UNIT-1

CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNALS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION

Measuring systems, performance characteristics, static characteristics, dynamic

characteristics; errors in measurement-gross errors, systematic errors, statistical
analysis of random errors .signals and their representation ; standard test,
periodic, a periodic, modulated signal, sampled data, pulse modulation and pulse
demodulation.

Measuring systems

Measurement is a process of gathering information from the physical world and

comparing this information with agreed standards. Measurement is carried out
with instruments that are designed and manufactured to fulfill given
specifications.

Any instrument or a measuring system can be described in general with the help
of a block diagram.

The block diagram indicates the necessary elements and their functions in a
general measuring system.

Fi
g.Functional elements of an instrument

Each element is made up of number of distinct components which perform a

particular function in the measurement procedure.

Selecting the proper instrument for a particular type of measure and needs the
knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument.

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Functional elements of an instrument

Primary sensing element: An element of an instrument which makes first, the

contact with the quantity to be measured is called primary sensing element. Thus
first detection of the measurement is done by the primary sensing element. In
most of the cases, a transducer follows primary sensing element which converts
the measurement into a corresponding electrical signal.

Variable conversion element: The output of the primary sensing element is in

electrical form such as voltage, frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such
an output may not be suitable for the actual measurement system. For example if
the measurement system is digital then the analog signal obtained from the
primary sensing element is not suitable for the digital system. Thus analog to
digital convertor is required which is nothing but variable conversion element.

Variable manipulation element: - The level of the output from the previous stage
may not be enough to drive the next. Thus variable manipulation element
manipulates the signals, preserving the original nature of the signal.

For example an amplifier which just amplifies the magnitude of the input, at its
output, retraining original nature of the signal. It is not necessary that variable
manipulation element must be always after variable conversion element. It may
be before variable conversion element. In some cases, the levels of the output of
the previous stage are high and required to be lowered. In such case alternators
are used on the variable manipulation elements.

Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to unwanted
signals like noise. Thus such signals are required to be processed with some
processes like modulation, clipping, clamping etc. To obtain the signal in pure and
acceptable form from highly distorted form. Such a process is called signal
conditioning. Thus in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation,

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the signal conditioning is also done in the second stage. Hence second stage is
called data conditioning or signal conditioning system.

Data transmission element: When the elements of the system are physically
separated, it is necessary to transmit the data from one stage to other. This is
achieved by the data transmission element. The signal conditioning and data
transmission together is called intermediate stage of an instrument.

Data presentation element: The transmitted data may be used by the system,
finally for monitoring, controlling or analyzing purpose. If the data is to be
monitored then visual display devices are used as data presentation element. If
the signal is to be recorded for analysis purpose then magnetic tapes, recorders,
high speed cameras are used as data presentation elements. For control and
analysis purpose, the microprocessors, computers and microcontrollers may be
used as data presentation elements. The data presentation stage may be called
terminating stage of an instrument.

Limiting errors

The manufacturers specify the accuracy of the instruments within a certain % of

full scale reading. The components like the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are
guaranteed to be within a certain % of the rated value. This % indicates the
deviations from the nominal or specified value of the particular quantity.

Performance characteristics

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two

categories:

i) Static characteristics.

ii) Dynamic characteristics.

The set of criteria defined for the instrument which are used to measure the
quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant I.e. do not vary
with time is called static characteristics.

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The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic differential equations is a called
dynamic characteristic. When the quantity under measurement changes rapidly
with time, it is necessary to study the dynamic relations existing between input
and output. These relations are generally expressed with the help of differential
equations.

“The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by

a process called calibration. Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or
making a scale so that the readings of an instrument agree with the accepted and
the certified standard”.

Static characteristics

The static characteristics are defined for the instruments which measure the
quantities which do not vary with time. The various static characteristics are
accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity, threshold, reproducibility, zero
drift, stability and linearity

1. Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness which the instrument reading

approaches the value of the quantity to be measured. It indicates the ability of
instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity. Accuracy can be expressed
in the following ways

 Accuracy as a percentage of full scale reading

 Accuracy as a percentage of true value
 Accuracy as a percentage of scale span
 Point accuracy

2. Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, I.e.

Successive reading does not differ. It denotes the closeness with which individual
measurements are departed or distributed about the average of number of
measured value.

3. Resolution: It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can

be detected with certainty by an instrument. Thus the resolution means the
smallest measurable input change.

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4. Error: The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy,
which is generally expressed in terms of the error called static error. The algebraic
difference between the indicated values of the true value of the quantity to be
measured is called an error.

Mathematically ; e = At -Am

Where e: error,

Am: measured value of the quantity

At: true value of the quantity

In this expression, the error denoted as ‘e’ is also called absolute error.

Instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or percentage error is specified.

absoluteerror
Relative error e r= truevalve

time value−measured value

= true value

A t− Am
= A
t

A t− Am
% ofe r= A *10
t

From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be mathematically

expressed as
A t− Am
A = 1 – er = 1 - A
t

% accuracy [% a ] = A × 100
At − Am
Error as a % of full scale reading = ×100
f . s .d

F.s.d = full scale reading

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5.Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured
variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the
changes in the output of an instrument to change in the value of the quantity to
be measured.

Sensitivity = infinitesimal change in output / infinitesimal change in input

∆ q0
=∆q
i

If the calibration curve is linear, as shown in above fig, the sensitivity of an

instrument is the slope of the calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not
linear, then the sensitivity varies in the input.

Sensitivity can be defined in terms of deflect factor.

qi
Deflection factor = 1 / sensitivity = Δ / Δ× q
c

Units of sensitivity: millimeter / micro ampere

: Millimeter / ohm

6.Threshold: If the input quantity is slowly varied from zero onwards, the output
does not change until some minimum value of the input is exceeded. Thus
minimum value of the input is called threshold. Thus the resolution is the small
measurable input change. While the threshold is the smallest measurable input.

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7. Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of
time.The perfect reproducibility indicates no drift in the instrument.

8.Zero drift: The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an
extended period during which the value of the input variable does not change.

The zero drift is defined as the deviation in the instrument output with time, from
its zero value, when the variable to be measured is constant. The whole
instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same amount.

9.Stability: The ability of an instrument to retrain its performance throughout its

specified operating life and the storage life is defined as its stability.

10. Linearity: The Instrument requires the property of linearity that is the output
varies linearly, according to the input. The linearity is defined as the ability to
reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically and linearly.

The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of the actual output from the
idealized straight line, expressed as a percentage of full scale reading or a % of the
actual reading.

Fig : Linearity
¿
% linearity = maximun derivationof output ¿ idealized straight line full scale deflection ×100

11. Range or span: The minimum and maximum value of a quantity for which an
instrument is designed to measure is called its range or span. Sometimes the
accuracy is specified in terms of range or span

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12. Dead space: In some instruments, it is possible that till input increases beyond
certain value, the output does not change. So for certain range of input values
there is no change in output. Thus range of output is called as dead space.

Dynamic characteristics: As the input varies from instant to instant, output also
varies from instant to instant. The behavior of system under such condition is
called dynamic response of the system.

The system dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its

primary element to some unknown and predetermined variations in the
measured quantity. The three most common variations in the measured quantity
are as follows Step change, in which the primary element is subjected to an
instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.

Linear change: The primary element is following a measured variable, changing

linearly with time.

Sinusoidal change: The primary element follows a measured variable, the

magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant
amplitude.

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are speed of response, fidelity, lag

of dynamic error.

Speed of response: It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the
changes in the quantity to be measured. It gives the information about how fast
the system reacts to the changes in the input. It indicates the activeness of the
system. The system should respond very quickly to the changes in the input.

Fidelity: It indicates how faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the
input. It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave
shape of input with serpent to time. It is defined as the degree to which an
instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without dynamic
error.

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Lag: Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be to respond to the
changes in the measured variable. This retardation or delay in the response of a
system is called lag. This is also called measuring lag. The lags are of two types :

Retardation lag: In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after
a change in the variable has occurred.

Time delay: - In this case, response begins after sometime called dead time, after
the application of input. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and
hence causes the dynamic error.

Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be
measured, changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement
system, assuming zero static error. Fig shows the dead time, I.e. time delay and
the dynamic error.

Errors in measurement: The error of a measuring instrument is the numerical

difference between the true value of a quantity and its value obtained by
measurement, i.e., repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different
indications.

Sources of errors:-

 Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions.

 Poor design, poor maintenance
 Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets etc.
 Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment, certain
design limitations.

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The errors are classified as:

1. Gross errors

2. Systematic errors

3. Random errors

Gross errors: The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of
experience of a human being. These cover human mistakes in readings,
recordings and calculating results. These errors also occur due to incorrect
adjustments of instruments. These errors cannot be treated mathematically.
These errors are also called as personal errors.

The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible but one can minimize
them by the following ways

Taking great care while taking the readings, recording the readings and calculating
the result.

Without depending on only one reading, at least three or even more readings
must be taken of preferably by different

Systematic errors:

The Systematic errors are mainly result due to the short comings of the
instrument and the characteristics of the material used in the instrument such as
defective or worn parts, ageing effects, environmental effects, etc.

At constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a

Systematic error. There are three types of Systematic errors as;

1.Instrumental errors

2.Environmental errors

3.Observational errors

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Instrumental errors: These errors can be mainly due to the following three
reasons

Shortcoming of instrument: These are because of the mechanical structure of the

instruments for example, friction in the bearings of various moving parts, irregular
springs tensions, reduction in tension during to improper handling, hysteresis
gear back lash, stretching of spring, variation in air gap, etc. These errors can be
avoided by the following methods:

i) Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for

the measurement.
ii) Recognizing the effect of such errors and applying the proper correction
factors.
iii) Calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard.

Misuse of instruments: A good instrument, if used in abnormal way, gives

misleading results. Poor initial adjustments, improper zero setting, using leads of
high resistance etc. are the examples of misusing a good instrument. Such things
do not cause permanent damage to the instrument but definitely cause serious
errors.

C) Loading effects: Loading effect due to improper way of using the instrument
cause the serious errors. The best example of such loading effect error is
connecting a well calibrated voltmeter across the two points of high resistance
circuit. The same voltmeter connected in a resistance circuit gives accurate
reading. Thus the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an
instrument intelligently and correctly.

2. Environmental errors:

These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument. The
various factors resulting in these environmental errors are temperature changes,
pressure changes, thermal EMF, stray capacitance, cross capacitance, effect of
external field ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.

The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:

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  Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by
the manufacturer of the instrument.
 Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions
constant. This includes the use of air conditioning, temperature control
enclosures etc.
 Reducing the effects of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically
sealing the components in the instruments.

Observational errors: These are the errors introduced by the observer. There are
many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter,
wrong scale selection etc.

To eliminate such observational errors one should use the instruments with
Mirrors, knife edge pointers, etc. Now-a-days, the instruments with digital display
are available which can largely eliminate such observational errors.

The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static
errors caused by the limitations of the measuring device while the dynamic errors
are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in
the variable to be measured.

Random errors: Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental
errors are reduced or at least accounted for the cause of such errors are unknown
and hence the errors are called random errors. These errors cannot be
determined in the ordinary process of taking the measurements.

These errors are generally small. Hence, these errors are of real concern only
when the high degree of accuracy is required. The random errors follow the laws
of probability and hence these errors can be analyzed statistically and treated
mathematically.

The only way to reduce these Errors is by increasing the number of observations
and using the statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.

Statistical analysis of random errors:-

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The mathematical analysis of the various measurements is called statistical
analysis of data. This analysis is important because it allows an analytical
determination of the uncertainty of the final test result. For such statistical
analysis, the same reading is taken number of times, generally using different
observers, different instruments and by different ways of measurement.

Arithmetic mean: When the number of readings of the same measurement had
taken, the most likely value from the set of measured variable values in
Arithmetic mean of the number of reading taken. Diabetic mean value can be
mathematically obtained as,
n

X=
x 1 + x 2+ x 3 +...+ x n
= ∑ xn
n=1
n
n

where ; X = Arithmetic mean

X n= nth reading taken

n = total number of readings

When the numbers of readings are large, calculation of mean value is

complicated. In such case a median value is obtained which is a close
approximation to the Arithmetic mean value
X median= X (n+1) /2

Deviation from mean:

The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the Arithmetic
mean of the data set. This is denoted as‘d’ and calculated for each reading as
di = X i -X

d i = deviation of i threading

X i = value ofi th reading

X = Arithmetic mean

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Average deviation:

The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations
divided by the number of readings. This is also called as mean deviation

D =
∑ d i = |d 1|+¿ d2 +¿ … … … ..∨d n∨ ¿ ¿
n n

Standard deviation:

The standard deviation is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual
deviations squared, divided by the number of readings. It is denoted as. It is also
called root mean square deviation.

√ √
2
d1 +d +d 2
σ= = ⅀d
2 2
2 2
3+ … …… … … …… .+ dn

n n

For n <20,

σ=
√ d12+d 2
2
2+ … … …… … …… … …..+ dn

n−1
, n<20

Variance:

The variance means mean square deviation. So it is the square of the standard
deviation. It is denoted as ‘v’.
2
d 1+d 2

V=σ =2 2
2+… … ….. dn

d 21+d 2

V=σ =2 2
2+… … … d n
,n<20
n−1

Limiting error:

The manufactures specifies the accuracy of the instruments within a certain

percentage of full scale reading. This percentage indicates the deviation from the
specified value of the particular quantity. These deviations from specified value
are called timing error or guarantee error.

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The deviations from the specified value are called limiting errors. These are also
called guarantee errors.

For example, the manufacturer of a certain instrument may specify that the
instrument is accurate within + 1 % of full scale Deflection. This means that a full
scale reading is guaranteed to be within + 1 % of a perfectly accurate reading. But
for a reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases.

Thus, the actual value with the limiting error can be expressed mathematically as
Aa = A s±δA

Aa = actual value

A s= specified or rated value

δA = limiting error or tolerance

Relative limiting error:-

This is also called fractional error. It is the ratio of the error to the specified
magnitude of a quantity.
δA
e= A , e: relative limiting error
s

δA=e. A s
Aa = A s ± δA

= A s± e. A s

= A s[1±e]

The %relative limiting error is expressed as

%e = e × 100

The relative limiting error can be also expressed as

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 actual v alve ( A a )−specified value( A s )
e=
specified value( A s)

Signals and their representation:

A function of one or more independent variables which contain some information

is called signal. In general any signal can be defined as any physical quantity or
parameter varying with time. Any quantity providing excitation or stimulus to the
physical system is treated as the input signal or input excitation. The response of
the physical system to the excitation provided at input is called output signal or
response of the system.

All Signals are represented graphically as function of time, the amplitude of the
signal varying with time to have better knowledge of the signal, variation of the
amplitude of a signal with time is represented by means of mathematical
function.

Signals obtained from physical systems or representing physical phenomena are

classified as either deterministic or nondeterministic. Deterministic signals are
those that can be represented by an explicit mathematical function of time so
that the value of the function at any desired instant can be calculated.

Deterministic signals are

 Periodic
 Aperiodic

Aperiodic signal has a web form that repeats itself at regular intervals of
time .Nondeterministic signals cannot be described mathematically and treated as
random signals whose amplitude at any instant cannot be determined. Random
signals are analyzed by application of probability theory and Statistical
Techniques. Signals may also be broadly classified as either analog or Digital.

Analog signal: Analog Signals are continues with time and the signal is described
by one single value only at any particular instant as shown in figure a

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 Fig a: analog signal

Digital signal:- If the values over a range at anyone instant, the signal is said to
have an instantaneous jump from one value to another. It may assume a new
level and remained at that value for a certain amount of time as shown in figure
b. such a signal is known as digital signal.

Fig b: Digital signal

It may assume discrete levels, with jumps from one Level to another, at certain
intervals of time. Assume the analog signal to be composed of a series of steps as
shown in figure c, with each step at a discrete level is of which is determined for
its amplitude in binary code and a digital signal consisting of a series of pulses
having only 2 levels (0 and 1) spaced at equal intervals of time is brought out to

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represent its amplitude. Fig d shows a typical digital signal with pulses
representing a binary number.

Standard test signals:

Physical systems are severely strained when subjected to sudden changes in the
input conditions. Their dynamic behavior may be studied by subjecting them to
standard test signals commonly known as an impulse, a step, a ramp and a
parabolic – input function. Another common test signal of great relevance is a
sinusoidal signal.

If the system function is determined from the mathematical model of the system,
the time response can be estimated by making use of Laplace transform
technique.

Step function: This step input function is shown in figure a and is seen to be a
signal that jumps from one Level to another instantaneously.

And, it is represented as;

F (t) = Au (t)

Where ; u (t) = 1 for t > 0

= 0 for t < 0

A = change in level

The Laplace transform of the step input function is

F (S) = A /s

fig: unit function

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Ramp function: The ramp input function is shown in figure b, is a signal that starts
at value of zero and increases linearly with the time, it is represented as

F (t) = At for t > 0

=0 for t < 0
A
The Laplace transform of ramp input function is F(S) = 2
S

Fig: Ramp input function

Impulse function:-

The derivative of a step function has zero value at all times except at the instant
at which the jump occurs, I;e at t =0. At that instant the derivative assumes
infinite value. Such a function is known as impulse function.

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 A unit impulse function is defined as a signal which has zero value at all times
except at t = 0, where its magnitude is infinite. It is usually referred to as δ
function and is expressed as

δ(t)=0 for t‡0

+⅀

∫ δ ( t ) dt = 1
−⅀

The Laplace transform of a unit impulse function is δ(t) = 1

It is difficult to create an ideal Impulse of this expression; it is usually

approximated by a pulse of small width of 1/A and a height A, so that the area of
the pulse is unity as shown in figure c. As the width tends to zero, the height
tends to infinite value while maintaining the area at unity.

Parabolic function:

A parabolic input function shown in figure and is represented as

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 2
At
F(t) = for t > 0
2

=0 for t < 0

The Laplace transform of a parabolic – input function is

A
F (S) =
s3

Periodic signal:-

A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats at regular intervals. A periodic

function of time can be represented as a series given by

Fig: A periodic function of time

A function shown in above figure is periodic in the interval T as g (t) = g ( t +T), and
hence T is known as the period of 1 cycle in seconds. The frequency at which g(t)
is periodic is indicated by is the angular frequency, the co-efficient a 0, an, bn are
Fourier co-efficients determined from

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 1 /T

a0 = 1/T ∫ g ( t ) dt
−1/ T

T/2

an = 2/T ∫ g (t) cos nwt dt

−T /2

T/2

bn = 2/T ∫ g ( t ) sin nwt d t with n = 1, 2, 3...

−T /2

a0,represents the average value of the function over the period of the T & is
known as the dc component of the signal . a n& bn define the amplitude of the ac
components. The waveform of the periodic function can be analyzed for
determining the Fourier coefficients

Fig a: rectangular wave

Fig (b): rectangular pulse train

Fib ( c): saw tooth wave

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 Fig (d): triangular wave

Fig : common forms of periodic signals a: Rectangular wave b: Rectangular

pulse train c: saw tooth wave d:triangular wave

A triangular wave of period T is shown in the fig a. Possessing cosine

symmetry. It can be seen that a0 = 0, b1 & the a coefficients are given by
4A
An = π (-1)(n-1)/2 , n = 1, 3, 5.....

& the function g(t) is

4A 2π 1 6 πt 1 10 π
g (t) = π [ cos T - 3 cos T + 5 cos T +..........]

A rectangular pulse train of period T possessing cosine symmetry is shown in fig b.

The value of the component a0= At0/T , where t0 is the duration of the existence
of the pulse in the period T. The function is given by
∞
At 0 2 At 0 sin ⁡(nπt 0 /T )
g (t) = +∑ ¿
T n=1 T nπt 0 /T

A saw tooth wave is shown in the fig c & can represented by

1 1 2 πt 1 4 πt
g (t) = A[ 2 − π sin T − 2 π sin T ¿

A triangular wave is shown in the fig d & is given by

∞
1 4 2 πt
g(t) = A[ + ∑
2 π 2 n=1,3,5
cos n
T

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Aperiodic Signals:

An aperiodic signals that occurs once in some finite time & is never repeated,
maybe considered as one with finite period. Application of this condition to a
periodic function results in narrowing the frequency spacing b/w the spectral
components as T becomes larger. At the limiting value of T,the discrete line
spectrum becomes a continuous spectrum.

The Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse of amplitude A& duration to, is

shown in fig a is given by
wt 0
( )
F (jω) = At0 sin 2 v-s
wt 0/2

Fig a: rectangular pulse b: Its frequency spectrum.

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The unit impulse function δ(t) is defined as δ(t)=t 0→0 ,A→∞
∞

and δ (t) = 0 for all values of t except t=0 & ∫ δ ( t ) dt=1

−∞

The Fourier transform of the unit impulse function is given by

Fδ(jw) = Atlim
0→1
At = 1
0

∴ The impulse function has a uniform spectral density & the frequency spectrum
is that at unity for

At0 = 1, as shown in the fig below

Fig(a) fig(b)

Fig: a. A unit impulse function b. Its frequency spectrum

Similarly,it is possible to develop the Fourier spectrum for other forms of a

aperiodic Signals such as Triangular & trapezoidal pulses.

Modulation Signal: periodic signals are characterized by their amplitude,

frequency and phase with respect to a reference point of time. Aperiodic signals
such as rectangular pulses are characterized by their amplitude, width and
position w.r.t the instant of reference.

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 In the field of instrumentation and communication it becomes necessary to
modify one of this characteristic by utilizing another signal such a process known
as modulation the signal which is modified are modulated is known as carrier
signal, & the signal used for modifying the characteristics of the carrier signal is
known as modulating signal.

The process modulation is known as amplitude (A), phase (P), or frequency

(F),Modulation, depending on which of them is subjected to variation by the
modulating signal. If the carrier signal is a pulse, it is referred to as a pulse
modulation.

It is essential that the amplitude variations of the modulating signal with time
are properly reproduced; such a process of reconstruction is known as
demodulation. The entire process of modulation and demodulation is carried out
in the analog domain.

In contrast with analog modulation, digital modulation refers to the process of

utilizing a series of short duration pulses of constant amplitude to represent the
amplitudeof modulating wave.

The modulating signal is sampled for its amplitude at regular intervals of time,
and during each interval a numbers of pulses are released in a coded format so to
signify the amplitude of modulating signal. Such a process constitutes digital
modulation and theprocess of recovering the modulating signal at the output is
digital demodulation process of modulation with several advantages in signal
processing & transmission to a far of location.Transmission of measured data over
a distance by digital modulation and demodulation results in several advantages
as compared to analog process.

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TYPES OF MODULATION:

Continuous wave modulation Pulse modulation

Amplitude modulation Angle Modulation Digital Modulation

Analog Modulation

Frequency modulation Phase Modulation Pulse code modulation (PCM)

PAM PDM PPM

PAM: Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PDM: Pulse Duration Modulation

PPM: Pulse Position Modulation

Sampled Data:

In several situations, it may be necessary to obtain the amplitude of a signal at a

certain desired instant. For signals that persist for a long time and for some
repetitive signals, it may be enough if a set of instantaneous values of the signal
or procured at regularly spaced intervals of time. It is necessarily presumed that
the signal does not abruptly jump in its amplitude during the intervals b/w the
samplinginstants.Under this condition it is possible to convey all the information’s
contained in the signal by re constructing it from the set of instantaneous values
of the amplitude. Such a process is known as sampling process and the values of
amplitudes are known as samples.

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 In a sampling process a continuous time signal is converted to an equivalent
discrete time signal. As shown in figure, switch position is controlled by the
sampling signal. The sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses of unit amplitude
and of period. The T is known as sampling time and during this time switch is
closed so that sampled signal is equal to I/p signal. During remaining time switch
is opened and no input signal appear at the o/p. The sampling process and the
sampled signal can be seen in fig b. The sampled signal Z (t) present itself as
sampled data and it is seen that Z (t) is zero if X (t) is zero.

Pulse Modulation:

The sampling process described so for may be treated as multiplication type

modulation, where in the input signal X(t) is the modulating signal M(t) and the
carrier signal is the sampling signal S(t).

The amplitude of each pulse after modulation defines the amplitude of the
modulating signal & hence the sampled data becomes the modulated carrier
signal. The sampled data does not contain the carrier signal when M (t) = 0 and
hence it is equivalent to DSBSC signal. But in pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

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system it is so arranged that when M (t) = 0, the unmodulated carrier appears in
the o/p and hence it is equivalent to full AM.

The PAM pulse train becomes the basis for other pulse modulation systems such
as pulse duration (or width) modulation (PDM or PWM), pulse position
modulation (PPM), or pulse frequency modulation (PFM), figure shows the
representation of this signals. The combination of the train of PAM pulses with a
coding technique leads to pulse code modulation PCM.

In pulse width modulation , the width of the pulse of t p is made proportional to

the amplitude of the signal sample, were as in PPM, the time at which each
narrow pulse occur relative to a mean or reference position, defines the
amplitude of the signal sample .

Pulse Code Modulation: The sampled data or the PAM signal is suitable for
analog transmission but due to the many advantages of digital transmission
techniques, the analog pulses are converted into digital signals prior to
transmission.

At the receiving end the digital signals are used direct for display and recording or
connected into an analog signal, were ever needed. Hence the combination of

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PAM pulses with a coding technique and conversion of the log signals into digital
signals, leads to PCM.

In PCM , the amplitude range of the sampled analog signal is divided into a finite
no of discrete levels known as quanta if 32 levels uniquely specified the amplitude
range, then it becomes a five digit code in the binary system at 2 5 = 32 . in such a
case, the samples are said to be simply binary coded.

A larger number of discrete levels may be chosen when higher accuracy is

desired. The sample amplitude is represented in digital code by a set of five
rectangular pulses of same height and duration. Recognition of the levels of these
pulses as neither near to zero or near to one is all that is needed to reconstruct
the amplitude of analog signal at the receiving end. The conversion of analog
electrical signals into digital signals is accomplished by analog to digital convertors
(ADC).

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 The process of obtaining the PCM signal in a four digit code is shown in fig a. The
PCM pulses representing each of the sampled amplitudes are indicated in fig b. &
the duration of each PCM pulse is decided by the sampling interval and the
number of binary digits (bits) is used to represent the amplitude. Hence, for
higher accuracy, if a larger number of quanta are used, the band width of the
changed.

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Unit-1:

Explain the functional elements of measuring system?

Describe the various performance characteristics of instrument?

Explain the statistical analysis of random errors?

What is modulated signal and brief discussion of sample data?

Unit- 2:

PAM, PCM telementary system?

Components of digital DAS and analog DAS?

Time division multiplexing?

Frequency division multiplexing?

Comparison of fm, DAM & PCM?

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