EE8403 MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION
• UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Functional elements of an instrument – Static and dynamic characteristics – Errors in measurement –
Statistical evaluation of measurement data – Standards and calibration.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
 CONTD…
• Primary sensing element
• ii) Variable conversion element &
• iii) Data presentation element.
Primary sensing element:
• The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system. i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which is to be measured) is first detected
by primary sensor which gives the output in a different analogous form This output is then converted into
an electrical signal by a transducer - (which converts energy from one form to another). The first stage of a
measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage’.
• Variable conversion element:
• The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form , it may be voltage, a
frequency or some other electrical parameter
• For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to some other
suitable form.
• Primary sensing element:
• The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a measurement
system. i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which is to be measured) is first detected by primary
sensor which gives the output in a different analogous form This output is then converted into an e electrical
signal by a transducer - (which converts energy from one form to another). The first stage of a measurement
system is known as a detector transducer stage’.
• Variable conversion element:
• The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form , it may be voltage, a
frequency or some other electrical parameter
• For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to some other
suitable form.
• Data presentation element:
• The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes. This function is done by data
presentation element
• In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed These devices may be analog or digital
indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. In case data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic
tapes, high speed camera & TV equipment, CRT, printers may be used. For control & analysis is purpose
microprocessor or computers may be used. The final stage in a measurement system is known as
terminating stage’
 STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

• The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
• i) Static characteristics
• ii) Dynamic characteristics
 Static characteristics:

• i) Accuracy ii) Precision

• iii) Sensitivity
• iv) Linearity
• v) Reproducibility vi) Repeatability
• vii) Resolution
• viii) Threshold ix) Drift
• x) Stability
• xi) Tolerance
• xii) Range or span
• Accuracy:
• It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be
measured. The accuracy can be expressed in
• following ways:
• a) Point accuracy:
• Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information
about the accuracy at any other
• point on the scale.
• b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span:
• When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
• c) Accuracy as percentage of true value:

• The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity

being measured.
 CONTD…
• Precision:
• It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the
degree of agreement within a group of
• measurements. The precision is composed of two characteristics:
• a) Conformity:
• Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured by an ohmmeter. But the
reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the nonavailability of proper scale. The error created
due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.
• b) Number of significant figures:
• The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the
reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude & the
measurement precision of the quantity.
• Sensitivity:
• The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. It
is defined as the ratio of the changes in the
• output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.
• Linearity:
• The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically & linearly.
• Reproducibility:
• It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms
of scale readings over a given period of time.
• Repeatability:
• It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature.
• Drift:
• Drift may be classified into three categories:
• a) zero drift:
• If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue warming up of
electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
• b) span drift or sensitivity drift
• If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is called span drift or
sensitivity drift.
• c) Zonal drift:
• In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
• Resolution:
• If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that output does not
change at all until a certain increment is exceeded.
• This increment is called resolution.
• Threshold:
• If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum value
below which no output change can be detected. This
• minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
• Stability:
• It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified operating life.
• Tolerance:
• The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is called
tolerance.
• Range or span:
• The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is called
its range or span.
 Dynamic
characteristics:
• i) Speed of response
• ii) Measuring lag
• iii) Fidelity
• iv) Dynamic error
 CONTD…
• Speed of response:
• It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
• Measuring lag:
• It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
• a) Retardation type:
• In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change in
measured quantity has occurred.
• b) Time delay lag:
• In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the application of
the input.
• Fidelity:
• It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measurand quantity
without dynamic error.
• Dynamic error:
• It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error.
 1.3 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

• The types of errors are follows

• i) Gross errors
• ii) Systematic errors
• iii) Random errors
 CONTD…
• Gross Errors:
• The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human begin
• These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
• These errors cannot be treated mathematically
• These errors are also called¶ personal errors’.
• Systematic errors:
• A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a Systematic error
• The Systematic errors are mainlydue to the short comings of the instrument & the characteristics of
the material use d in the instrument, such a s defective or worn parts, ageing effects, env ironmental
effects, etc.
• Types of Systematic errors:
• There are three types of Systematic errors as:
• i) Instrumental errors
• ii) Environmental errors
• iii) Observational errors
• Random errors:
• Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or atleast accounted
for.The causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are called random errors.
 STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA

• Arithmetic mean & median:

• When the n umber of readings of the same measurement are taken, the most likely value from the set of
measured value is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken.
• The arithmetic mean value can be mathematically obtained as,
 CONTD…

• Average deviation:
• The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the data set
• Where
• di=xi- X
• di = deviation of ith reading
• Xi= value of ith reading
• X = arithmetic mean
 CALIBRATION

• Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the readings of an
instrument agree with the accepted & the certified standard.
• In other words, it is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison
with the measured or standard ones.
• The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that it is operating with required
accuracy, under stipulated environmental conditions.
• The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation
according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc.,
• The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with
standard ones. The standard of device with which comparison is made is called a standard instrument.
The instrument which is unknown & is to be calibrated is called test instrument. Thus in
calibration, test instrument is compared with standard instrument.
 Standard

• International standards
• ii) Primary standards
• iii) Secondary standards iv) Working standards
 International standards

• International standards are defined as the international agreement. These standards,as mentioned above are
maintained at the international bureau of weights an d measures and are periodically evaluated and checked
by absolute measurements in term s of fundamental units of physics.
• These international standards are not available to the ordinary users for the calibration purpose.
• For the improvements in the accuracy of absolute measurements the international units are replaced by the
absolute units in 1948.
• Absolute units are more accurate than the international units.
 Primary standards

• These are highly accurate absolute standards, w hich can be used as ultimate reference standards.These
primary standards are maintained at national standard laboratories in different countries.
• These standards representing fundamental units as well as some electrical and mechanical derived units are
calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories.
• These are not available for use, outside the national laboratories.
• The main function of the primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards.
 Secondary standards

• As mentioned above, the primary standards are not ava ilable for use outside the national laboratories.
• The various industries need some reference standards. So, to protect highly accurate primary standards
the secondary standards are maintained, which are designed and constructed from the absolute
standards.
• These are used by the measurement and calibration laboratories in industries and are maintained by the
particular industry to which they belong. Each industry has its own standards.
 Working standards

• These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory and are used to check an d calibrate the instruments
used in laboratory for accuracy and the performance.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (PMMC)
 CONTD…

• Magnet Systems
• Ø Old style m agnet syste m consisted of relatively long U shaped permanent magnets having soft iron pole
pieces.
• Ø Owing to development of materials like Alcomax and Alnico, which have a h igh co -ercive force, i t
is possible to use smaller magnet
• lengths and high field intensities.
• Ø The flux densities used in PMIMC i nstruments vary from 0.1 W b/m to 1 Wb/m.
• Control
• Ø When the coil is suppo rted between tw o jewel bearings th e cont rol torque is provided by two
phosphor bronze hair springs.
• Ø These sprin gs also serve to lead c urrent in and o ut of the coil. The control torque is provided by the
ribbon suspension as shown.
• Ø This m ethod i s com paratively new and is c laimed to be advantageous as it eliminates bearing
friction.
• Damping
• Ø Damping torque is produced by movement of the aluminium former moving in the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet.
Torque Equation.
 Errors in PMMC Instruments

• The main sources of errors in moving coil instruments are due to

• Ø Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing at temperature effects.
• Ø Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature effects.
• Ø Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature.
 Moving Iron Instruments

Classification of Moving Iron Instruments

Moving iron instruments are of two types
(i) Attraction type. (ii) Repulsion type.
Attraction Type
 CONTD…

• The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening.

• Ø The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector eccentrically mounted.
• Ø When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and the moving iron moves from
the weaker field outside the coil to the
• Stronger field inside it or in other words the moving iron is attracted in.
• Ø The controlling torque is provide by springs hut gravity control can be used for panel type of
instruments which are vertically mounted.
• Ø Damping is provided by air friction with the help of a light aluminium piston (attached to the moving
system) which move in a fixed chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig. or with the help of a vane
(attached to the moving system) which moves in a fixed sector shaped chamber a shown.
Repulsion Type
 CONTD…

• In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of co axial cylinders as shown
in Fig.
• Ø The controlling torque is provided by springs. Gravity control can also he used in vertically mounted
instruments.
• Ø The damping torque is produced by air friction as in attraction type instruments.
• Ø The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very weak and therefore eddy current
damping is not used in them as introduction
• of a permanent magnet required for eddy current damping would
• destroy the operating magnetic field.
• Ø It is clear that whatever may be the direction of the current in the coil of the instrument, the iron vanes
are so magnetized that there is always a force of attraction in the attraction type and repulsion in the
repulsion type of instruments.
• Ø Thus moving iron instruments are unpolarised instruments i.e., they are independent of
the direction in which the current passes.
• Ø Therefore, these instruments can be used on both ac. and d.c.
Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instrument:
 Advantages & Disadvantages

• 1) Universal use
• (2) Less Friction Errors
• (3) Cheapness
• (4) Robustness (5) Accuracy
• (6) Scale
• (7) Errors
• (8) Waveform errors.
 Electrodynamometer
(Eelectrodynamic) Type Instruments
 Operating Principle of
Electrodynamometer Type Instrument
• It would have a torque in one direction during one half of the cycle
and an equal effect in the opposite direction during the other half of the cycle.If the frequency were very
low, the pointer would swing back and forth around the zero point. However, for an ordinary meter, the
inertia is so great that on power frequencies the pointer does not go very far in either direction but merely
stays (vibrates slightly) around zero. If, however, we were to reverse the direction of the flux each time the
current through the movable coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would be produced for both positive and
negative halves of the cycle.
• In electrodynamometer instruments the field can be made to reverse simultaneously with the current in the
movable coil if the field (fixed) coil is connected in series with the movable coil.
Construction of Electrodynamometer type instrument

• Fixed Coils
• The field is produced by a fixed coil.
• This coil is divided into two sections to give a more uniform field near the centre and to allow passage of
the instrument shaft.
• Moving Coil
• A single element instrument has one moving coil.
• The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non- metallic former.
• A metallic former cannot be used as eddy current would be induced in it by the alternating field.
• Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil.
• Control
• The controlling torque is provided by two control springs. These springs act as leads to the moving
coil.
• Moving System
• The moving coil is mounted on an aluminum spindle.
• The moving system also carries the counter weights and truss type pointer.
• Sometimes a suspension may be used in case a high sensitivity is desired.
• Damping
• Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by a pair of aluminum vanes,
attached to the spindle at the bottom.
• These vanes move in sector shaped chambers.
• Eddy current damping cannot be used in these instruments as the operating field is very weak (on account
of the fact that the coils are air cored) and any introduction of a permanent magnet required for eddy
current damping would distort the operating magnetic field of the instrument.
• Shielding
• The field produced by the fixed coils is somewhat weaker than in other types of instruments
• It is nearly 0.005 to 0.006 Wb/m
• In d.c. measurements even the earth magnetic field may affect the readings.
• Thus it is necessary to shield an electrodynamometer type instrument from the effect of stray magnetic
fields.
Torque Equation
 Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments

• i) Frequency error
• ii) Eddy current error
• iii) External magnetic field iv) Temperature changes
 Digital Voltmeter Types of DVMs

• The various types of DVMs in general use are

• (i) Ramp type DVM
• (ii) Integrating type DVM
• (iii) Potentiometric type DVM
• (iv) Successive approximation type DVM (v) Continuous balance type DVM
integrating type of DVM
Potentiometric Type Digital Voltmeter
THANK YOU