

Summer 2012 37
 Spectra Energy well planners working for the
partnership used this model to design horizontal
wells along NE to SW trajectories to maximize
interception of the NW- to SE-oriented cross-
strike fracture systems (left). Wells SR10 and
Vertical
well SR14, the first and second wells drilled into
Horizontal these seismically defined features, were drilled
well
into Anticlines A and C, respectively. Well plan-
ners intended to drill 1,000-ft [305-m] horizon-
tal sections for both wells. However, the drillers
encountered large open fracture systems imme-
diately upon entering the reservoir. In the two
horizontal sections, after drilling only 130 ft
[40 m] and 172 ft [53 m], respectively, drillers
lost circulation in the open fracture system,
which forced them to suspend operations.
Having encountered good zones for gas injec-
tion, the operators deemed these wells suitable
for gas storage. Both wells were barefoot open-
> Planning horizontal wells to intersect open fractures. Some studies suggest that vertical wells have hole completions with casing set 50 ft [15 m]
only a slight chance of intersecting vertical fractures. At the Steckman Ridge field, engineers planned into the top of the reservoir to ensure isolation
to drill horizontal wells parallel to the anticline axis and through the cross-axis shear and fracture zones of the storage unit.
identified from analyses of seismic, geologic and surface mapping data. The remaining wells were completed in con-
junction with updates to the DFN model; the pro-
cess consisted of drilling a well to TD, running an
–4,250
–4,500
Fracture FMI log, updating the DFN model and drilling the
–4,750
–5,000
density next well. For example, fractures interpreted in
–5,250
increase
the FMI log run in Well SR21 were used to update
–5,500
Depth, ft

–5,750 the model before drilling the next well (left). In

–6,000
–6,250 addition, the drillers used the DFN model for geo-
–6,500 steering all these horizontal wells.
–6,750
–7,000 Because of the complicated geologic struc-
–7,250
–7,500
ture in the field area, steering the wells was a
challenge. Engineers obtained sonic and density
logs at critical points during drilling to create
synthetic seismic traces for correlation with
actual seismic traces. They used these prelimi-
nary well-to-seismic ties to compare the then-
current drilling location with the drilling target
that had been planned from the seismic data.
This geophysically guided borehole placement
methodology helped engineers adjust the well
Anticline B trajectories. Schlumberger engineers executed
the well plans using Schlumberger directional
Well SR21 drilling tools. The PowerV rotary steerable verti-
cal drilling system was used to keep the hole
straight to the kickoff point, and directional drill-
ers helped steer the wellbore to the intended cas-
ing, landing and final lateral TD targets.
The partnership considered this gas storage
NNE-oriented faults conversion successful. Through careful analysis,
Shear faults integration and interpretation of geologic, geo-
> Controls on fracture density. The horizontal section of Well SR21 (purple line) physical and engineering data, the team identi-
was drilled parallel to the axis of Anticline B and intersected fractures (brown fied and confirmed the controlling fracture
disks) as interpreted from FMI images. Fracture density increased as the well system within the reservoir. The original plan
crossed a shear fault (dashed red line). The blue lines represent NNE-oriented
faults mapped during the initial seismic interpretation effort. The contours was to drill all new vertical wells to achieve
(black) and colors indicate depth to the top of the Oriskany Formation. the designed injection and withdrawal capability

38 Oilfield Review
of 227 and 300 MMcf/d of gas, respectively. Top of the Tor Formation:
The partnership has currently installed com- Time-Lapse Difference
Crest Collapse
pressor capacity for injecting 150 MMcf/d , South Arne time-lapse
[4.2 million m3/d] of gas. To date, the original five amplitude difference map. The
vertical production wells have been reentered time-lapse amplitude difference
and recompleted with varying degrees of success, map (left) shows changes in
seismic amplitude along the top
and the partnership has drilled and completed
of the Tor horizon between 1995
substantially fewer wells than originally planned. and 2005. NW–SE faults (green)
The newly drilled wells were highly successful dominate the structure. Blue
horizontal wells. The well performance indicates colors indicate a decrease in
reflection strength and red to
rates near the target levels for withdrawal. The N
yellow indicates an increase.
partnership is evaluating whether further hori- Geoscientists interpret the
zontal wells may be required, but the potential to reflection amplitude increase
Flank Dilation and decrease to signal,
inject and withdraw gas at or near the design
respectively, compaction and
rates, with significantly fewer horizontal wells dilation of the formation pore
than originally planned, will result in substantial volume. The distribution of
cost savings. changes in reflection strength
To convert the Steckman Ridge field to an results from fault-controlled
flow and circulation of reservoir
underground gas storage facility, engineers made fluids during oil production that
use of attributes from seismic data to identify was supported by water
subtle cross-strike shear zones and associated injection. The fault orientations
fracture systems. In the North Sea, geoscientists promoted structural crest
collapse and compaction
are using advanced seismic attribute analysis for (orange and yellow, top right)
detailed mapping of fault networks that provide and preferential flow of and
additional reservoir production capacity. pressure support from fluids and
dilation toward the flanks of the
structure (blue, bottom right).
Detailed Mapping of Fault Networks
N N
The South Arne field is in the Danish sector of the
North Sea, about 250 km [155 mi] WNW of
Esbjerg, Denmark. Hess has operated the field 5 km [3.1 mi] 2 km [1.2 mi]
since 1994; its partners are DONG Energy A/S and
Amplitude difference
Danoil Exploration A/S. The reservoir is in chalks
– 0 +
of the Late Cretaceous Tor and overlying Early
Paleogene Ekofisk formations, situated on an
elongated structure that trends NW–SE.25
Oil production began in 1999 from horizontal
wells that were drilled parallel to the structural
axis. Production is supported by water injection compares one or more recent surveys against a 25. Mackertich DS and Goulding DRG: “Exploration and
from horizontal wells drilled parallel to and inter- reference survey to uncover production-related Appraisal of the South Arne Field, Danish North Sea,”
in Fleet AJ and Boldy SAR (eds): Petroleum Geology
laced with the production wells. To aid production, changes within the surveyed reservoir volume. of Northwestern Europe—Proceedings of the 5th
both well types underwent fracture stimulation pro- Time-lapse seismic surveys help operators mon- Petroleum Geology Conference. London: Geological
Society (1999): 959–974.
grams using either acid to erode the induced frac- itor a reservoir, map pathways and barriers to
26. Herwanger JV, Schiøtt CR, Frederiksen R, If F,
ture surface or proppant to keep fracture channels fluid movement and understand reservoir phe- Vejbæk OV, Wold R, Hansen HJ, Palmer E and
open. The induced fractures have vertical fracture nomena such as compaction from changes in Koutsabeloulis N: “Applying Time-Lapse Seismic
Methods to Reservoir Management and Field
planes oriented NW–SE, parallel to the anticline the distribution of reservoir fluid content.27 For Development Planning at South Arne, Danish North
structure. The well pattern and stimulation pro- the South Arne field, a preproduction 3D seis- Sea,” in Vining BA and Pickering SC (eds): Petroleum
Geology: From Mature Basins to New Frontiers—
gram promoted homogeneous sweep across the res- mic survey acquired in 1995 served as the refer- Proceedings of the 7th Petroleum Geology Conference.
ervoir.26 After a few years, production data indicated ence survey. A 3D survey acquired in 2005 served London: Geological Society (2010): 523–535.
27. For more on time-lapse seismic analyses: Pedersen L,
that reservoir fluids were not flowing as projected, as the monitor survey. Ryan S, Sayers C, Sonneland L and Veire HH: “Seismic
and the reservoir sweep was becoming more A key result of the time-lapse seismic analysis Snapshots for Reservoir Monitoring,” Oilfield Review 8,
no. 4 (Winter 1996): 32–43.
heterogeneous. was a strong indication that faults were affecting
Aronsen HA, Osdal B, Dahl T, Eiken O, Goto R,
Consequently in 2005, Hess and Schlumberger reservoir flow. These faults were providing addi- Khazanehdari J, Pickering S and Smith P: “Time Will
commenced a time-lapse seismic program to tional flow capacity parallel to their strike while Tell: New Insights from Time-Lapse Seismic Data,”
Oilfield Review 16, no. 2 (Summer 2004): 6–15.
investigate flow patterns indicated in the pro- impeding the flow perpendicular to their strike
duction data and to compare them with patterns (above). Engineers have incorporated this aniso-
inferred from interpretation of time-lapse seis- tropic flow behavior into reservoir simulation
mic data. Time-lapse seismic interpretation models; predictions of reservoir flow have

Summer 2012 39
 Fracture Network Modeling at Multiple Scales
Seismic Ideally, reservoir models should include all that is
Dip estimator Dip volume
data volume
known about the geology, rock and fluid proper-
ties and production history of a reservoir. Faults
No Yes
$#*&#
? and fractures deserve special treatment because
they represent discontinuities in the rocks.
Dip constraints Changes in properties near faults and fractures
-
 %&$ (y Dip attributes
-
$' are as important as changes in properties near
-
)'! (y
-
$#' '(#y -
)&*()& stratigraphic surfaces and horizons—bedding,
- $#( #) (y -
Variance sequence and unconformity boundaries. Lithology
may be displaced slightly or drastically across
Screening Potential faults Weighted faults, while porosity and permeability may
Edge detection
and validation and fractures summation change in their vicinity. Faults and fractures may
affect fluid flow regimes by acting as preferential
> Globally consistent dip estimation for fault and fracture mapping. The channels for flow when they are open or as obsta-
workflow starts with seismic data input (top left, purple) into a dip estimator cles to flow when sealed.
(top, blue). Comparison against dip constraints (center, yellow) determines Using seismic data to detect a fault and frac-
convergence. The result is a dip volume (top right, green) along with the ture network, a geoscientist team from Abu
three dip attributes (center right, green) used for fault and fracture
identification. The dip attributes undergo a weighted summation and edge Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations
detection to yield an estimated volume of potential faults and fractures (ADCO), the operator, and Schlumberger con-
(bottom, right to left). Geologists, geophysicists and well log analysts screen ducted a study of a giant carbonate field south-
and validate (bottom left, orange) these faults and fractures as real or as east of Abu Dhabi, UAE, to determine how best to
other geologic features or seismic artifacts.
capture the details of the network, which was
suspected of affecting reservoir production.34 The
objective was to represent the seismic lineaments
improved, providing closer agreement between the same whether in a low- or high-amplitude or in reservoir models as completely and efficiently
estimated pressures and actual pressures mea- dipping or flat region of the 3D seismic volume. as possible within the restrictions set by the com-
sured in appraisal wells drilled for field extension The second attribute, the curvature attribute, puting environment.
to the north.28 Since that study, Hess and describes the lateral structural variation in dip. Production comes from the Lower Cretaceous
Schlumberger have continued to collaborate to Large values of curvature highlight abrupt Thamama Formation. The structure is a broad,
improve imaging of the fault pattern within the changes in dip and are common indicators of gentle anticline elongated in the northeast direc-
South Arne field.29 fractures and faults.32 tion and crossed by four fracture sets identified
A promising approach for revealing fault pat- The third attribute, amplitude variance, is a both in wells and 3D seismic data. The main
terns follows a workflow that identifies three seismic attribute of the coherence family. shear fracture set has a WNW–ESE orientation,
independent attributes of seismic dip, combines Amplitude variance reveals the lack of continuity right lateral strike-slip displacement, and en ech-
them into an aggregate attribute and then uses in the signal, which is useful for identifying faults elon regular spacing of 3 to 4 km [2 to 2.5 mi].35
edge enhancement processing to enhance fault as well as stratigraphic features. Data show that the set may be related to the reac-
zones (above). The independent attributes— The three independent attributes—chaos, tivation of Precambrian basement strike-slip
chaos, curvature and variance—describe the curvature and variance—are combined into an faults. The second set is oriented NW–SE and
structural uncertainty, structure and amplitude aggregate seismic attribute using a weighted interpreted to be the right lateral synthetic
sensitivity of fault dips interpreted from seismic summation of the independent inputs; weighting Riedel shear set associated with the main set.36
data. Although dip is difficult to estimate cor- equalizes each of the contributions so that they The third set is oriented N–S and interpreted to
rectly, geophysicists used global constraints to affect the aggregate output attribute similarly. be the left lateral antithetic Riedel shear set. A
estimate dip reliably and consistently.30 This combined attribute volume undergoes edge fourth minor set, oriented NNW–SSE, consists of
The chaos attribute results from the struc- enhancement processing using “ant tracking” to extension relay fractures that propagated
tural uncertainty or variability of the seismic dip bring out the fault planes and suppress other between fractures in the main WNW–ESE shear
and azimuth estimates. It measures the chaotic nonstructural features.33 The resulting seismic fracture set.
or disordered quality from statistical analysis of volume—a fault cube—provides a detailed The dataset for this study included 3D
local seismic responses—abruptly changing sig- description of the fault network associated with prestack time-migrated (PSTM) seismic data
nals are chaotic, but smoothly varying signals are the fractures that control reservoir production that were converted from time to depth over the
not—thus helping identify faults and fractures, (next page). These details are important inputs reservoir, a comprehensive well log dataset of 55
which cause disruptions in the seismic volume.31 into fractured reservoir simulation and geome- image logs and 18 production logs from horizon-
Chaos is an independent attribute because it chanical earth models, which engineers use for tal and vertical wells and a 3D static model of the
does not vary with seismic amplitude or dip ori- predicting reservoir properties and their evolu- reservoir based on the ADCO asset team’s inter-
entation, meaning that the chaos value will be tion with production. pretation of the geology, stratigraphy, lithology
and rock and fluid properties from well log, core,
petrophysical and fluid analyses.

40 Oilfield Review
Top of the Ekofisk Formation: Time Surface Top of the Ekofisk Formation: Amplitudes

Top of the Ekofisk Formation: Dips Top of the Ekofisk Formation: Ant Tracking

> Faults and fractures from dip mapping. These images are grayscale shaded relief maps of the two-way traveltime surface at the top of the Ekofisk
Formation; in the bottom right corner of each image, the green arrow points north. A view from the southeast of the two-way traveltime surface (top left)
shows the NW–SE trending structure of the South Arne field, with a vertical seismic section in the background. The other views are from the north and are
seismic results superimposed on the two-way traveltime surface. Reflection amplitude (top right) depends on the rock contrast across the surface; the blue
amplitude shows the negative reflection polarity caused by a decrease in the seismic impedance at the top of the Ekofisk Formation, which has lower
seismic impedance than the shales immediately overlying it. The structural dips (bottom left) that result from dip estimation show the dip at every point on
the surface and are independent of reflection strength. The gray scale indicates dip magnitude and direction and ranges from white to black; white
indicates dips toward the west and black indicates dips toward the east. Ant tracking edge detection and enhancement processing of the dips accentuates
the traces of faults and fractures (yellow and orange, bottom right) that cut across the surface.
28. Herwanger et al, reference 26. Analysis,” Expanded Abstracts, 70th SEG Annual 35. En echelon is a stepped or shingled arrangement
29. Aarre V and Astratti D: “Seismic Attributes for Fault Meeting, Calgary (August 6–11, 2000): 668–671. of similar objects, either to the right or left of the
Mapping—The Triple Combo,” presented at the 32. Roberts, reference 16. reference object.
Petroleum Exploration Society of Great Britain 33. For more on the patented ant tracking procedure: 36. Riedel shear structures are secondary structures that
Geophysics Seminar on Amplitudes and Attributes; Uses Pedersen SI, Randen T, Sønneland L and Steen Ø: form in shear zones. They include two conjugate sets of
and Abuses, London, June 15–16, 2011. “Automatic Fault Extraction Using Artificial Ants,” en echelon slip surfaces. The synthetic set has the same
30. Aarre V: “Globally Consistent Dip Estimation,” Expanded Abstracts, 72nd SEG Annual Meeting, Salt sense of displacement as the primary shear and is
Expanded Abstracts, 80th SEG Annual Meeting, Lake City, Utah, USA (October 6–11, 2002): 512–515. inclined at a low angle to the primary direction of
Denver (October 15–17, 2010): 1387–1391. relative motion. The antithetic set has the opposite
Pedersen SI: “Image Feature Extraction,” US Patent
sense of displacement as the primary shear and is at a
31. Randen T, Monsen E, Signer C, Abrahamsen A, No. 8,055,026 (November 8, 2011).
high angle to it.
Hansen JO, Sæter T, Schlaf J and Sønneland L: 34. Souche et al, reference 24.
“Three-Dimensional Texture Attributes for Seismic Data

Summer 2012 41
Vertical Section
Pole Plot from Well E
+ 0°
330° 90° 30°

Amplitude
0 70°
300° 60°
50°
Well E
30°
–
10°
270° 90°

Fault 240° 120°

210° 150°
180°

Fractures and Faults

Fault
Possible fault
Resistive fracture
Hairline fracture
50× vertical exaggeration

Depth Slice Well Section from Well E

+ MD, Gamma Ray Ants Dip Cell

ft Tracking Grids
0 gAPI 140 0 deg 90
Amplitude

0 X,250

X,500

Well E

X,750

Hand-picked fault

Y,000

> Evaluation of seismic estimates of faults and fractures. Faults (cyan) were interpreted in vertical sections (top left) and in depth slices (bottom left) close
to well trajectories—in this case Well E (yellow). These seismically identified faults were the result of dip estimation and ant tracking and were compared
with faults picked by hand from seismic data (red lines) and faults and fractures interpreted from FMI image logs (orange and red disks along Well E). Faults
and fractures interpreted on the image logs from Well E are plotted on a radial pole plot stereonet (top right) and well log section (bottom right) for more
detailed comparison with other borehole measurements and seismic data. The blue and green rectangles in Track 1 of the well log section show intervals
where water (blue) and oil (green) entries into the well were detected during production log testing and interpreted as associated with faults crossing the
horizontal well. Track 2 shows intervals where faults were identified through ant track processing of seismic data; the gray rectangles mark where Well E
crosses faults. The dip tadpoles in Track 3 indicate the depth and orientation of fractures observed in the FMI image log: The tadpole color indicates
fracture classification; the circle plots at the depth and dip of the fracture and the tail gives the fracture dip azimuth. Track 4 (light green) shows the grid cell
boundaries crossed by the representation of Well E in the 3D model of the fracture system in the reservoir. (Adapted from Souche et al, reference 24.)

42 Oilfield Review
 Upscaling to Effective Fracture Properties
Large Fractures: Discrete Fracture Network Small Fractures: Implicit Fracture Model for Simulation Purposes

High High

Permeability
Intensity
Low Low

> Hybrid model of a natural fracture system. The hybrid model combines a discrete fracture network (DFN) for large fractures (left) and an implicit fracture
model (IFM) for small fractures (center) into a single coherent framework (right). Upscaling the model enables efficient testing of reservoir development
plans and their production outcomes. Each color in the DFN plot represents a distinct DFN set. The model covers an area of 33 km2 [13 mi2]. (Adapted from
Souche et al, reference 24.)

To extract fault and fracture information were modeled explicitly using a discrete fracture Knowledge of natural fracture systems and
from the 3D PSTM seismic data, the workflow network (DFN). The small fractures, believed to their orientations, dimensions and physical prop-
followed a procedure similar to that used for the augment the matrix permeability, were repre- erties allows operators to plan well trajectories to
South Arne field; the interpretation team fol- sented statistically using an implicit fracture intersect these sweet spots in reservoirs con-
lowed up by comparing the seismic results with model (IFM). The size threshold between large trolled by fracture porosity and permeability—or
image logs. They accomplished this task using and small fractures was grid-size dependent: The to avoid them if necessary. And although most
seismic cross sections along well trajectories large fractures provided connectivity within the fractures are too small to be sensed individually
and seismic depth slice maps within the reser- cells and the small fractures contributed to the by seismic waves, sets and networks of fractures
voir interval or along the horizontal sections of cell properties. DFN and IFM models may be can have a collective impact on seismic response.
horizontal wells. Seismic lineaments were combined and scaled up for dynamic reservoir New capabilities for high-fidelity seismic data
retained in the fault cube if they showed close simulation purposes (above). The primary out- acquisition, greater data storage and faster com-
agreement with image log interpretation (previ- come of the hybrid model is that a single model puting spur the quest for even more-accurate geo-
ous page). The remaining lineaments were accounts for the predominant effects from large logic maps and models to support and sustain
screened further to categorize them as sedi- fractures and the contributions from smaller decisions about developing reservoirs, drilling
mentary boundaries or as artifacts from seismic fractures. The hybrid model also results in a con- wells and planning surface support facilities and
data acquisition and processing. siderable speedup in computation time, which is infrastructure. Completing this quest will require
The team incorporated the verified fault reduced from hours to minutes, making it possi- new and innovative ways to design seismic attri-
cube into the 3D reservoir model. Including and ble to test several reservoir development sce- butes for better identification and characteriza-
representing so many elements with enough narios and their production outcomes efficiently tion of fractures in reservoirs. —RCNH
detail to be faithful to the reservoir geology and and quickly.
meaningful to reservoir engineers—while keep-
ing model computations manageable—were the Seeing Fractures in the Future
challenges. To address these challenges, the To ensure successful reservoir development and
team chose a hybrid model using multiscale rep- production, engineers must have an accurate geo-
resentation.37 The large fractures, thought to con- logic understanding of natural fractures and
trol the flow of injected fluids in this reservoir, faults. Analysis of seismic data is fundamental to
this process, and seismic attributes play a crucial
37. Souche L, Kherroubi J, Rotschi M and Quental S: “A
Dual Representation for Multiscale Fracture role in helping interpreters identify subtle fea-
Characterization and Modeling,” Search and Discovery tures. Also vital is integration of seismic results
Article 50244 (December 2009), http://www.
searchanddiscovery.com/documents/2009/50244souche/ with large-scale geologic trends, log data, outcrop
ndx_souche.pdf (accessed July 15, 2012). studies and real-time drilling results.
Lee SH, Lough MF and Jensen CL: “Hierarchical
Modeling of Flow in Naturally Fractured Formations with
Multiple Length Scales,” Water Resources Research 37,
no. 3 (March 2001): 443–455.

Summer 2012 43
 Logging Through the Bit

Increasing use of horizontal drilling has spurred E&P companies to look for more
cost-effective ways to log their wells. To meet this need, an innovative logging
service has been developed. Operators are now capitalizing on a unique conveyance
method that uses small-diameter tools to obtain formation evaluation data in highly
deviated or extended-reach wells.

James Aivalis Advances in drilling and completion technology Often, gamma ray logs obtained by measure-
Tony Meszaros are helping E&P companies open and develop ment-while-drilling (MWD) tools are used during
Robert Porter new plays previously deemed uneconomic. In geosteering to determine stratigraphic position.
Rick Reischman many of these plays, operators are turning to For some wells, the MWD gamma ray log may pro-
Robin Ridley horizontal drilling and hydraulic stimulation to vide the sole petrophysical input for designing
Peter Wells
increase wellbore exposure to productive forma- perforating and formation fracturing programs.
ThruBit LLC
tions. However, horizontal or high-angle wells can Although the gamma ray log may help geologists
Houston, Texas, USA
be difficult to evaluate. Often, these wells cannot identify target zones through correlations with
Benjamin W. Crouch be logged on wireline without specialized convey- offset well logs, gamma ray measurements alone
Osage Resources, LLC ance equipment, which frequently results in are not sufficient to characterize reservoir prop-
Hutchinson, Kansas, USA added expense and operational delays. An unfor- erties that impact production. Measuring lateral
tunate consequence is that some operators forgo and vertical variations in lithology, mineralogy,
Taylor L. Reid the acquisition of petrophysical data entirely. grain size, porosity, permeability and fluid content
Oasis Petroleum, Inc. In high-angle wells, the combined effects of in complex unconventional reservoirs requires a
Houston, Texas borehole trajectory and geology hamper an oper- suite of logging tools.
ator’s ability to acquire the data needed to assess The capability to identify changes in reser-
Gary A. Simpson
a reservoir and develop a stimulation program to voir rock, which petrophysical logs provide, can
Forest Oil Corporation
enhance payout. To meet the challenges of high- significantly affect a well’s completion program
Houston, Texas
angle wells, the industry has steadily refined and its economics. This is particularly relevant
Oilfield Review Summer 2012: 24, no. 2. technology for acquiring openhole logs. Logging for unconventional plays or other tight forma-
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger. while drilling (LWD), tractor conveyance and tions, in which fracture treatments must be
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Martin various pipe-conveyed logging techniques are divided into several stages to stimulate a pay
Isaacs and Rick von Flatern, Houston; and Tony Smithson,
Northport, Alabama, USA. just a few of the options currently available.1 zone that extends thousands of feet along a hori-
Geo-Frac, Mangrove, Portal, SureLog and ThruBit are marks Nevertheless, there are costs—in the form of tool zontal wellbore. By excluding some zones, while
of Schlumberger.
rentals or rig time—associated with these alter- selectively perforating and stimulating the inter-
1. Billingham M, El-Toukhy AM, Hashem MK, Hassaan M,
Lorente M, Sheiretov T and Loth M: “Conveyance— native methods. vals most likely to be productive, operators may
Down and Out in the Oil Field,“ Oilfield Review 23, no. 2 In the unconventional plays of North America, reduce the number of stages required to opti-
(Summer 2011): 18–31.
such costs may adversely impact development mally fracture a reservoir. Decreasing the num-
2. Pitcher J and Buller D: “Shale Assets: Applying the
Right Technology for Improving Results,” Search and strategies. A major factor in field development ber and length of stages conserves water, sand
Discovery Article 40883, adapted from an oral economics is the cost of drilling and completing and other resources, thereby reducing expenses
presentation at AAPG International Conference and
Exhibition, Milan, Italy, October 23–26, 2011. each horizontal well. It is therefore common in and the overall impact of well stimulation.
some unconventional plays for operators to limit
use of logging suites.2

44 Oilfield Review
Summer 2012 45
 Telemetry, Memory,
Induction Tool Neutron Tool Density Tool Sonic Tool
Gamma Ray Tool
Measurements Gamma ray, Induction resistivity, Neutron porosity Bulk density, Shear and
borehole temperature, spontaneous potential, photoelectric factor, compressional
tool acceleration mud resistivity hole size velocity
Diameter 2 1/8 in. 2 1/8 in. 2 1/8 in. 2 1/8 in. 2 1/8 in.
Length 74 in. [188 cm] 185 in. [470 cm] 74 in. [188 cm] 128 in. [325 cm] 144 in. [366 cm]
Temperature 300°F [150°C] 300°F [150°C] 300°F [150°C] 300°F [150°C] 300°F [150°C]
Pressure 15,000 psi [103 MPa] 15,000 psi [103 MPa] 15,000 psi [103 MPa] 15,000 psi [103 MPa] 15,000 psi [103 MPa]
Logging Speed 1,800 ft/h [550 m/h] 3,600 ft/h [1,100 m/h] 1,800 ft/h [550 m/h] 1,800 ft/h [550 m/h] 3,600 ft/h [1,100 m/h]
Vertical Resolution 12 in. to 24 in. 1 in., 2 in. and 4 in. 12 in. to 15 in. 9 in. to 12 in. 6 in. to 24 in.
[30 cm to 61 cm] [3 cm, 5 cm and 10 cm] [30 cm to 38 cm] [23 cm to 30 cm] [15 cm to 61 cm]
Depth of Investigation 12 in. [30 cm] 10 in., 20 in., 30 in., 60 in. and 90 in. 10 in. [25 cm] 12 in. [30 cm] 3 in. [7 cm]
[25 cm, 51 cm, 76 cm, 152 cm and 228 cm]
Hole Size 4 in. to 14 in. 4 in. to 14 in. 4 in. to 16 in. 4 in. to 16 in. 4 in. to 14 in.

> SureLog tool specifications. Any of these tools may be combined to permit operators to run a triple- or quad-combo logging string. All tool diameters are
small enough to run in 4-in. holes.

A unique, cost-effective logging system has to obtain a full suite of measurements during a The density tool measures formation bulk den-
been developed to help operators obtain valuable single logging run. sity (ρb), photoelectric factor (Pe) and borehole
formation data in high-angle wellbores. The sys- The SureLog telemetry, memory and gamma size. The raw measurement processing includes a
tem, developed by ThruBit LLC, uses mud pump ray device is run as the topmost logging tool to correction algorithm that preserves overall den-
pressure to deliver small-diameter logging tools provide communications and memory functional- sity accuracy across a wide range of borehole
down the center of the drillstring and out through ity for the entire logging string. The gamma ray sizes, mud types and mud weights. The tool’s scin-
a specialized bit to log the open borehole beyond. detector measures naturally occurring gamma tillation detectors are housed in an articulated
Traveling through this drillpipe conduit to TD, rays in the formation to provide a qualitative pad for better contact with the formation to
the tools are pumped through the bit opening evaluation of clay content. A multiaxis acceler- improve overall measurement quality in deviated
where they can survey the formation as the drill- ometer in the tool monitors downhole tool orien- and rugose holes (next page, top left). The density
pipe is tripped out of the hole. Schlumberger tation, motion and vibration. The tool also tool uses a single-arm caliper to measure hole size
acquired ThruBit LLC in 2011. measures borehole inclination and temperature. and to press the tool against the formation.
This article provides an overview of the equip- The array induction tool has five median The SureLog waveform sonic tool has a mono-
ment and deployment system that make the depths of investigation and three vertical resolu- pole transmitter and a six-receiver array.
ThruBit logging technique possible. Datasets tions. In some configurations, a combinable spon- Waveforms recorded at each of the six receivers
obtained with this system help demonstrate its taneous potential (SP) tool is run immediately are subsequently processed using a slowness-
quality and usefulness. below the induction tool. The SP measurement time coherence technique to obtain compres-
gives a qualitative indication of formation shali- sional (Vp) and shear (Vs) velocities. Monopole
Logging Essentials ness and permeability and can be used to deter- shear velocity can be determined from the sonic
The concept of logging through the bit centers on mine equivalent formation water resistivity. A measurement in formations whose compres-
two requirements: logging tools that are small mud resistivity sensor is built in for array induc- sional and shear velocities are faster than the
enough to pass through the drillstring and a bit tion corrections and analysis of borehole fluids. acoustic velocity in mud (Vmud).
designed to permit their passage into the open The SureLog neutron tool operates in both The Portal PDC bit is designed to allow log-
borehole. The ThruBit logging system uses spe- openhole and cased hole environments. It uses a ging tools to pass through the end of the drill-
cially designed logging tools that combine small californium [Cf] source to obtain thermal neu- string without requiring removal of the bit. This
diameters with high-pressure, high-temperature tron porosity measurements. In addition to bore- bit is hollow at the center, with a 21/2-in.
capabilities. At 2 1/8-in. diameter, all tools in the hole temperature and pressure corrections, the [63.5-mm] opening at its crown—the center of
SureLog suite are small enough to pass through neutron porosity measurement may be corrected the bit face (next page, top right). The bit design
the center of most drillpipe, jars, collars and bits for environmental factors such as hole size, mud is adaptable to almost any PDC bit model rang-
(above). Each tool can withstand temperatures to type, mud weight, mudcake thickness, salinity ing in size from 57/8 in. to 121/4 in. in diameter. The
300°F [150°C] and pressures up to 15,000 psi and tool standoff. bits are manufactured in a variety of blade and
[103 MPa]. These tools can be run in combination cutter configurations to accommodate drilling
and lithology requirements.

46 Oilfield Review
 > Portal bit. This specialized bit is engineered to meet drilling requirements for a variety of rock types.
The main feature of this PDC bit (side view, left) is a central hole (top view, right) to permit passage of
the slim-diameter logging string. (Figure courtesy of Smith Bits, a Schlumberger company.)

Caliper

the movement of a no-go collar located near the leaving only enough open hole for the logging
Density top of the logging toolstring. The sub prevents the sensors to extend beyond the bit.
pad
no-go collar from traveling farther downhole With the Portal bit at target depth, the logging
while permitting the logging sensors to protrude crew inserts the SureLog toolstring into the drill-
into open hole, just beyond the bit face. pipe, installs pressure control equipment and low-
ThruBit surface pressure equipment is ers the SureLog suite of tools on wireline. The
designed to control the well in the event of an wireline connection allows the ThruBit logging
unexpected surge in pressure. This equipment engineer to create a downlog and monitor tool-
allows the driller to rotate and reciprocate the string functionality from the moment the logging
drillstring and to circulate while deploying log- tools leave the surface until they are switched to
ging tools.3 A float valve may also be installed memory mode. The drillpipe protects the logging
in the bottomhole assembly (BHA) to provide tools and wireline as they are lowered downhole.
> SureLog density tool. Scintillation detectors, an added measure of well control. This flapper- At the point where wellbore inclination pre-
housed in a pad that articulates from the main style float valve allows logging tools and ancil- vents gravitational descent, the rig’s mud pumps
tool, measure both formation bulk density and lary equipment to pass through the valve in are engaged to pump the tools to the end of the
photoelectric factor. The tool uses a single-arm both directions.4 drillstring. The drillpipe provides a smooth bore
caliper to increase overall pad contact with the
formation while it measures borehole size. to ensure that the small-diameter tools deploy
Downhole Deployment to the bit face. Pump pressure and mud flow
The ThruBit deployment system uses the Portal force the logging sensors out through the opening
bit to ream and condition the wellbore in prepa- in the Portal bit. The tools stop once the no-go
A hangoff sub, positioned above the Portal bit, ration for logging. Once the BHA has reached log-
3. In some wells, the ability to circulate during logging may
enables the logging sensors to extend immedi- ging depth, the drilling crew trips the BHA out of prove helpful in reducing borehole temperature when the
ately beneath the bit when logging in memory the hole to install a Portal bit and hangoff sub. As bottomhole temperature approaches the tool’s
temperature rating.
mode. In this mode, the wireline is detached the Portal bit and hangoff sub are tripped back 4. Reischman RL and Porter RC: “An Innovative New
from the toolstring and retrieved to the surface. into the hole, the driller uses the Portal bit to System for Obtaining Open Hole Logs in Difficult Wells,”
paper AADE-11-NTCE-67, presented at the AADE
Batteries power the tools, and the log data are ream past ledges and tight spots encountered on National Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston,
stored in onboard memory. The hangoff sub pre- the way to TD. Once the wellbore is conditioned April 12–14, 2011.
cisely positions the logging tools as they extend for logging, the driller positions the bit just above
through the opening in the bit. This sub restricts the base of the lowest interval to be logged,

Summer 2012 47
 1

> ThruBit logging sequence. A Portal bit is used to ream to TD to prepare the hole for logging (1). The driller pulls the bit off bottom, leaving enough room
to accommodate the SureLog suite of logging tools. The logging toolstring is pumped through the drillpipe (2). With tools positioned beneath the bit, the
ThruBit logging engineer verifies tool function, then disconnects the wireline and draws the cable back to the surface (3). As the drilling crew trips pipe
out of the hole, the logging tools survey and record formation data (4). Logging is complete when the tools are pulled up into the casing (5). With the bit and
tools inside the casing, the logging crew lowers the retrieval tool on wireline, latches the tools and retrieves them to the surface (6). Once the logging tools
are recovered from the drillstring, the driller is free to ream to the bottom or resume other operations in preparation for the next phase of drilling (7).

device near the top of the toolstring reaches the dropoff and retrieval assembly are reeled back to drillpipe is tripped out of the well. After the zone
hangoff sub. the surface and removed from the drillstring. of interest has been logged, the logging crew can
The logging engineer performs a final check This leaves a fishing neck exposed at the upper lower a retrieval tool on wireline to retract the
of toolstring functionality before opening the end of the logging tools to permit ready retrieval logging tools back through the Portal bit and
caliper on the density tool. Accelerometers inside of the tools and the density and neutron sources drillpipe. With the toolstring retrieved to the
the tool verify that the density skid is oriented through the drillpipe at any time—eliminating surface, the driller is free to resume normal oper-
against the low side of the hole. The logging engi- the need to trip pipe. ations in preparation for the next phase of well
neer then signals the toolstring to release the Operating in memory mode, the logging tools activity (above). Alternatively, the tools can
wireline. The wireline and the upper part of a survey the formation and record the data as the simply be tripped to the surface with the pipe.

48 Oilfield Review
However, early retrieval permits the data to be if well conditions deteriorate, and the drillpipe conveyance techniques. As the number of plays
downloaded, verified and transmitted while becomes stuck, the logging tools and the density proliferated across the US, they provided a
the pipe is still being pulled out of the hole— and neutron sources can be retrieved prior to proving ground for ThruBit logging technology.
providing more time for the operator to plan com- activating jars or implementing other stuck pipe The use of this technology has since expanded
pletion operations. procedures. With the logging string laid out on to other unconventional plays where high-
This deployment system can positively the catwalk, the driller may jar the drillstring angle wells make logs difficult to obtain.
impact a logging operation. The rig time spent without fear of damaging the tools. In North Dakota, USA, Oasis Petroleum, Inc.
on acquiring logs is reduced because deploy- The flexibility of this system is opening the way utilized the ThruBit logging system to evaluate a
ment and acquisition can take place during the for its use in other challenging logging situations. Bakken Shale well drilled to 20,766 ft [6,330 m]
conditioning trip. Because they are not deployed MD with a 10,000-ft [3,050-m] lateral section.
until the bit is in position near TD, the tools Field Applications The well had a 29.5°/100-ft [29.5°/30-m] radius of
receive less exposure to shocks, vibrations and The geometry of extended-reach wells makes curvature and was deviated up to 91° from the
high temperatures. Risk is minimized because them inherently difficult to log. Unconventional vertical (below). Oasis used a Portal bit during
the tools are retrievable and the system provides plays, commonly exploited through horizontal the reaming run to prepare the hole for log-
the driller with full well control capability. Thus, wells, have created a demand for specialized ging prior to running production liner. The

Intermediate casing

Drillpipe Hangoff sub Portal bit Telemetry, memory, Density Total length: 63.7 ft [19.4 m]
gamma ray tool tool
Caliper

Drillstring

Wired dropoff No-go collar Batteries Neutron Induction array

and retrieval tool tool tool

Drilled radius,
29.5°/100 ft

BHA SureLog logging string

> Logging an extended-reach well. Oasis Petroleum used the ThruBit system to log a well drilled in the Bakken formation. The 20,766-ft well, with a
10,000-ft lateral section, was deviated up to 91°. The hangoff assembly, battery and retrieval tool (inset) enable logs to be recorded in memory mode as
pipe was tripped from the well. The tools can be retrieved at any time after the wireline is released. (Adapted from Reischman and Porter, reference 4.)

Summer 2012 49
ThruBit system enabled the driller to maintain South Texas, USA, has seen a resurgence in Central to their study was the capability to
circulation as logging tools were deployed around drilling as oil and gas companies pursue new acquire and analyze log data from the horizontal
the curve and through the extended lateral sec- unconventional plays. In Gonzales County, Forest wellbores; thus, they carefully weighed the con-
tion. The SureLog suite of logging tools safely Oil Corporation has drilled several wells to veyance options. Forest had concerns with slick-
passed through the drillpipe and out the bit to develop the Cretaceous Eagle Ford play. To line retrievability of MWD components, needed
acquire formation evaluation data as the pipe was exploit a rather narrow oil window, the company for geosteering, in the event that LWD tools were
tripped out of the well. In a single logging run, drills high-angle wells that target a 20 ft [6 m] used to evaluate the formation; other pipe-
Oasis geoscientists obtained the petrophysical thick sweet spot within an 80- to 110-ft [24- to conveyed methods for logging consumed extra rig
data they needed to evaluate the Bakken section. 34-m] reservoir section. These wells are typically time. Needing to evaluate the producing zones,
In Barber County, Kansas, USA, Osage drilled to around 12,000 ft [3,660 m] MD, and are Forest used ThruBit logging to obtain a suite of
Resources, LLC sought to optimize perforation deviated between 87° and 92° with lateral sec- logs in horizontal wells slated for an upcoming
placement and length of fracture stages in a tions of about 5,500 ft [1,675 m] through the drilling campaign.
horizontal well drilled in the Mississippi Lime Eagle Ford. As these wells were drilled, the driller made a
play. This play, initially discovered and exploited Working from 3D seismic data obtained over series of short trips to clean out cuttings beds
through vertical drilling, is being revitalized the lease area, Forest geoscientists have identified from the horizontal section. Once the hole was
through horizontal wells and multistage frac- a number of locations within the Eagle Ford conditioned, the driller tripped the directional
ture stimulation treatments. The Mississippi to develop further. These locations were drilled BHA out of the well and ran back in the hole with
Lime is highly variable, consisting of limestone, with input from an MWD gamma ray tool for a Portal bit and hangoff sub, reaming past any
dolomite and siliceous deposits of tripolite, geosteering. Once drilled, early wells were stimu- tight spots on the way to TD. The SureLog quad-
chert and spiculite. To properly evaluate the lated using a geometric approach: divide the combo logging suite was then pumped through
well, Osage needed more than an MWD gamma lateral section into 300-ft [90-m] stages, then per- the drillpipe to TD on wireline. The logging tools
ray log. forate and fracture, pumping 240,000 lbm [109,000 were pumped out through the Portal bit. Once
The ThruBit logging crew made up a SureLog kg] of sand into each stage. To execute this strat- the logging engineer verified toolstring operabil-
quad-combo toolstring, consisting of gamma ray, egy, Forest engineers used the “plug and perf” ity, the tools were released from the wireline,
caliper, resistivity, neutron, density and sonic method, in which a bridge plug is set between frac- which was reeled back to the surface. The logging
tools. This toolstring was pumped down through ture stages to isolate perforation clusters. tools recorded formation data in memory mode
4-in. drillpipe, and the logs were recorded in After completing several of these wells, as the drillpipe was pulled out of the hole. After it
memory mode as drillpipe was tripped out of the Forest petrophysicists and engineers had reached the casing shoe, the toolstring was
hole. Once the logging tools reached casing, they acquired enough data to evaluate production in retrieved on wireline and the data were down-
were retrieved to the surface by wireline. With the Eagle Ford. The engineers noted that, loaded. If needed, the driller could then make
the 6 1/8-in. Portal bit still downhole, the driller although several wells had been drilled and com- another conditioning trip back to TD before lay-
was able to ream back to TD for a final cleanup pleted in a similar manner, production varied ing down pipe for a casing run. By combining the
trip in preparation for a subsequent casing run. widely once the wells were brought on stream. logging run with a conditioning trip, the operator
The log data revealed significant lithological Some wells were producing significant volumes of saved more than 24 hours of rig time when com-
changes along the length of the lateral wellbore high-salinity water, not common to either the pared with the time needed for conventional
(next page). This information prompted Osage Eagle Ford or the adjacent Austin Chalk forma- pipe-conveyed methods.
engineers to reassess their initial stimulation tion above. This water was attributed to the Buda Forest Oil petrophysicists used sonic and den-
strategy and shift focus toward treating the toe or the Edwards Limestone and indicated that the sity data to derive rock properties such as Young’s
of the wellbore, where better reservoir condi- hydraulic fractures had penetrated below the modulus and Poisson’s ratio. Shear-wave anisot-
tions were found. Sonic data were used to com- Eagle Ford, providing a water migration pathway ropy from the SureLog sonic tool enabled Forest
pute a brittleness curve. This curve provided a to underlying formations. geophysicists to compare attributes of natural
basis for dividing the stimulation into separate Forest Oil engineers and geoscientists fractures in the wellbore with those seen in 3D
intervals according to rock type, which helped mounted a study to determine why some wells seismic data. This information was instrumental
the operator optimize stage lengths, pad sizes stood out—either as good or bad producers— in mapping new exploration targets and provid-
and perforation clusters. Sonic waveform data and to fine-tune their drilling and completion ing a better understanding of the seismic attri-
indicated where the formation was naturally strategies in this formation. Their investigations butes needed to evaluate their extensive acreage
fractured along the wellbore, which helped sought to achieve the following outcomes: position for future drillsite selection.
Osage engineers design a hydraulic fracturing sOPTIMIZETHELANDINGSECTIONINFUTUREHORIZON- Forest was able to capitalize on a more
program that minimized the risk of early screen- tal wells selective approach to fracturing. The mechani-
out during stimulation. They added another frac- sIMPROVEFRACTURECLUSTEREFlCIENCIESANDFRAC- cal properties data processed from the SureLog
turing stage to the plan and successfully ture initiation suite proved crucial for grouping hydraulic
completed the revised stimulation program. The sPREVENT WATER PRODUCTION FROM UNDERLYING fracturing stages by highlighting rock of similar
well is producing significantly better than other formations
Mississippi Lime wells in the area. sREDUCESTIMULATIONANDCOMPLETIONCOSTS

50 Oilfield Review
 Correlation Depth Resistivity Porosity Sonic Data Brittleness
90-in. Induction Density Correction
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 – 0.75 g/cm3 0.25
60-in. Induction Neutron Porosity
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 30 % –10 Sonic Waveform Amplitude
30-in. Induction Density Porosity
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 30 % –10 low high
Gamma Ray 20-in. Induction Photoelectric Factor Shear Wave Semblance Brittleness
0 gAPI 200 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 0 20 1 –1 0 % 100
Caliper Depth, 10-in. Induction Crossover Possible Fractures More Brittle
6 in. 16 ft 0.2 ohm.m 2,000

X,050

X,100

X,150

> Evaluating a lateral wellbore in the Mississippi Lime Formation. After running a SureLog quad-combo logging string in a horizontal well, Osage Resources
engineers determined that formation properties varied considerably throughout the length of this horizontal interval. Porosity (Track 3) varies from 4% to 16%.
The sonic waveform and shear semblance curves indicate natural fractures (Track 4, yellow) through some intervals. A brittleness calculation (Track 5),
which is used to produce a quicklook curve related to the stress profile, also shows contrasts in brittleness. Based on these curves, along with elevated
resistivities (Track 2), Osage Resources was able to select optimal zones for hydraulic stimulation (Track 4, yellow).

Summer 2012 51
 Cuttings Lithology Depth Resistivity, S2, TOC Density, Neutron, Sonic Fracture Sonic Data Tracers Sonic Waveform Mechanical Properties
90-in. Induction
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
30-in. Induction
TVD
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
V,200 ft U,200
10-in. Induction
Total Clays
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
Semblance
TVD Bulk Density
Quartz
V,200 ft U,200 1.95 g/cm3 2.95 low high
Sonic Waveform Amplitude
Carbonate S2 Neutron Porosity TVD
0 mg/g 25 45 % –15 low high V,200 ft U,200
Pyrite Total Organic Carbon Compressional Slowness TVD Iridium Tracer Compressional Slowness
0 % 10 140 μs/ft 40 V,200 ft U,200 0 gAPI 2,000 40 μs/ft 240
Total Organic Carbon Total Organic Carbon Shear Slowness Shear Wave Semblance Scandium Tracer Fast Shear Slowness TVD
Measured 0 % 10 440 μs/ft 40 1 0.5 0 gAPI 2,000 40 μs/ft 240 V,200 ft U,200
Porosity Depth, Cuttings: S2 TVD Mud Log Total Gas Strontium Tracer Slow Shear Slowness Brittleness
Stages
ft 0 mg/g 25 V,200 ft U,200 0 500 0 gAPI 2,000 40 μs/ft 240 0 % 100

U,000

V,000

Stage 19

Stage 18

Stage 17
W,000
Stage 16

Stage 15

Stage 14

Stage 13
X,000 Stage 12

Stage 11

Stage 10

Stage 9

Y,000 Stage 8

Stage 7

Stage 6

Stage 5

Z,000 Stage 4

Stage 3

Stage 2

Stage 1

> Forest Oil log montage. This Eagle Ford formation evaluation interpretation combines ThruBit data with cuttings analysis and computed rock properties to
determine the optimal placement of fracture stages in a South Texas well. Although gas spikes (Track 5, green) are seen throughout this interval, the sweet
spot in this horizontal well extends from about W,700 to Z,400 ft measured depth. Onsite geochemical analysis of wellbore cuttings obtained through this
interval shows a marked increase in total organic carbon, or TOC, (Track 2, black dots) and S2—hydrocarbons generated by thermal breakdown of kerogens
(Track 2, purple curve), key indicators of source rock quality. Sonic data (Track 7) show a clear change in the elastic properties of the formation in this zone.
While the P-wave maintains a constant slowness (solid black) throughout the interval, the S-wave splits into two distinct arrivals. The spread between the
fast (dashed black curve) and slow (black dotted) S-wave slownesses is an indicator of anisotropy, possibly attributed to fractures. Using all of the data
together, Forest Oil elected to divide the stimulation program into 19 stages. After the stimulation treatment, tracer logs (Track 6) helped verify that
modifications to the stimulation program created more complex fractures throughout each stage, opening more rock face to production. This optimized
completion strategy resulted in increases in production relative to surrounding wells that had used simple geometric fracture treatments.

52 Oilfield Review
 Density Correction
– 0.75 g/cm3 0.25
Compressional Shear
Neutron Porosity
Semblance Semblance
30 % –10
Gamma Ray 90-in. Induction Resistivity Density Porosity low high low high Poisson’s Ratio Brittleness Fracture Gradient
0 gAPI 150 0.2 ohm.m 200 30 % –10 Compressional 0 1 0 % 100 0 psi/ft 1
Shear Slowness
Caliper Depth, 60-in. Induction Resistivity Photoelectric Factor Slowness Static Young’s Modulus More Brittle Fracture Gradient
6
5 in. 15 ft 0.2 ohm.m 200 0 20 0 μs/ft 240 0 μs/ft 240 0 psi × 10 10

X,250

> Geo-Frac evaluation of a horizontal well in the Bakken formation. SureLog compressional and shear sonic data (Tracks 4 and 5) are used to compute
Poisson’s ratio (Track 6, red). Young’s modulus (Track 6, green), is derived from sonic and bulk density data. The brittleness curve (Track 7), which is estimated
from Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, indicates how easily the rock will fracture under hydraulic pressure. The fracture gradient (Track 8) may be used as
an indicator of stress, showing contrasts along the length of the lateral with lower stresses (red and white) and higher stresses (blue). Used in conjunction
with the other data presented, the brittleness and fracture gradient curves help operators determine intervals best suited for initiating fractures (Track 7, red).

properties (previous page). This information zone can base their completion programs on res- plays, many operators drill horizontal wells; but
was used in 3D fracture design programs to opti- ervoir quality and geomechanical properties. drilling is only part of the story—well stimulation is
mize and confine the fractures to the Eagle Ford With this information, operators can selectively another key to unlocking resources from formations
and overlying productive Austin Chalk forma- target the best zones to stimulate, while elimi- previously deemed unproducible. Hydraulic frac-
tions. Based on these log data, the company now nating unproductive zones from their completion turing is typically required to stimulate these tight
plans 220-ft [67-m] fracture stages and has program. Compressional and shear velocity mea- formations, and a number of advanced programs
saved on stimulation costs by reducing the vol- surements from the SureLog multireceiver mono- have been developed to help operators optimize the
ume of sand pumped into each stage by one- pole sonic tool provide input for the ThruBit fracturing process for each well. All of these pro-
third. Wells stimulated in this manner are Geo-Frac analysis program to compute rock prop- grams rely on petrophysical data.
producing significantly better than those frac- erties, Poisson’s ratio, static Young’s modulus and Well logs are vital for identifying intervals likely
tured using the previous geometric approach, minimum horizontal stress gradient. The stress to benefit most from stimulation. Operators who
and none have produced the high-salinity water data and indicators of reservoir quality, such as use this data-driven approach to selecting fracture
associated with deeper formations. Overall, clay content and porosity, are useful in selecting intervals are able to reduce the amount of sand,
Forest Oil has reduced completion cost per optimal completion zones for hydraulic stimula- water and horsepower expended. Without log data,
stage by about 60% while increasing the number tion. Using the Geo-Frac analysis, the operator they might be left with no choice but to stimulate
of stages per lateral section. Also, oil production can identify zones along the lateral that are most the entire length of horizontal section—with little
averaged over a 30-day period has doubled in likely to be productive (above). regard to reservoir and completion quality.
comparison with the output of earlier wells. Data from the Geo-Frac program may also be The ThruBit conveyance system helps E&P
imported into Mangrove stimulation modeling companies obtain valuable formation data along
Evaluation Tools software, which was developed by Schlumberger the entire length of the wellbore. It provides a
To increase wellbore exposure to unconventional to address unconventional hydraulic fracture cost-effective and operationally efficient alterna-
reservoirs, operators usually need to drill horizon- design. The Mangrove system generates a score tive to standard wireline conveyance or LWD log-
tal wells. These formations generally exhibit high based on reservoir quality and completion quality ging while saving trip time. With a Portal bit
natural gamma ray activity, so gamma ray logs are to rank the intervals of similar rock properties conditioning the hole before the slim-diameter
useful for distinguishing lithologies. Although along a wellbore. Those intervals that score high logging tools are run, the ThruBit system can
effective as correlation tools, gamma ray measure- in reservoir quality and completion quality are acquire petrophysical data in the challenging,
ments are not sufficient for distinguishing produc- prime candidates for hydraulic fracture stimula- high-deviation and extended-reach wellbores that
tive from nonproductive zones, much less for tion. This evaluation facilitates selection of loca- are common to unconventional plays. Using the
designing stimulation programs.5 tions for optimal completion stages and drillstring as a protective conduit for the logging
Rather than relying on a geometric approach perforation clusters. tools and wireline, this system reduces tool expo-
to developing these wells, operators who run a sure to the openhole environment. ThruBit logging
comprehensive suite of logs across the target Portal of Opportunity increases the likelihood of acquiring quality reser-
High-angle and extended-reach wells have been voir log data on the first attempt, particularly
5. Kok J, Moon B, Han SY, Tollefsen E, Baihly J and
Malpani R: “The Significance of Accurate Well Placement central to the development of new plays in tight res- when hole conditions threaten the success of con-
in the Shale Gas Plays,” paper SPE 138438, presented at ervoirs and organic-rich source rocks. To increase ventional conveyance methods. If the bit can
the SPE Tight Gas Completions Conference, San Antonio,
Texas, USA, November 2–3, 2010. wellbore exposure to productive zones in these reach the target, so can the logging tools. —MV

Summer 2012 53
 Contributors

Victor Aarre, based in Stavanger, is the Geophysics naturally fractured reservoirs, maximizing the use of Benjamin W. Crouch is the Cofounder, Executive
Advisor for the Schlumberger Information Solutions 3D seismic data. Donatella earned an MSc degree in Vice President and Chief Operating Officer of Osage
Norway Technology Center, where he works closely geology from the University of Bologna, Italy. She is a Resources, LLC. He has 18 years of industry experi-
with the Petrel* engineering, commercialization and member of the European Association of Geoscientists ence and started his career as a research geologist at
portfolio teams. Since joining Schlumberger in 1995, & Engineers (EAGE), the AAPG, SPE, SEG and SPWLA Kansas State University, Manhattan, USA, then worked
he has worked in various research and engineering and is the 2012–2013 chair of the EAGE Oil and Gas briefly as a geologist for the state of Kansas before he
positions. His research focuses on improved reservoir Geoscience Division committee. moved to Petroglyph Energy, Inc. in Boise, Idaho, USA.
characterization and interpretation technologies for Zdenko Augustinovic works for DONG E&P in There he worked as manager of geology and opera-
faults and fractures. Victor holds an MSc degree in Hoersholm, Denmark. He is a Senior Chemical tions, overseeing projects in Colorado, Texas and Utah,
computer science from the University of Bergen, Norway. Engineer, specializing in corrosion and integrity man- USA. He gained experience in both conventional and
James Aivalis, now retired, was most recently General agement. Zdenko attained a BSc degree in chemistry unconventional exploration and development plays
Manager of ThruBit Logging Solutions in Houston and from the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen. before forming Osage Resources. Ben has presented
has more than 30 years of experience in the oilfield papers on carbonate and siliciclastic reservoirs, is a
Øystein Birketveit is a Product Line Manager and member of AAPG and SPE and is a Registered
services industry. Prior to the Schlumberger acquisi- Discipline Leader in Production Technologies for
tion of ThruBit LLC, a Schlumberger company, he was Professional Geologist in Kansas. He obtained a bache-
M-I SWACO, a Schlumberger company, in Bergen, lor’s degree from the University of West Georgia,
CEO, president and a member of the board of directors Norway. For the past 14 years, he has specialized in
for ThruBit LLC. Before joining ThruBit, he was a man- Carrollton, USA, and a master’s degree from Kansas
the field of corrosion. Prior to joining M-I SWACO, State University, both in geology.
aging director at TenarisConnection, with responsibil- Øystein worked for Statoil and for Det Norske Veritas.
ity for the company’s Premium Connections product He received his MSc degree in materials and electro- Geoff Downton, based in Stonehouse, England, is
line and related services for oil country tubular goods. chemistry from the Norwegian University of Science Senior Drilling Advisor to the Schlumberger Drilling
He began his career with Schlumberger in 1981 as a and Technology, Trondheim. Group president and a Schlumberger Fellow. He began
wireline field engineer and later held line manage- his career in England in 1976 as a systems engineer
ment and staff positions within various Schlumberger Jacques Bourque is the Schlumberger Vice President with Sperry Gyroscopes, now known as British
business segments both in the US and internationally. of Technology in Gatwick, England. He has 32 years of Aerospace. While at British Aerospace, he advanced
Jim, who holds multiple patents, received a BSc industry experience, mainly in drilling engineering from senior principal engineer to chief projects officer,
degree in ocean engineering from Florida Institute of and operations in Europe and Africa, North and South working on strapdown inertial navigation systems,
Technology, Melbourne, USA. America and the Far East. His experience ranges from optical tracking systems, vertical references and gyro
high-volume drilling operations to deep HPHT wells. sensor development. In 1989, he joined the nuclear
Taha Nasser Ali Al Dayyni is a Senior Reservoir His current focus is the automation of the drilling pro-
Geologist for the Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil industry as a research officer, and nine years later he
cess. Jacques has a BS degree in civil engineering from joined Camco (later acquired by Schlumberger) as
Operations (ADCO) in Abu Dhabi, UAE. Currently, he the Université de Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada.
is responsible for developing a giant oil field for ADCO. engineering manager for the PowerDrive* rotary steer-
Taha is a member of SPE and the Emirates Society Clinton Chapman is the Drilling Automation able system; he has remained active in guiding direc-
of Geoscience. Program Architect for Schlumberger in Sugar Land, tional drilling technology. Geoff holds a BSc degree
Texas, USA. There he has spent the past 15 years in (Hons) in mechanical engineering from the University
Walt Aldred is Research Director and Scientific various roles related to the creation of software to of Birmingham, an MSc degree in control systems engi-
Advisor for Drilling at the Schlumberger Cambridge support drilling engineering and real-time drilling neering from City University, London, and a PhD
Research Center in England. Previously he worked in data. He serves as Deputy Chair of the SPE Drilling degree in cybernetics from Brunel University,
the North Sea and West Africa as a mud logger, moni- Systems Automation Technical Section and holds a Uxbridge, all in England.
toring real-time drilling operations and evaluating PhD degree in aerospace engineering from Texas
pore pressure and geology. Since the early 1980s when Bertrand du Castel is a Schlumberger Fellow whose
A&M University, College Station. focus is on using neuroscience for human-centered
he began working for Schlumberger, he has worked on
the development of real-time drilling monitoring and Andrew Clark is a Principal Development Geologist drilling automation. He is coauthor of Computer
evaluation of new drilling systems, including the early with Shell International, seconded since 2011 to Theology: Intelligent Design of the Worldwide Web
development of geosteering. He worked in engineering Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) in Muscat, (Midori Press, 2008) and has publications in artificial
development and in marketing in Houston and has had Sultanate of Oman. His 30-year career in the oil intelligence, linguistics, logic and computer engineer-
a number of field assignments, including setting up industry also includes positions with Premier Oil plc, ing as well as drilling, earth modeling and geothermal
and running the Port Harcourt Drilling Engineering Woodside Energy and ADCO. He received an MSc technology. Bertrand, who is based in Sugar Land,
Center in Nigeria. He is a founding member of the SPE degree in geology from The University of Auckland, Texas, received a PhD degree in computer science
Drilling Systems Automation Technical Section. Walt New Zealand. from the University of Paris and an engineer diploma
holds a joint BSc degree (Hons) in chemistry and geol- Kayli Clements is the Manager of Environmental from École Polytechnique, France.
ogy from Durham University, England. Treatment Services in the M-I SWACO Environmental Ian Falconer joined Schlumberger as a field engi-
Donatella Astratti is a Research Geologist Advisor for Affairs Department in Houston. She provides global neer in 1981. Currently based in Houston, he is the
Schlumberger Stavanger Research with more than 25 support for onshore waste management issues through Marketing and Technology Manager for the
years of experience in integrated studies as an inter- greenhouse research, technical knowledge and cus- Schlumberger Drilling Group. He has worked pre-
pretation geophysicist and modeler. She joined ENI tomer involvement. Her areas of concentration are in dominantly in the directional drilling and LWD busi-
S.p.A. in Italy in 1985 and worked as part of field devel- beneficial reuse of drill cuttings, water recycling and ness line in various operations, marketing and
opment asset teams in Italy and Nigeria. In 1997, she development of ecotoxicity tests to qualify fluids and engineering roles. Previously, Ian was the marketing
joined the Western Geophysical 4D & Reservoir additives for onshore drilling. She has been an advisor manager for Integrated Project Management ser-
Characterization R&D group and worked on North Sea on oilfield bioremediation projects in several countries vices, vice president of marketing for Schlumberger
and Middle East projects. For the last 15 years with and has extensive regulatory knowledge and design Oilfield Services in the Middle East and Asia and vice
Schlumberger, her primary focus has been the applica- experience on land disposal and treatment of drilling president of industry affairs and global account
tion of research and novel technologies to the charac- residuals. Kayli, who has worked for M-I SWACO since director responsible for managing the Shell global
terization and modeling of Middle East carbonates and 2006, earned a BS degree in biological engineering account. Ian has a BSc degree (Hons) in geology from
from Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA. Cardiff University, Wales.

54 Oilfield Review
Fred Florence, based in Cedar Park, Texas, joined management system. Richard has 11 years of experi- Sabry Lotfy Mahmoud, a Senior Geophysicist for ADCO
National Oilwell Varco in 1996 and currently is a mem- ence with Schlumberger and started as an MWD and in Abu Dhabi, UAE, is responsible for developing a
ber of the Corporate Engineering team as Product LWD engineer in Alaska, USA. He received an MS giant oil field in the UAE. He has multidisciplinary oil
Champion for Automation and Drilling Optimization. degree in mechanical engineering from Loughborough industry experience in seismic data processing, geosci-
Prior to joining National Oilwell Varco, he worked for University, Leicestershire, England. ence data management, IT and application support,
Sedco-Forex, now Transocean, where he held various Thomas Ishoey is Chief Technology Officer of Glori seismic interpretation and reservoir characterization.
positions in engineering and operations. Fred Energy, Inc. Previously, he was vice president for sub- He worked for the E&P division of the Gulf of Suez
obtained a BS degree in electrical engineering from surface hydrocarbons at Synthetic Genomics, Inc. in Petroleum Company in Cairo for the first 10 years of
Southern Methodist University, University Park, Texas, La Jolla, California, USA. Thomas, who specializes in his career. Sabry has a BSc degree from Cairo
as well as an MA degree in international management applied microbiology and biotechnology research and University and MSc and PhD degrees from Al-Azhar
and an MBA degree in marketing from The University development, has pioneered the use of micromanipula- University, Cairo, all in geophysics. He is a member of
of Texas at Dallas. tion of microbial-size cells for whole genome amplifi- SPE and the Emirates Society of Geoscience.
Mike Freeman is a Scientific Advisor for M-I SWACO cation and genomic analysis and applied the Mike Mannering, based in Gatwick, England, is the
in Houston. He works with industry clients and organi- technology for the discovery of uncultured microbes Schlumberger President of Rig Management. He has
zations and serves as a technology champion, working from environments as diverse as subsurface environ- 38 years of industry experience, mainly in drilling engi-
on projects as diverse as improving ROP when drilling ments, marine sediments, soil, bioreactors and human neering, well operations and drilling contracting in
carbonates and real-time chemical analysis of drilling biopsies. His experience also includes design, con- Europe, North and West Africa, the Middle East and
fluids. Mike began his career in 1985 with Exxon as a struction and operation of bioreactors using anaerobic the Far East. His current focus is fit-for-purpose
research chemist and joined M-I Drilling Fluids in microbes and applying these methods for quantitative advanced technology drilling rigs and automation of
1993. During his career, he has published numerous studies of anaerobic metabolism. He has served as a the drilling process. Mike obtained a BS degree in
industry papers. visiting researcher at the University of California, mechanical engineering from the University of
Elizabeth Godinez Zurita, based in Villahermosa, Los Angeles, and has an MS degree in chemical engi- Southampton, England.
Mexico, is a Well Engineer for Schlumberger; she is neering and a doctoral degree in biotechnology, both Brian W.G. Marcotte is President and CEO of Titan
currently working in Rio de Janeiro, where she offers from the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen. Oil Recovery, Inc., a service provider specializing in
operations support on a project with OGX Petróleo e Graham Jackson is a Senior Staff Engineer with microbiologically enhanced oil recovery. Prior to join-
Gás Participações SA. Her responsibilities include fol- Husky Energy Inc., in Calgary, where he has worked for ing Titan, he held technical and executive positions
lowing up and supporting real-time operations and nine years. Prior to joining Husky, Graham worked for at Unocal Corporation, where he served as president
monitoring drilling parameters. She began her career Dome Petroleum, Amoco, Crestar Energy and Newport of Unocal Netherlands, Unocal Indonesia and Unocal
with the company in 2008 as a field engineer trainee in Petroleum, all in Calgary. He is a member of the Thailand. He is a Registered Petroleum Engineer in
Mexico. Elizabeth received a BS degree in civil engi- Association of Professional Engineers and Alaska, and was recognized as a 2005 distinguished
neering from the Universidad del Valle de México, Geoscientists of Alberta, the Association of member of the SPE. Brian earned a BS degree in
Mexico City. Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of petroleum engineering from the University of
Santosh Gopi, who is a Business Development Saskatchewan and the SPE. Graham holds a diploma Southern California, Los Angeles, and pursued
Manager for M-I SWACO Production Technologies, in reservoir technology from the Southern Alberta graduate studies in engineering management at the
joined the company in 2008. Before that, he worked on Institute of Technology, Calgary, and a BS degree in University of Alaska Anchorage.
joint projects for Henkel Oilfield Chemicals and Antico petroleum engineering from the Montana College of Tony Meszaros is the Business Manager for ThruBit
Chimie, now Scomi Anticor SA, in Nigeria, where he Mineral Science and Technology, Butte, USA. LLC in Houston. He also serves as Vice President for
received training on production chemical formulation Gregory Kubala, Chemistry Métier Manager for the ThruBit LLC board of directors. Tony began his
and application and on bioremediation projects. Schlumberger Pressure Pumping and Chemistry, career with Schlumberger Wireline as a field engineer
Santosh has more than 18 years of experience in the began his career with Schlumberger in 1982. During in 1995 and has since been a sales engineer, opera-
industry and holds a postgraduate diploma in petro- the last 30 years, he has been involved in the develop- tions and integration manager, a champion for person-
leum engineering from the Azerbaijan Institute of ment of more than 65 chemical products in various nel management development and a general field
Petroleum and Chemistry, Baku. roles within R&D, engineering, manufacturing and sus- engineer. Before assuming his current position, he was
Randy Hansen has been Schlumberger Drilling taining. He has also served in environmental manage- the global perforating business development manager
Automation Program Manager in Sugar Land, Texas, ment and personnel positions. As métier manager, he at the Schlumberger Reservoir Completions
since 2010. His main responsibility is to achieve drill- works within the technical community to identify new Technology Center in Rosharon, Texas. Tony holds a
ing optimization through automation that uses down- technologies for product development, increase the BSc degree in civil engineering from the South Dakota
hole and subsurface data to control drilling competencies within the technical community and School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, USA.
parameters to achieve consistent best-in-class perfor- improve the product development process. Gregory Claudio Nieto is the Burgos field Asset Manager for
mance. He began his career with the company more earned BS and PhD degrees in chemistry from the Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX). He is based in
than 30 years ago as a general field engineer in south University of Rochester, New York, USA, and Texas Villahermosa, Mexico.
Texas and has since held positions across several con- A&M University, College Station, respectively. He has
published 18 papers and has been named inventor or Robert Porter joined ThruBit LLC in 2006 as
tinents and Schlumberger businses segments. Randy Operations Manager; he is based in Houston. He previ-
earned a BS degree in physics from The University of coinventor on 25 patents.
ously worked for Halliburton in operations in West
Kansas, Lawrence. Jan Larsen is a Senior Production Chemist at Maersk Africa and for the manufacturing and technology group
Richard Harmer is the Drilling Performance Product Oil in Copenhagen, where he has worked since 1983. in Houston. He has 14 years of experience in the oil
Champion for Schlumberger Drilling & Measurements His areas of focus are reservoir souring, chemical treat- industry and was initially involved in the design and
in Stonehouse, England. His role focuses on marketing ment concepts for combating H2S production, modeling commercialization of ThruBit logging equipment and
and leading the development of products related to of H2S production, H2S scavenging and microbiologically techniques. He has a degree (Hons) in mechanical
drilling mechanics and dynamics and ROP optimiza- influenced corrosion and the implementation of molecu- engineering from the Royal Military College of Science,
tion. In his prior position, he was an engineer on drill- lar techniques for improved microbial monitoring of Shrivenham, Oxfordshire, England.
ing, planning and execution for the worldwide souring and corrosion. Jan received a master of science
InTouchSupport.com* online support and knowledge degree in chemistry from the Technical University of
Denmark, Copenhagen.

Summer 2012 55
Taylor L. Reid, who is based in Houston, has served spectroscopy tools. Gary is a member of the SPWLA, Ole V. Vejbæk is Geophysical Advisor at Hess
as Director, Executive Vice President and Chief AAPG and SPE. Corporation in Copenhagen, Denmark. Before joining
Operating Officer of Oasis Petroleum, Inc. since the Torben Lund Skovhus has worked as a consultant in Hess, where he has worked for four years, he was a
inception of the company in March 2007. He has the oil and gas industry for the last 10 years and cur- senior researcher and research professor at the
25 years of experience in the oil and gas industry. rently works at the Danish Technological Institute Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland. Ole
Previously, he was the asset manager for Permian and (DTI) as a Team Leader for DTI Oil & Gas in Aarhus, earned a PhD degree in geoscience from Københavns
Panhandle operations with ConocoPhillips. Prior to Denmark. He chairs the Technical and Scientific Universitet in Copenhagen, Denmark.
joining ConocoPhillips, he served as general manager Committee of the International Symposium on Peter Wells, based in Houston, was the first employee
Latin America and Asia operations and general man- Applied Microbiology and Molecular Biology in Oil of ThruBit LLC. In his role as ThruBit Senior Vice
ager of corporate acquisitions and divestitures with Systems and is a member of the SPE, the National President of Engineering and Manufacturing, he put
Burlington Resources in Houston. Taylor received a Association of Corrosion Engineers and the microbi- in place the development team that created the
BSc degree in petroleum engineering from Stanford ology committee at the Energy Institute, London. SureLog* suite of logging tools and oversaw their
University in California. Torben is the author of several scientific and techni- manufacture and support. Prior to joining ThruBit, he
Rick Reischman, based in Houston, provides cal articles and is the coeditor of Applied was a director of a privately held oil and gas data ser-
Technical Sales Support and is a Petrophysical Microbiology and Molecular Biology in Oilfield vices company and has held various positions with
Advisor for ThruBit LLC. His work experience Systems (Springer, 2011). He earned a PhD degree Schlumberger, including engineering manager in the
includes 32 years with Schlumberger in various in molecular microbiology from Aarhus University. downhole tool development center, operations man-
assignments, including wireline, petrophysics, image Rob Stauder has worked for Helmerich & Payne, Inc. ager and field engineer. He received an MA degree in
analysis and sales. Rick has a BS degree in mechani- for 28 years and is currently Senior Vice President engineering science from Merton College, University
cal engineering from The University of Texas at and Chief Engineer. Based in Tulsa, he has held a vari- of Oxford, England, and a master of science degree in
Austin. His professional affiliations include the SPE, ety of field and engineering positions with the com- petroleum engineering from Heriot-Watt University,
SPWLA and AAPG. pany, including roughneck, driller, drilling engineer, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Robin Ridley is the Sales and Marketing Manager project engineer, project manager, operations man- Gillian White is a Geoscience Team Lead at Hess
for ThruBit LLC in Houston. Before this, he was a ager and manager of deepwater engineering. Rob has Corporation in Copenhagen, Denmark, where she
business development manager for the company. a BS degree in petroleum engineering from The has worked for four years. Gillian’s career spans
Previously, Robin worked at Halliburton as a senior University of Oklahoma, Norman. 20 years in the oil industry working in exploration,
account leader. He has 35 years of experience in the Michael J. Stellas, a Senior Technical Advisor at development and production geoscience in north-
industry and earned a BSc degree in behavioral sci- Spectra Energy Corporation in Houston, is responsible west Europe. Before working for Hess in Denmark,
ences from Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, for all aspects of subsurface work in preparing she worked for Shell Expro and for Hess in London.
Texas, USA. depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs for gas storage. He is Gillian holds a BSc degree in geology from Newcastle
Jan Scheie is a Senior Field Services Coordinator at a petroleum geologist with 36 years of E&P experi- University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, England. She also
the M-I SWACO Technical Operations and Services ence in locations around the world. He has additional has an MSc degree from the University of Reading,
Center in Stavanger, Norway, where he serves custom- experience in business development, integrated England, and a PhD degree from Keele University,
ers in Scandinavia. He has also been an account man- exploration software systems, data management, inte- England, both in sedimentology.
ager for production technologies, an international grated field development projects and natural gas Mario Zamora, based in Houston, is the Applied
sales manager and an area manager for production storage systems. Michael obtained a BS degree in Engineering Manager for M-I SWACO, a position he
chemicals in Stavanger. He has worked for M-I SWACO geology from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, has held since 1987. He began his career in 1967 as a
in market development for the eastern hemisphere, as USA, and an MS degree in geology from Rutgers drilling engineer with Shell, where he worked for four
technical manager in the Middle East and CIS, as University, Newark, New Jersey, USA. years. Mario attained a BS degree in mechanical engi-
sales manager in South Asia and as principal engineer Jack W. Stringer, based in Houston, is the Storage neering from The University of Texas at Austin.
for developing sales strategy in mainland Europe. Design Manager for Spectra Energy Corporation, An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
Jan holds an MSc degree in chemical engineering where is he responsible for subsurface designs of all
from the Norwegian University of Science and new storage projects in the US, including both reser-
Technology, Trondheim, and an MBA degree from the voir and salt projects. His group is also responsible for
Thunderbird School of Global Management, Glendale, storage project drilling and completion efforts. He has
Arizona, USA. He is a member of TEKNA, the 36 years of experience in engineering and construc-
Norwegian Society of Graduate Technical and tion, working with both liquid and gas storage. Jack
Scientific Professionals; the SPE; and the National received his BS degree in civil engineering from Texas
Association of Corrosion Engineers. A&I University in Kingsville, USA.
Gary A. Simpson serves as Senior Petrophysical Egil Sunde has worked in the oil industry for 31 years,
Advisor for Forest Oil Corporation in Houston. He 27 of which were with Statoil. During that time, he
works with asset teams that are currently focused on held a variety of technical positions and is currently a
development projects in the Eagle Ford Shale forma- Specialist in Reservoir Technology in Stavanger. Egil
tion. He has also worked for Shell and ConocoPhillips holds an MS degree in marine microbiology from the
on conventional, unconventional and tight gas reser- University of Bergen, Norway.
voirs. Previously, he worked in the oilfield service sec-
tor holding positions with Halliburton, Computalog Brian Toelle is a Schlumberger Geosciences and
Inc., now part of Weatherford International, and Petroleum Engineering Advisor on exploration and
Perf-O-Log, Inc., now part of Schlumberger. During his geophysics. Based in Denver, he is responsible for
33-year career, he has been a global product cham- project management, is a lecturer and has consulted
pion for pulsed neutron tools and has worked in field on projects worldwide. He has more than 31 years of
engineering, sales, interpretation development, petro- experience in the industry, specializing in the use of
physics and technical marketing. He has written more geologic and geophysical methods. He joined
than 20 technical papers and articles, primarily Schlumberger in 1997 and has spent the majority of
related to the development of interpretation methods his career with the company in consulting services,
and logging techniques for measurements made managing a geoscience team in Pittsburgh,
with pulsed neutron, carbon oxygen and gamma ray Pennsylvania, USA. Brian is completing his PhD
degree in applied geophysics from West Virginia
University, Morgantown, USA.

56 Oilfield Review
NEW BOOKS Coming in Oilfield Review

s "ACTERIATHE%ARTHAND"EYOND Contents: Plate Tectonics in Exploration. In

s 'LOSSARY"IBLIOGRAPHY)NDEXOF s )NTRODUCTION the last decade, explorationists have
"ACTERIAL'ENERAAND3PECIES had success finding oil and gas in
s !NALYTICAL-ETHODS
3UBJECT)NDEX rifted margin and transform margin
s #LASSICAL-ULTISCALE!LGORITHMS fault systems. The rifted margin play
Dr. Trudy Wassenaar, author and s 4HE(IERARCHYOF0HYSICAL-ODELS has been important for the presalt
curator of the Virtual Museum of s %XAMPLESOF-ULTI 0HYSICS-ODELS discoveries off the coast of South
Bacteria . . . sees her book as an America, and the application of plate
antidote for bacterial bad news, and s #APTURINGTHE-ACROSCALE"EHAVIOR
tectonics theory allowed explora-
the dosage is [many] pages of bacte- s 2ESOLVING,OCAL%VENTSOR
rial wonderment. Within the pages, 3INGULARITIES tionists to apply the concept offshore
she celebrates bacterial diversity, and southern Africa. Operators have
s %LLIPTIC%QUATIONSWITH-ULTISCALE
quite humorously explains how also been successful in the trans-
Bacteria: The Benign, the Bad, #OEFlCIENTS
bacteria feast on other species, move, form margin, upper Cretaceous turbi-
and the Beautiful and reproduce. . . . [The book is] s 0ROBLEMS4HAT(AVE-ULTIPLE dite-fan play in West Africa and
Trudy M. Wassenaar written in a unique and comical voice. 4IME3CALES
within the last few years, using the
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Some jargon is unavoidable, but the s 2ARE%VENTS
111 River Street
principles of plate tectonics, have
concepts are well illustrated, and a s /THER0ERSPECTIVES extended the play to the Guyanas in
Hoboken, New Jersey 07030 USA glossary is provided. . . . Bacteria are
2012. 232 pages. US$ 39.95 s )NDEX South America. This article will
fascinating little creatures that are
)3".     deserving of the stories contained describe how explorationists use
within "ACTERIA4HE"ENIGNTHE"AD Written by a leader in modern plate tectonics to explore rifted mar-
This comprehensive guide to the life ANDTHE"EAUTIFUL. The reader’s applied mathematics, 0RINCIPLESOF gin and transform margin systems.
and behavior of bacteria looks at the viewpoint may very well change after -ULTISCALE-ODELING is a unified and
origins and evolution of bacteria and hearing them. well-organized synthesis of the Carbon Capture and Storage. The
the ways that bacteria have shaped the physical ideas and mathematical
$ORAN#h"OOK2EVIEWvNew York Journal of United Nations Intergovernmental
world. The author describes bacteria techniques behind the multiscale
found in the human body as well as Books$ECEMBER HTTPWWW approach to understanding physical Panel on Climate Change proposes to
those found in environmental extremes, NYJOURNALOFBOOKSCOMREVIEWBACTERIA BENIGN BAD phenomena. . . . 0RINCIPLESOF limit global temperature change by
from arctic ice to hydrocarbon reserves. AND BEAUTIFULACCESSED*UNE  -ULTISCALE-ODELING reflects its preventing greenhouse gases from
Also included are numerous illustra- author’s breadth of experience and entering the atmosphere. One strat-
tions and color plates. interest in physics, mathematical egy in that objective is the process of
analysis, and scientific computation. carbon capture and storage, which
Contents: It is ambitious in scope and in its removes CO2 from emissions created
s 4HE"LUE0LANET insistence on taking seriously all by the burning of hydrocarbons. This
stages in multiscale modeling, from
s 4REEOF,IFE,ET4HREE,IVE article looks at the role of upstream
fundamental physical models to
s (OW/LD!RE4HEY efficient computational algorithms by expertise in this process and how it is
way of rigorous mathematical analy- being applied today in projects in the
s /NTHE-OVE midcontinental US.
sis. I am not aware of any other work
s .EEDLES that covers all those topics with equal
s $EADOR!LIVE attention and rigor. Thermal Rock Properties.
s .OBEL7ORKS Enhanced recovery techniques using
I do have a quibble with this book. thermal stimulation account for more
s "ACTERIAAND)NSECTS It seems to have been produced than half of worldwide oil produc-
s "ACTERIAL4OXINS Principles of Multiscale cheaply using standard LaTeX macros
tion. Project economics can hinge on
s %NZYMES Modeling and fonts; even the cover design is
undistinguished. accurately predicting this additional
Weinan E
s 'ENETICSAND'ENOMICS Cambridge University Press production using reservoir simula-
s !NTIBIOTICSAND2ESISTANCE 32 Avenue of the Americas Nevertheless, 0RINCIPLESOF tion, which in turn requires accurate
s -ARINE-ICROBIOLOGY New York, New York 10013 USA -ULTISCALE-ODELING is uniquely knowledge of the thermal properties
2011. 488 pages. US$ 75.00 suitable for advanced graduate of reservoir fluids and rocks. Thermal
s "ACTERIAAND/IL )3".     students and researchers who want to properties of reservoir rocks, how-
s %XTREME,IFE survey the field’s full range of physi- ever, are rarely measured. This arti-
s 2ECORD(OLDERS This book offers a unified treatment of cal ideas, mathematical techniques, cle reviews rock thermal property
multiscale modeling, which provides a and computational algorithms.
s "ACTERIAAND!RT measurements and describes an effi-
framework for constructing mathemati- +EVLAHAN.h"OOK2EVIEWvPhysics Today
s &IXINGTHE!IR
cient new optical technique for
cal and computational models by NO*UNE 
examining the connection between obtaining them.
s 0ESTAND0ESTILENCE
models at different scales. The author
s /UR"ACTERIA focuses on the two most prevalent
s 3ENSING"ACTERIA applications of multiscale modeling:
s "ACTERIAAND-ANKIND capturing macroscale behavior and
resolving local events. The book also
s "IG1UESTIONSON3MALL3UBJECTS examines specific problems with
s 3YNTHETIC"IOLOGY multiple time scales.

Summer 2012 57
 describe hundreds of devices and . . . this work covers four decades s 2ED%ARTH0HOTOSYNTHESISANDTHE
types of equipment. . . . [I]n no way of data gathering by the 'REAT/XIDATION%VENT
can this book replace classical Smithsonian’s Global Volcanism s 4HEh"ORINGv"ILLION4HE-INERAL
textbooks on fundamental fluid Program. . . . It documents Holocene 2EVOLUTION
mechanics, chemical thermodynam- volcanic activity across the globe, and
ics, and heat and mass transfer. s 7HITE%ARTH4HE3NOWBALL
with this edition expands into the (OTHOUSE#YCLE
However, it definitely offers a helpful Pleistocene. . . . Much of the book’s
way for engineering students . . . to data can be found on the GVP Web s 'REEN%ARTH4HE2ISEOFTHE
obtain quick familiarity with equip- site. . . . The Web site is more interac- 4ERRESTRIAL"IOSPHERE
ment and devices that are central to a tive and includes video and many s 4HE&UTURE3CENARIOSOFA
wide range of engineering applica- more images, while the book provides #HANGING0LANET
tions. . . . [The author provides] a more narrative about volcanism in
lucid, thorough approach to the s %PILOGUE)NDEX
general and appears to include more
Fluid Mechanics, Heat subject. Recommended. detailed information about the socio-
Transfer, and Mass Transfer: Cramming billions of years of
,AOULACHE2.Choice 49, no. 2 economic impact of specific events. geological evolution into a single
Chemical Engineering Practice /CTOBER  Together, the two resources make an book is a daunting challenge, but it’s
K.S.N. Raju excellent team. Highly recommended. one that Hazen, a geophysicist, has
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
(EBBLETHWAITE#,ChoiceNO risen to splendidly.
111 River Street
!UGUST 
Hoboken, New Jersey 07030 USA 0ERKINS3h"OOK2EVIEWvScience News
2011. 768 pages. US$ 158.00 NO-AY HTTPWWWSCIENCENEWS
ISBN: 978-0-470-63774-6 ORGVIEWGENERICIDTITLE"OOK?2EVIEW??
"//+?2%6)%7??4HE?3TORY?OF?%ARTH?4HE?
This text presents the three core areas &IRST??"ILLION?9EARS?FROM?3TARDUST?TO?
of chemical engineering. Raju empha- ,IVING?0LANET?BY?2OBERT?-?(AZENACCESSED
sizes practice rather than theory and -AY 
uses a question and answer format to
bridge theory to practice. The book, . . . Hazen and colleagues at the
which offers analysis on all facets of Carnegie Institution’s Geophysical
chemical engineering, is intended for Laboratory (with support from NASA)
both students and practitioners. have succeeded in simulating condi-
tions that would have existed on Earth
Volcanoes of the World,
Contents: as early as 4.5 billion years ago,
Third Edition while producing biomolecules that are
s 3ECTION)&LUID-ECHANICS Fluid Lee Siebert, Tom Simkin and
Mechanics Basics; Fluid Flow; today the building blocks of life. The
Paul Kimberly The Story of Earth: The First author situates this latest experimen-
Piping, Seals, and Valves; Flow University of California Press
Measurement; Pumps, Ejectors, 4.5 Billion Years, from Stardust tal evidence in a series of discoveries
2120 Berkeley Way about the earth’s geological evolu-
Blowers, and Compressors; Mixing; to Living Planet
Berkeley, California 94704 USA tion, sparked by analysis of moon
Two-Phase Flow Systems Robert M. Hazen
2011. 568 pages. US$ 75.00 rocks brought back by Apollo astro-
Viking, a division of Penguin Group
s 3ECTION))(EAT4RANSFER ISBN: 978-0-520-26877-7 nauts. A report of a fascinating new
(USA) Inc.
Dimensionless Numbers, 375 Hudson Street theory on the Earth’s origins written
Temperature Measurement, and The third edition of this resource in a sparkling style with many per-
New York, New York 10014 USA
Conduction Heat Transfer; documents 10,000 years of volcanic sonal touches.
2012. 320 pages. US$ 27.95
Convective Heat Transfer Basics; activity and includes new studies and
ISBN: 978-0-670-02355-4 h"OOK2EVIEWvKirkus Reviews&EBRUARY
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers; assessments of the geologic ages of
Heat Transfer Equipment Involving many volcanoes and the thousands of  HTTPSWWWKIRKUSREVIEWSCOM
Taking the view of an astrobiologist, BOOK REVIEWSROBERT M HAZENSTORY EARTHREVIEW
Phase Transfer; Refrigeration, Heat volcanic eruptions that have taken
historian, naturalist and futurist, Robert ACCESSED-AY 
Pumps, Heat Tracing, Coiled and place since the book’s last edition in the
M. Hazen explains, through changes at
Jacketed Vessels, Steam Traps, and mid-1990s. This edition includes new
an atomic level, the shifts in the Earth’s
Immersion Heaters; Compact Heat photographs, new data on rock types of
makeup during its 4.5-billion-year
Exchangers, Regenerators, and each volcano and data on human
existence. He presents a theory of
Recuperators; Radiant Heat population near volcanoes.
coevolution to describe reactions
Transfer and Fired Heaters between organic molecules and rock
s 3ECTION)))-ASS4RANSFERMass Contents:
crystals, which, he posits, may have
Transfer Basics; Mass Transfer s $ATA#RITERIAAND#ONTEXT generated the Earth’s first organisms.
Equipment; Absorption, Distillation, Introduction; Data Table The author also tells the story of the
and Extraction; Crystallization, Summaries; Volcano Data; men and women behind the earth
Air-Water Operations, Drying, Eruption Data; Historical Record: sciences described in the book. He then
Adsorption, Membrane Separations, Trends and Cautions ventures into the far future of the planet.
and Other Mass Transfer Processes s $IRECTORYOF6OLCANOES
s )NDEX Contents:
s #HRONOLOGYOF%RUPTIONS
s "IRTH4HE&ORMATIONOF%ARTH
This work is a useful reference for s ,ARGE 6OLUME(OLOCENE%RUPTIONS
s 4HE"IG4HWACK4HE&ORMATIONOF
practicing and consulting engineers s &ATALITIESAND%VACUATIONS
THE-OON
in mechanical, chemical, pharmaceu- s 0RELIMINARY,ISTOF0LEISTOCENE
tical, and environmental engineering s "LACK%ARTH4HE&IRST"ASALT#RUST
6OLCANOES
and other related fields. Raju . . . s "LUE%ARTH4HE&ORMATIONOFTHE
s 0RELIMINARY,ISTOF,ARGE 6OLUME
developed the book using an inquisi- /CEANS
tive, idiosyncratic question-and- 0LEISTOCENE%RUPTIONS
s 'RAY%ARTH4HE&IRST'RANITE#RUST
answer style. . . . [T]he author s #OLOR0HOTO3ECTION
implements a unique bullet format to s ,IVING%ARTH4HE/RIGINSOF,IFE
s 'AZETTEER
s 2EFERENCES

58 Oilfield Review
DEFINING CEMENTING

Well Cementing Fundamentals

Erik B. Nelson
Contributing Editor

Circulating Drilling Fluid

Well cementing consists of two principal operations—primary cementing
and remedial cementing. Primary cementing is the process of placing a
cement sheath in the annulus between the casing and the formation.
Remedial cementing occurs after primary cementing, when engineers inject
cements into strategic well locations for various purposes, including well
Drilling fluid
repair and well abandonment.
Primary cementing is a critical procedure in the well construction pro-
cess. The cement sheath provides a hydraulic seal that establishes zonal iso- Casing string

lation, preventing fluid communication between producing zones in the

borehole and blocking the escape of fluids to the surface. The cement sheath Centralizers
Annulus
also anchors and supports the casing string and protects the steel casing
against corrosion by formation fluids. Failure to achieve these objectives may
severely limit the well’s ability to reach its full producing potential. Shoe
Most primary cementing operations employ a two-plug cement placement
method (right). After drilling through an interval to a desired depth, a crew Pumping Wash, Spacer and Cement Slurry Displacement
removes the drillpipe, leaving the borehole filled with drilling fluid. The crew Displacement
fluid
then lowers a casing string to the bottom of the borehole. The bottom end of Cement slurry Top plug
the casing string is protected by a guide shoe or float shoe. Both shoes are Bottom plug
Spacer fluid
tapered, commonly bullet-nosed devices that guide the casing toward the cen- Chemical wash
ter of the hole to minimize contact with rough edges or washouts during
installation. The guide shoe differs from the float shoe in that the former lacks
a check valve. The check valve can prevent reverse flow, or U-tubing, of fluids
from the annulus into the casing. Centralizers are placed along critical casing
sections to help prevent the casing from sticking while it is lowered into the Displacement Completed Job
well. In addition, centralizers keep the casing in the center of the borehole to
help ensure placement of a uniform cement sheath in the annulus between
the casing and the borehole wall.
As the casing is lowered into the well, the casing interior may fill with
drilling fluid. The objectives of the primary cementing operation are to remove
drilling fluid from the casing interior and borehole, place a cement slurry in
the annulus and fill the casing interior with a displacement fluid such as drill-
ing fluid, brine or water.
Cement slurries and drilling fluids are usually chemically incompatible. > Basic two-plug primary cementing operation. After a well interval has
Commingling them may result in a thickened or gelled mass at the interface been drilled to the desired depth, the drillpipe is removed and a casing
string is lowered to the bottom of the borehole (top). The bottom of the
that would be difficult to remove from the wellbore, possibly preventing place-
casing string is usually fitted with a protective shoe, and centralizers keep
ment of a uniform cement sheath throughout the annulus. Therefore, engi- the casing centered in the wellbore. Engineers pump chemical washes and
neers employ chemical and physical means to maintain fluid separation. spacer fluids down the casing interior, thereby displacing drilling fluid
Chemical washes and spacer fluids may be pumped after the drilling fluid and (middle left). They next insert a bottom plug, followed by a volume of
cement slurry that is sufficient to fill the annulus (middle right). Continued
before the cement slurry. These fluids have the added benefit of cleaning the
pumping of cement slurry forces drilling fluid out of the casing interior, up
casing and formation surfaces, which helps achieve good cement bonding. the annulus and out of the wellbore. When the bottom plug lands at the
Wiper plugs are elastomeric devices that provide a physical barrier bottom of the casing string, a membrane in the plug ruptures, opening a
between fluids pumped inside the casing. A bottom plug separates the pathway for the cement slurry to enter the annulus. Engineers insert a top
plug after the cement slurry, and the top plug is then followed by a
cement slurry from the drilling fluid, and a top plug separates the cement displacement fluid (bottom left). Pumping the displacement fluid forces the
slurry from the displacement fluid. The bottom plug has a membrane that top plug downward until it lands on the bottom plug, thereby isolating the
ruptures when it lands at the bottom of the casing string, creating a pathway casing interior and annulus and filling the annulus with cement slurry
through which the cement slurry may flow into the annulus. The top plug (bottom right).
does not have a membrane; therefore, when it lands on top of the bottom
plug, hydraulic communication is severed between the casing interior and the annulus. After the cementing operation, engineers wait for the cement
to cure, set and develop strength—known as waiting on cement (WOC).
Oilfield Review Summer 2012: 24, no. 2. After the WOC period, usually less than 24 hours, additional drilling, perfo-
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger. rating or other operations may commence.

Summer 2012 59
DEFINING CEMENTING

Well construction typically consists of installing several casing strings,

each requiring a primary cementing operation (right). As the well deepens, Conductor casing

the diameter of each casing string is usually smaller than the preceding one.
Nearly all well cementing operations use portland cement, which consists Cement Surface casing
mainly of anhydrous calcium silicate and calcium aluminate compounds that
hydrate when added to water. The hydration products, principally calcium sili- Intermediate
cate hydrates, provide the strength and low permeability required to achieve casing
zonal isolation.
The conditions to which portland cements are exposed in a well differ Production liner
significantly from those encountered at ambient surface conditions associ-
ated with buildings, roads and bridges. Well cements must perform over a
wide temperature range—from below freezing in permafrost zones to tem- > Typical casing program. The large-diameter conductor casing protects
peratures exceeding 400°C [752°F] in geothermal wells. Consequently, shallow formations from contamination by drilling fluid and helps prevent
washouts involving unconsolidated topsoils and sediments. Surface casing,
cement manufacturers produce special versions of portland cement for use in the second string, has a smaller diameter, maintains borehole integrity and
wells. In addition, more than 100 cement additives are available to adjust prevents contamination of shallow groundwater by hydrocarbons,
cement performance, allowing engineers to customize a cement formulation subterranean brines and drilling fluids. The intermediate casing isolates
hydrocarbon-bearing, abnormally pressured, fractured and lost circulation
for a particular well environment. The principal objective is to formulate a
zones, providing well control as engineers drill deeper. Multiple strings of
cement that is pumpable for a time sufficient for placement in the annulus, intermediate casing may be required to reach the target producing zone.
develops strength within a few hours after placement and remains durable The production casing, or liner, is the last and smallest tubular element in
throughout the well’s lifetime. the well. It isolates the zones above and within the production zone and
withstands all of the anticipated loads throughout the well’s life.
Additives may be classified according to the functions they perform.
Accelerators reduce the cement setting time and increase the rate of com-
pressive strength development. Retarders delay the setting time and extend The cement bond log presents the reflected amplitude of an acoustic
the time during which a cement slurry is pumpable. Extenders lower the signal transmitted by a logging tool inside the casing. The cement-casing
cement slurry density, reduce the amount of cement per unit volume of set bond integrity is directly proportional to the attenuation of the reflected
product, or both. Weighting agents increase the density of the cement. signal. Another acoustic log presents the waveforms of the reflected signals
Fluid loss control agents control leakage of water from the cement slurry detected by the logging tool receiver and provides qualitative insights con-
into porous formations, thereby preserving the designed cement slurry cerning the casing, the cement sheath and the formation. Ultrasonic logging
properties. Lost circulation control agents limit flow of the entire cement tools transmit a short ultrasonic pulse, causing the casing to resonate. The
slurry out of the wellbore into weak, cracked or vugular formations and help tool measures the resonant echoes; when solid cement is behind the casing,
ensure that the cement slurry is able to fill the entire annular space. the echo amplitudes are attenuated. When there is fluid behind the casing,
Dispersants reduce the viscosity of the cement slurry, which allows a lower the echoes have high amplitudes.
pumping pressure during placement. Specialty additives include antifoam When logging operations indicate that the cement job is defective, either in
agents, fibers and flexible particles. Cement additives are an active domain the form of poor cement bonding or communication between zones, a remedial
of research and development, and the industry regularly introduces new cementing technique known as squeeze cementing may be performed to estab-
and improved products. lish zonal isolation. Engineers perforate the casing at the defective interval and
After a cementing operation has been performed and the cement has set, force, or squeeze, cement slurry through the perforations and into the annulus
engineers frequently perform tests to confirm that the cement sheath integ- to fill the voids. In addition, squeeze cementing may be an effective technique
rity and performance meet the intended design criteria. Cement evaluation for repairing casing leaks caused by a corroded or split casing.
techniques include hydraulic testing and various well logging methods. When a well has reached the end of its productive life, operators usually
Pressure testing is the most common hydraulic testing method; engineers abandon the well by performing plug cementing. Engineers fill the casing
typically conduct such tests after every surface- or intermediate-casing cement interior with cement at various depths, thereby preventing interzonal com-
job. Engineers first perform a casing pressure test to verify the mechanical munication and fluid migration into underground freshwater sources. The
integrity of the tubular string and then drill out the casing shoe. Next, they ultimate objective is to restore the natural integrity of the formations that
perform a pressure integrity test by increasing the internal casing pressure were disrupted by drilling.
until it exceeds the pressure that will be applied during the next drilling phase. Well cementing technology is more than 100 years old; however, chemists
If no leakage is detected, the cement seal is deemed successful. and engineers continue to introduce new formulations, materials and tech-
Engineers may choose from several well logging techniques to evaluate nology to meet the constantly changing needs of the energy industry. For
the quality of the cement behind casing. The logging crew lowers measuring example, the durability of zonal isolation, during and after a well’s productive
devices into the well and plots the acquired data versus depth. Temperature life, is a major research and development topic. Modern cement systems may
logs help locate the top of the cement column in the annulus. Cement hydra- contain flexible particles and fibers that allow set cement to withstand severe
tion is an exothermic process that raises the temperature of the surrounding mechanical stresses. Advanced self-healing cement systems contain “smart”
environment. Data from acoustic and ultrasonic logging tools help engineers materials that, upon cement-sheath failure, swell and reestablish zonal isola-
analyze the cement/casing and cement/formation interfaces. These tools pro- tion when contacted by either aqueous or hydrocarbon formation fluids. The
vide information about the quality of the cement sheath and how well the ultimate goals of these cementing technologies are to withstand the rigors of
cement adheres, or bonds, to the casing and to the formation. well operations and other disruptions that may occur over time and maintain
zonal isolation indefinitely.
60 Oilfield Review