TABLE OF CONTENT

GRADE TEN PAGES

Topic 1 Sports Skills Development
……………………………………… 1
Topic 2 Recreational games and Activities……………………………10
Topic 3
Gymnastics………………………………………………………………1
6
Topic 4 Anatomy and
Physiology………………………………………….18
Topic 5
Biomechanics…………………………………………………………..25
Topic 6 Nutrition
…………………………………………………………………30
Topic 7 First
Aid……………………………………………………………………34
Topic 8 Facilities and
Equipment…………………………………………..45
Topic 9
Swimming………………………………………………………………...
50

GRADE ELEVENS PAGES

1
Topic 1
Entrepreneurship………………………………………………………52
Topic 2 Sports Skills
Development………………………………………….54
TOPIC 3 Recreation Games and
Activities………………………………85
TOPIC 4 Anatomy and
Physiology………………………………………….87
Topic 5
Biomechanics……………………………………………………………9
3
Topic 6
Nutrition…………………………………………………………………
…95
TOPIC 7
Swimming………………………………………………………………...
98

GRADE TWELVE PAGES

TOOIC 1 Sports Skills
Development……………………………………..100
TOPIC 2 Recreational Games and
Activities………………………….145
TOPIC 3 Anatomy and
Physiology…………………………………………150
2
TOPIC 4
Biomechanics………………………………………………………….15
7
TOPIC 5 Swimming
………………………………………………………………159
TOPIC 6 Organization and Management of Games and Sports

Events……………………………………………………………………
…161
ANSWERS TO THE
ACTIVITIES……………………………………………….. 163

SPORTS SKILS DEVELOPMENT

BALL GAMES

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Ball games have different fields of play and different demarcations depending on the type of the
game.

Below are some of the fields and courts and their demarcations:

HANDBALL COURT

Side line

R = 9m

4m

20mGoal line
r =6m

7m

40m

Netball court

Side line

GOAL THIRD
Goal third CENTER
Centre THIRD
third GOAL THIRD 4
 Goal third
Back line

4.9m
0.9m 4.9 m

15.25 m

30.5 m

FOOT BALL FIELD

1m

5.5m

5.5m 5
 11m 19m
9.5m

11111 90m
16.5m

16.5m

120m

VOLLEY BALL COURT

18m
Side line

Front zone Back zone

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Back or end line
Center line Attack line
9m

3m 6m

BASKETBALL COURT

2m run- off

0.9m

3.6m
1.8m

15m

8.325m
Side line 28m

MODIFIED SPORTS

Modified sports are greater way to introduce children /beginners to sport in a safe and fun way.

Modifications made to sports make them safer and more appropriate are:

- Decrease in size of the playing field / court.

- Smaller and sometimes softer playing equipment
- Rules changes
- Increase body protection and protective equipments

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Later after material the skills, you can transfer to standard field and follow the standard rules of
the game.
BOARD GAMES

These are the games played on boards, often using dice and small pieces that are moved around.
Some of the board games played are:

1. Draught
2. Chess
3. Snakes and ladders
4. Scrabble
5. Ludo
6. Monopoly

Each board game has its own rules on how to play.

There are several benefits of board games which include:

- Relaxing after work

- Socialisation
- Sharpening the brain through critical and logical reasoning
- Developing counting skills
- Developing vocabulary
- Developing financial skills

Racket games

These are games where players use rackets to hit a ball or other object. These sports have two to
four opposing players with rackets; they rally a ball or shuttle cock on a defined playing surface.

Some of the racket games include:

- Tennis
- Badminton
- Squash
- Table tennis
- Racquet ball

The rules of the games are revised annually or once every two years. You need proper dressing
for each game and should be adhere to shoes with correct grip for a particular game will lead to
best performance and key factors like proper serving, rallying, robbing, drop shot and smashing
lead to good performance.

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TRACK AND FIELD EVENTS

A standard athletics track is 400m (1lap). The width of the lane ranges between 1.22m to 1.25m.
The thickness of line is 50mm. On a standard track, the diameter of the innermost (first) curve is
70m and the straights are 88.2m.

Calculating the number of laps

Distance Number of laps

400m ÷ 400 = 1

800m ÷ 400 = 2
3
1,500m ÷ 400 = 34

NOTE

Whenever athletics are running on a track, make sure that the left hand is on the side of the inner
part of the track. This helps in protecting the dangers that would occur to the heart during curve
running.

EQUIPMENT

The equipment to be used in athletics should not have damage in order to prevent injuries. The
equipments should also be relevant to the age, size and weight of the athlete. The standard of the
equipment should be the last consideration.

Below are the standard field equipments:

EQUIPMENT MEN WOMEN

LENGTH 2.60 - 2.70m 2.20 – 2.30

JAVELIN WEIGHT 800g 600g

WEIGHT 7.26kg 4kg

SHOT PUT DIAMETER 110- 130m 95- 110m

DIAMETER 219- 221mm 180- 132mm

DISCUS WEIGHT 2kg 1kg

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THE SHOT

They must be solid iron, brass or any metal not softer than brass, shell of metal filled with lead or
other materials. It is spherical in shape and the surface must be smooth.

35m 40o

Shot put throwing sector

THE DISCUS

The discus is made of wood or suitable materials with a metal rim, the edge is circular. The sides
of a discus is exactly the same or identical. The radius of the circle of curve to the rim is 25 to
28mm from the centre.

THE JAVELIN

The javelin is divided into three parts; the head, the shaft and lord grip.

Cord grip

Tail Shaft Head

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Javelin spear

7cm 29o

8m

4m

5cm 1.5m

Javelin throwing sector

GENERAL SAFETY RULES

- Equipment should be kept in good conditions and stored in a safe place

- Throwing implements should not be used from the throwing area.
- Training should be undertaken before using the equipment
- The thrower should make sure that there is no one in the landing area before throwing.
- After throwing, the thrower should wait until instructed to collect the implement from the
landing area.
- Wet conditions increase the chances of accidents.

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OTHER EQUIPMENT IN ATHLETICS

- High jump stands

- Take off board
- Stop board
- Cross bar
- Landing mats
- Batons
- hurdles

ACTVITY

1. list down any five safety rules of field events

2. explain the meaning of modified sports and its benefits
3. What are some of the benefits of board games to the players?

RECREATIONAL GAMES AND ACTIVITIES

AEROBIC DANCE

Aerobic dances refer to rhythmic body movements with or without music following a certain rhythmic
pattern. Aerobics can be non-loco motor, that is to mean moving only part of the body but not moving the
body from one place to the other or from one place to the other or from one point to another. Aerobics
can be done individually, in pairs or in groups. Aerobics can be accompanied by music or routine counts
and claps. Jumps and swings can be included. You can walk, run or hop to the rhysim of the music.

Rhythm in dance is simply expressive movement made with or without music. All body movements tend
to be rhythmic such as the beating of the heart, swinging a tennis racket or throwing a ball.

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Rhythm can arouse in one a higher intensity of movement long participation and interest and increased
enjoyment.

However, there are challenges in incorporating rhythmic activities in a programme such as involving a big
amount of materials available in order to present a lesson and also teachers are hesitant about the subject
area.

When performing rhythmic activities, learners should move with good posture, keeping aimless and
excessive movement of the body parts to a minimum.

SOURCES OF RHYTHMIC ACCOMPANIMENT

Below are some of the accompaniments:

 Dance drum and tom-tom.

 Record player.
 C.D. player.
 Cassette player.
 Piano.
 Tape recorder.
 Tambourine.
 Rhythm bands.
 Guitar.

In action songs, learners can learn the music and the words and so provide their own accompaniment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RHYTHMIC BACKGROUND

Music has characteristics that learners should recognise, understand and appreciate. These are also present
in other purely percussive accompaniment to varying degrees. Some characteristics of rhythmic
backgrounds are:

 Tempo:- this is the speed of the music. It can be constant or show a gradual increase or decrease.
 Beat:- this is the underlying rhythm of music. Sometime it is referred to as the pulse of the music.

Music with pronounced beat is easier to follow. Meter refers to the manner in which the beats are put
together to form a measure of music.
2 3 4 6
Common meters are:-4 , 4, 4
and 8
.

TRADITIONAL GAMES

Traditional games are games that have passed from one generation to the other with reference to a
particular ethnic group or society.

Traditional games and activities are games with already made rule and has unknown authors.

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Traditional games are used for social and economic purposes. These very activities have also been
educational, recreational and low cost but suffice to also that traditional games have over the time been
diluted or lost in preference to more standardised and participated game from the west.

Some of the reasons why it happened is that traditional culture is looked upon as for the uneducated and
the poor.

Traditional games had aims as they developed certain aspects of human development. This is so because
traditional games centre on acquisition of movement skills and fitness, cognitive that is the mind and
behaviour. These are developed, in short traditional games therefore should be seen as, ''learning '' or ''
learning through movement ''.

Thus, the primary goal of traditional games is movement skills. Movement skills helped children to
become skilful movers, knowledgeable movers and expressive movers in a variety of fundamental and
specialised movement skills. Fitness development focussed on helping children become fit movers,
informed movers and eager movers by promoting an activity way of life.

The cognitive or mind goals of traditional games focuses on helping children become more effective
multi-sensory learners and active learners.

By promoting goals or these goals, we can use movement as an effective tool to enhance self esteem,
encourage positive socialisation and clarify values.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRADITIONAL GAMES AND SPORT

Traditional games and songs are important to the development to the development of education in that
education has two parts such as formal and informal education which all focuses on learning processes of
values, attitudes and behaviours.

Some of the most cardinal things that make traditional games and songs to be important are:-

 promote cultural values in society.

 maintains cultural values in society.
 consolidates historical background of cultures.
 helps to teach good attitudes to learners.
 they act as informal education process.
 they mould learners/children into good adulthood characteristics.
 they help promote self esteem and confidence in oneself.
 they act as an agent of socialisation in the society.
 they build adolescence belief in their ability to influence or resist their peers.
 they provide a sense of belonging.
 they prevent anti social behaviour and vandalism.
 they preserve traditions and culture.
 they also provide and promote acceptance and appreciation of other cultures from different
backgrounds and regions.

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As seen from the above, this calls for learners to be resourceful and collect as many tradition games as
possible. Below are some traditional games listed:-

 chain tag.
 octopus.
 squad dodge ball.
 kamucucute.
 kalambe.
 waida.
 chiyato/chiyenga. e.t.c.

It should also be noted that these traditional games are grouped according to what they aim to promote
and develop in the learner or child.

These groups are:-

i. Breakthrough Games.

Here the participants finds himself/herself in a hard situation and should break through to free
himself/herself. Such games are :- chinkonko mfulumfulu, mung'ula mung'ula wasenji, tandalyangolo
tandee etc.

ii. Chasing, Jumping, Running And Tapping Games.

These focus on improving children's ability to run and move swiftly. Such games are:- hanangaile,
kabwambe, kamucucute etc.

iii. Choice Games.

These games seek to develop assertiveness and the power to choose and making decisions. Such games
are:- kambushi kalilalila, kankuluwale, nsalensale cinkamba etc.

iv. Knowledge Testing Games.

Here the games focused on developing and strengthening memory. Such games are:- cisolo cakubala,
kapampe kapampe, mwana waluba kamusange etc.

v. Manipulative And Calculative Games.

These focused on the development of the mind ( cognitive)e.g. icibale, iciyenga, insolo, icityanka tyanka
etc.

vi. Rhythmic Games.

These focused on movement of the body such as dance. Such games are:- amina, abana basukulu kwatae,
elyoni elyoni, lengu lengu etc.

CONVENTIONAL GAMES

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Conventional games have specific rules to be followed while performing them. Before teaching these
games, its important to get these rules before introducing them. To aid in the acquisition of the required
skills in these games, there has to be created lead drills.

From the list of the conventional games we find games like volleyball, basket ball, hockey, cricket,
netball, baseball, etc.

Volleyball

The skills under or in volleyball include serving, digging, setting, spiking and blocking.

Basketball

The skills o be acquired under basketball include dribbling, passing, catching, shooting, defending,
stopping, pivoting and feinting.

Hockey

The skills to be acquired under hockey include dribbling, fielding, quick hit, tackling, dodging, driving,
face-off, jab-shot and goal keeping.

STEP ACTIVITIES

Songs are an important aspect in conventional games and as such, songs should be composed but these
should be HIV/AIDS related.

To do this better, seek the help of the music teacher in order to get better results in song composition.

Movement Songs

These include action songs and singing games. In these songs and games you usually sing verses and
these verses tell you how to move.

A movement song can be an interpretation of an old story or fable, a celebration or some kind of a task,(
like the one about HIV/AIDS).

Introduction Of A Song

The steps below provide a sequence for presenting a movement song.

a. background

Discuss the nature and meaning of the song and tell something about it.

b. Analysing the music.

Critically listen to the music.

c. Learning the verses

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For easy learning, write the verses of the song on anything such as the flipchart or board. Learning verse
by verse makes it easier.

d. Adding the action

Be in a particular arrangement suiting the song and action.

There has to be creativity in interpretation as determined by the framework of the movement song. The
parts of a song and action part by part .

e. Including variations

There must be alertness to possible variation that might be suggested by others .

FOLK DANCES AND OTHER DANCE ACTIVITIES

A folk dance is a tradition dance of a given people. In this concept, a folk dance usually has a definite
pattern or dance routine which is usually followed.

Folk dance bring about international understanding in one phase of a learner's education. It should be
noted that a country's way of life and many other habits are often reflected in folk music and dance. As a
result, learners gain an understanding of why people from certain countries act and live the way they do.

To learn a folk dance, you should first consider and know the basic step. If there is instruction, it can be
handled in one or two ways. The first one is to know or learn the step separately. The second is to learn
the dance in its sequence, giving specific instructions at a time when a step appears. The first step is
usually more efficient because you can concentrate on one element, the step.

Introducing a dance step

The ability level of a group and degree of a dance step influence the way in which learning proceeds. The
following considerations are important:-

 Analysis of the step.

 Selection of formation.
 Position of dancers.
 Method of presentation.

Dance formation

a) Single circle formation

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 b) Double circle formation

c) Linear formation

d) Square formation

Gymnastics

These are sports involving the performing of exercises requiring strength, flexibility balance and
control. Gymnastics contribute to the goals of Physical Education. In this type of activities
people participate in movement challenges and are enabled to develop poise (calm and confident
manner), coordination, balance and strength. Gymnastics are physical exercises that develop and
show body strength.

Tumbling and stunts

Tumbling are activities done by hitting the ground several times and people need to have good
skill in performing complex floor agility activities so as to be able to change the position of the
body quickly and still retain balance.

Stunts

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Are activities in the form of play and aim at developing coordination, strength, flexibility,
balance and agility. They are dangerous and difficult actions that one does to entertain people.
Through stunts and tumbling, dedication and perseverance are developed including
resourcefulness to prepare or create many stunt and tumbling activities. Social attribute of
tolerance, helpfulness, courtesy grows up with one’s own safety and that of others. Self-
confidence and courage are also developed. Many stunts demand support wholly or partly by
arms providing needed development of the weak system of muscles of the arm-shoulder-girdle.

After passing through necessary trainings, a person becomes able to perform complex or difficult
stunts since the body become more flexible. There are different types of stunts example are: -
individual, partner support, including partner and group support stunts.

In individual stunts, activities are performed on an individual basis e.g. pretzel where a person
lies facing down on the ground and touches the back of the head with toes by raising the head
and trunk, bringing the feet to the back of the head.

Partner support stunt, is done in pairs e.g. back layout where the supporting partner lies on the
back with arms stretched and palms down for support. Legs raised and feet pushing up the
ceiling. The top partner balances in a lay out position with arms out to the sides for balance. The
bottom partner reaches up and gives support to the top partner’s arms to provide stability. Front
seat and flying Dutchman are sample exercises which can be done, etc.

In partner and group stunts, Eskimo roll and stick carry are performed, including head spring
and other creative plays like neck-spring, hand spring, double wheelbarrow, tanks, etc.

Questions

1. As an individual, perform pretzel activities as one of the activities found in individual

stunts.
2. Explain briefly what gymnastic activities are.
3. What is the difference between flexibility and agility?

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

To understand this topic of anatomy and physiology, its best to first understand the two terms
Anatomy, separately from physiology. This will help know what the topic is about.

Anatomy is the study and dealing with the structure of the human body and the relationships
between the body parts. The term Anatomy is a Greek word meaning to cut up. The knowledge
of anatomy is gain primarily through observation.

Physiology and chemical processes that direct the body’s activities. The term physiology is
‘Greek’ meaning “the study of nature.” The study of about how an organism functions. The
knowledge is gained through scientific experimentation.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Human beings would look very different had it not been for the skeletal system. The skeleton
provides us with a frame work of bones, joints and cartilage which we need for us to stand up
wright and move. The skeletal system consists of 206 bones. However, the number of bones
varies from person to person in accordance with age and genetic factors. The skeleton is divided
into the axial and appendicular.

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THE HUMAN SKELETON

21
 Skull

Scapula Mandible

Humerus Ribs
Sternum
Radius
Ilium
Sacrum Ulna
Carpals

Phalanges

Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula

Phalanges Metatarsals

FUNCTIONS

- The skeleton provides shape and support for the organs and tissues of the body.
- The skeleton provides protection to the internal organs
- The skeleton provides a surface area for muscle attachment and thus allows movement.
- The skeleton, from the bone marrow, cavities of large bones, produce red and white
blood cells.
- The skeleton also functions as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and fats
required for body functions.

THE AXIAL SKELETON

The axial skeleton provides the supportive structure of the skeleton and is made up of skull,
vertebral column, and sternum and ribs.

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

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The appendicular skeleton consists of the shoulder girdle with the upper limbs and the pelvic
girdle with the lower limbs.

THE SHOULDER GIRDLE

The shoulder girdle consists of one clavicle and one scapular.

THE UPPER LIMBS

The upper limbs consist of humerus, radius, ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 meta carpals, 14 phalanges.

D. The fore-limb of Man (the arm).

The whole arm of Man consists of:

• Scapula (shoulder blade), which is loosely attached to the backbone for easy movement.
• The humerus, the upper arm bone, which has along shaft with a head at both ends.
• The radius and ulna (lower arm bones).
• The wrist and hand bones (carpals and metacarpals).
• And the fingers (phalanges)
The radius and ulna articulate with the humerus at the elbow-joint and with the carpals at the wrist.
Radius and ulna twist around each other when the arm is turned
(Thumb inside thumb outside).

THE PELVIC GIRDLE

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The pelvic girdle and lower limb

The bones of the pelvic girdle are: 2 hip bones and 1 sacrum. The lower limbs consist of the
femur or thigh bone which is the longest and strongest bone, the tibia or shin bone, the fibula, the
patella or knee cap, the tarsal or ankle bone, metatarsal bones, tarsal bones and phalanges of the
toes.

THE ARTICULAR SYSTEM

The study of joints of the body is called Anthrology. A joint is the place at which two or more
bones join or come together. And as such, an articulation is where two or more bones form a
union. These joints between bones are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints.

TYPES OF JOINTS

There are three types of joints and are grouped according to the degree of movement each
permits.

(i) FIBROUS OR FIXED JOINTS

These are found in the skull, between the teeth, maxilla, mandible and the pelvic bones. These do
not allow movement. They are fixed.

(ii) CARTILAGINOUS OR SLIGHTLY MOVABLE JOINTS

These are found where bones are joined by intervening cartilage, such as in the
vertebral column, public bones, the diaphysis and epiphysis.
(iii) SYNOVIAL OR FREELY MOVABLE JOINTS
These allow a wide range of movements. They are classifies according to the range of
movement or the shape of the joining parts of the bones involved.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

(i) ARTICULAR OR HYYALINE CARTILAGE

In these joints, bones at their contacts are covered with hyaline cartilage.
(ii) ARTICULAR CAPSULE
This is a strong fibrous tissue that envelops surrounding the joint. They are attached
to the bones near the edge of the articular surfaces.
(iii) SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE

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 The fine membrane lines the inside of the capsule, but does not cover the hyaline
cartilage. This membrane produces synovial fluid.
(iv) SYNOVIAL FLUID
This is a sticky yellowish fluid secreted by synovial membrane into the synovial
cavity. This fluid:
- Acts as lubricant
- Maintain joint stability
- Prevents bones at the ends from separating.
(v) LIGAMENTS

These are strong fibrous bands found at the knee and other joints.

(vi) ARTICULAR DISCS

These lie between the articular surfaces. Their function is to absorb shock, maintain
joints stability and protect the bone surfaces.

BURSAE

These are closed sacs filled with synovial fluid. They help prevent or friction.

THE HINGE JOINT

(i) The hinge joints allows back and forth movement, such as bending and straightening,
examples of hinge joints are the knee join, ankle, knackle, elbow among others.
(ii) The pivot joints
The pivot allows only rotation movement. Examples are those between the atlas and
the axis between the radius and the humerus.
(iii) The Ovoid joint (Ellipsoid)
The Ovoid joints allow back-and-forth and side to side movement called biaxial.
These are found between carpals, (wrist) and the radius.
(iv) Gliding joints (plane)
These are found between bones with flat surfaces. These have limited movement,
restricted by ligaments and allows side to side and back and forth movements.
(v) The saddle joint
These are found in the phalanges
(vi) The ball and socket joint
The ball and socket joint allows many movements such as the back and forth, side to
side and rotational. (triaxial). For instance in the hip and shoulder joints, the head of
the femur, humerus fit snugly into the cavity in the pelvis.

MOVEMENTS ALLOWED BY THE SYNOVIAL JOINT

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 (i) Flexion: this is bending, decreasing the angle between two bones.
(ii) Extension: This is the straightening to increase the angle between the two bones.
a) Abduction:
This is the movement of the bone away from the body midline.
b) Adduction:
This is the movement of the bone towards the body midline.
c) Circumduction
This is a circular movement of the body part so that a cone shaped air space is
traced. This movement in possible at the shoulder, wrist, trunk among others.
d) Rotation:
This is the movement of the bone around its own axis, i.e. turning of the head from
side to side.

Other movements allowed by synovial joints are pronation eversion, enversion,

dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, supination, elevation and depression.

MASCULAR SYSTEM

The study of muscles is called mycology. There are 600 muscles that make up the muscular
system. Muscles produce movement by pulling bones in different direction of course depending
on the type of joint.

To better understand this area of study, it is important to understand first what an organ is.
An organ is a structure consisting of two or more tissue types that part a specific function.
In this context, each skeletal muscle of the body is an organ – it is composed of the skeletal
muscle tissue, connective tissue, and fibrous tissue and each muscle has a particular function.

FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES

Muscles serve three general functions. i.e. (i) motion (ii) heat production and (iii) posture and
body support.

MOTION

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The skeletal muscles move the body or body parts (motion) as in walking, playing among others.
The contraction and relaxation of muscles also help in breathing.
At this stage it is important to note that muscles are in two groups in term of motion. We have
voluntary and involuntary muscles. Voluntary muscles are those that contract at stimulation
(tonus) e.g. the biceps and triceps of the forearms, and involuntary muscles are those that
contract on their own such as the cardiac muscles of the heart.
The other function of the muscles is protecting the internal organs.

HEAT PRODUCTION

The body temperature is always constant. This is because the breakdown of food (metabolism) in
the cells releases heat as an end product increases as you do exercise.

The skeletal muscles also maintain posture and provide support around flexible joints.

MUSCLE ATTACHMENT

Muscles end in tendons. Its these tendons that attach muscles to the bones. Tendons are
composed of dense fibrous connective tissues.

TYPES OF MUSCLES

There are three types of muscles in the human body and these are the skeletal, smooth and
cardiac muscles.

The skeletal or voluntary muscles are also called striped or striated muscles and make up the
majority of the muscles in the body.

BIOMEHANICS
Biomechanics this is simply means the mechanics of movement in living things.

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MECHANICS is the study of the forces and motion produced by their actions. Force is any action that
moves an object while vector is a quantity having both force and direction.

Force in mechanics is any action that maintains the position of a body

TYPES OF FORCES

- Gravity
- Gas pressure in an engine cylinder
- Wind pressure on a building
- Resistance to motion in air or water
- Magnetic and electrostatic attraction and repulsion.
- Nuclear attraction
- Pressure friction between contacting bodies

There are four fundamental forces of interaction among particles of matter are;

- Gravitational forces
- Electromagnetic forces
- Strong forces
- Weak forces

These are the four bond components of atomic nuclei.

KINETICS

It is a branch of mechanics concerned with the relationship between moving objects, their masses and
forces acting on them. Forces control the movement of the body. The effects of forces on the body are;

1. INTERNAL
- Muscle contraction
- Tension from ligament
- Muscle lengthening
2. EXTERNAL
- Gravity
- An external load
- A therapist applying resistance
- Free- weight for resistance training.

FRICTION

It is the force that developed between two surfaces.

FRICTION IN SPORTS

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 - It helps in having proper grip when throwing and catching in ball games like netball or in field
events such as javelin, shot put etc.
- Players has to wear sports shoes to help him/her have the right grip to suit the surfaces where he
or she playing from.

EXTERNAL FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS IN SPORTS

- Gravity helps performer to be stable on the ground. This is because the forces acting on the body
moving at a uniform speed in straight line are balanced.
- Gravity helps to bring down the sports equipment thrown up, kicking or the performer when
jumping.

HOW FORCES CREATE MOVEMENT IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN SPORTS

- Muscles contractions play a big role in movement. When muscles contract, they help the athlete
to push forward.
- Muscle lengthening provides elasticity which is very useful when throwing or jumping.
- Gravitational pull helps the performer’s foot to come back down to the ground and continues with
the physical activity until the end. Gravity forces are distributed throughout a body, are assumed
to be concentrated at its centre of gravity.

GENERATING FORCES TO MAINTAIN POSITIONING SPORTS

In many cases force acts on an object on an object at the same time. Such concurrent forces produce
single net force called resultant force.

- Concurrent forces that produce motion when they interact are called unbalanced forces, e.g
pushing a car.
- Forces that do not produce motion when they interact are called balance forces e.g sitting on the
on the chair.

In order to generate forces to maintain positioning sports, field event of play and courts of various games
should be constructed using natural or synthetic materials that will allow friction easily.

The foot wear for sports must have relevant grip which will interact with the surface and create un
balanced forces in order to allow movement. When biking the tyres of the sports bike should have good
treads to allow friction on the surface which makes friction easy, resulting in quick movement.

CALCULATING FORCE, WORK, FRICTION, SPEED AND ENERGY

FORCE

The energy that causes the body to change its state of motion or shape is called force. Force is a vector
quantity since it acts in fixed direction. A force produces acceleration in the direction of the force.
Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes. For example, when you kick the ball while aiming at
the goal the ball will move in the direction of the goal, at a different speed (velocity). The speed of the

29
ball is higher at the start and reduces with the increase in distance. Force has magnitude (size), its
direction and point at which is applied.

Force = mass X acceleration

F = Ma

SI unit is Newton (N)

WORK

When force acts upon an object, for example a ball, it causes the ball to move from one place to another
(displacement). This is work done by force. Work can be calculated when you have ;

- Force
- Displacement
- Angle between the force and displacement.

Work = force X displacement

W=fXs
SI unit is joules (J)

Example

A learner with a mass of 60.0 kg runs three flights of stairs in 10 seconds. The learner has gone a vertical
distance of 6 metres. Find the amount of work done by the learner to elevate his body to this height,
(the learner’s speed is constant).

Solution

W=fXS

The weight of an object of the learner is force (f) which the learner exerts under gravitational attraction.

Weight = mass (m) X acceleration to gravity (g)

Weight = m X g

= 60 X 9.8

= 588N

Therefore, work done = f X s

W = 588 X 6

= 3528J

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FRICTION

Friction is the ability of the object to resist being moved across another.

There are three basic types of friction;

1. Sliding (kinetic) friction: this is produced when two surfaces slide passed each other.
2. Rolling friction: this is the resistance produced when rolling body moves over a surface.
3. Fluid frictions (viscosity): this is the friction between moving fluids and solid.

The ratio between weight being moved and force pressing the surface together is the coefficient of
friction (c.f)
𝐹
Coefficient friction = 𝑃

𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Coefficient friction (µ) = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝒇𝒓
µ=
𝒇𝒏

SPEED

The term is used when describing motion.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed (S) = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

SI unit is m/s or km/h

Example

What is the speed of a runner moving 100metre in 11seconds?

𝑑
S= 𝑡

100𝑚
S= 11𝑠
= 9.1m/s

ENERGY

Energy is the capacity to do work.

Energy = force X distance

Force = mass X acceleration

Therefore, Energy = (mass X acceleration) X distance

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SI unit is in joules (J)

The acceleration due to gravity is symbolized as (g). The height above surface of the earth is (h).

Gravitational potential energy (PE) = m X g X h

Other forms of energy include Kinetic energy (KE). Kinetic energy is the energy movement.
1
Kinetic energy (KE) = 2
𝑚 𝑋 𝑉 2 , where (m) is the mass and (V) is the velocity of the object.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEVER SYSTEM HUMAN BODY OPERATIONS

All lever have three important parts that is , Pivot (fulcrum), an input arm and out arm, effort and load.

Levers are grouped into classes

i. First class ( Effort-fulcrum-Load)

ii. Second class ( Effort-Load-Fulcrum)
iii. Third class ( Fulcrum-Effort-Load)

A first class lever is rare in human body. For example the joint between the head and the first vertebra.
When heading the ball, the head is the load, the pivot is the space between the first bone of the vertebra
and the effort is the vertebra. In the second class, the weight (load) is between the fulcrum and the force,
e.g. a wheelbarrow. In human body the second class lever can be found in lower legs when someone
stands on tiptoes. The pivot is formed by bones in the part of the foot between the ankle and the toes
(metatarsal bones). The resistance (load) is the weight of the body. The third class lever is where force is
applied between the resistance (weight) and the axis (pivot).

ACTIVITY

1. Namundi kicks the ball towards the goal and the ball moves 20m carry a force of 325N. How
much work done is done by the girl?
2. If Mapalo is a cyclist on a tour travelled eastwards a distance of 1300m in 1 hour, what would be
the speed of the cyclist?

NUTRITION

Nutrition is the process by which a person eats proper food for growth and health development,
or balanced diet needed by a person. Nutrients are substances within the food that the body needs
to work properly.

Balance diet is that food which fulfills all the nutritive needs of a normal and healthy individual.
It should contain all nutritional value such as carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins etc.

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There are six different kinds of nutrients in food, namely:

- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Fats and oils
- Vitamins
- Mineral salts
- water

Carbohydrates or starch

They are necessary for producing heat and energy to be utilized in work. They are usually
available in form of starch, which when eaten is changed into sugar and later on into glucose.
They are found in maize, wheat, finger millet, sorghum, rice, milk, and fruits.

Proteins

Proteins are very important and help in the formation of new body tissues for replacing old ones
spent in work. They help growth in young children produce digestive juice, and resist diseases.

- Vegetable protein is found in leafy vegetables, wheat and milk.

- Non vegetarian proteins are found in eggs, fish and meat.

Fats and oils

Fats and oils produce heat in the body and energy for muscles. They protect against heat and
cold.

Vegetable fats are found in butter, coconut, till oil and mustard oil.

Non – vegetable are found in fish, meat and eggs.

Vitamins

They are good for the body and are known as life giving matter. They help in the growth of the
body, in resisting diseases, facilitating the digestive system, and the nervous system. They are
called as A, B, C, D, E and K.

Vitamin A

It is needed for eyes, lungs, intestines and skins. It increases appetite and build resistance against
diseases. It is found in vegetables, eggs, fish, milk, and tomatoes.

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Vitamin B

It is of 15 different types and is the most important of all the vitamins and is needed for all the
system of the body. It is found in eggs, fruits and vegetables.

Vitamin C

It is found in uncooked food. It not found in the tinned food. Lack of vitamin C causes the
disease called scurvy.

Vitamin D

It is important and is needed for the development of bones and teeth. Lack of vitamin D in the
body causes rickets in legs. It is found in milk, vegetables, cream, butter and yoke. Itsdeficiency
can be made good or corrected by the sun light also

Vitamin E

It is good and relates to reproduction.

Mineral salts

These include iron, calcium, iodine, sulphur, sodium, chloride, magnesium and phosphate. They
activate digestion, balance acids and alkaline, strengthen muscles and bones.

Water

It has important mineral salts needed for body functions. The body contain large amount of
water.

It is an important nutrient although it doesn’t provide any calories it is second to air in

maintaining life.

FUNCTIONS OF WATER IN THE HUMAN BODY

- It promotes digestion of food.

- It helps in removing waste or toxic products from the body. e.g. urine and feces.
- It is an important nutrient.
- It carries nutrient, hormones, diseases-fighting cells, anti-bodies from the body through
the blood stream.
- It helps in the transportation of body cells.
- It regulates the body temperature
- It carries dissolved nutrients throughout the human body
- It helps in human digestion.

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 - It lubricates your joints and mucus membranes.

FUNCTIONS OF FIBRE IN HUMAN BODY

- It helps to reduce the amount of cholesterol in the blood.

- It helps to prevent heart diseases and diabetes.
- It improves digestion and reduces constipation.

NUTRITION REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS AND SPORT.

Good nutrition is made up of various nutrients. Nutrients are found in food substances
which the body requires to perform well in its biological functions. Carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, minerals and water release energy to enable the body to function. The
energy which the above nutrients produce is known as calorie. Carbohydrates contain
sugars and starch. For any person to actively participate in any physical, he or she
requires calories. The physical activity could be swimming.
Nutrition promotes fitness. Eating a meal rich in carbohydrates builds up energy needed
for competition. Carbohydrates provide energy that makes one to promote fitness in
sports.
DRUG ABUSE IN SPORT
What are drugs?
Drugs are chemicals occurring in natural forms or made in laboratories, which affects
normal functioning of the body in some way.
What is drug abuse?
It is the use of any drug in a way that is harm to the body. Drug abuse can as well mean
use of the non-medical drug that interferes with a healthy and productive life.
Common drugs abused include; marijuana, opium, heroine, cocaine, mirra, caffeine, glue
and jetfuel, alcohol and nicotine.

WAYS TO CONTROL DRUG ABUSE IN SPORT

- Carry out regular testing of sportsmen.

- Arresting drug traffickers who frequently supply drugs.
- Detoxifiers should be administered to the drug users who engage in drug abuse.
- Education to the sports men on the dangers of using drugs
DOPING
It is the deliberate use of substance by sports persons.
EFFECTS OF DOPING IN SPORTS
- Getting drug related diseases like lung cancer, heart diseases and kidney failures.
- It affects the normal working of the body organs like kidney, heart, liver, stomach and
lungs.

35
 - Loss of jobs in case one is a professional sportsman.
- Loss of efficiency in the sports activities.

ACTIVITY

1. State the six types of nutrients and their functions.

2. What is Doping?
3. Explain the functions of water in the human body.
4. Briefly explain the effects of Doping in sport.

FIRST AID

First Aid: This is the first treatment given to a person who has fallen sick suddenly or hasinjured
himself or herself or has been found in an accident.

When a person happens to have injured himself or herself, immediate care is supposed to be
administered to such a victim or casualty so as to preserve life, promote quick recovery and to
prevent further injury. Hence, the initial treatment techniques for giving first aid are supposed to
be known by the first aider.

HEALTHY AND SAFETY

HIV/AIDS:

HIV is Human ImmunodeficiencyVirus; this involves the virus destroying the immune system
making it harder for the body to fight infections.

AIDS-AcquiredImmunedeficiency Syndrome. This is a preventable disease caused by a virus.

AIDS virus destroys the body’s defense system against disease germs. The virus enters thebody
and destroys special white blood cells that signal the release of antibodies without white blood
cells. Antibodies cannot fight disease germs. AIDS does not spread easily.

HIV is spread through:-

 Blood transfusion, accidental needle sticks or needle sharing.

 Mother to child. A pregnant mother can transmit the virus to her foetus through their
shared blood circulation.

36
  Sexual contact including oral, vaginal and anal sex.

Blood contains the highest concentration of the virus, semen and vaginal fluids and the last
one is in breast milk.

Some rare ways in which the virus may spread are:-

 Artificial insemination with infected semen.

 Accidental needle or razor injury.
 Organ transplantation from infected person.
 Mosquito bites, mosquitoes that have bitten an infected person cannot transmit the
virus to another person.

People at high risk of getting HIV are:-

 Those who have unprotected sex with infected or HIV positive people.
 Sexual partners who participate in high risk activities such as injection drug use or anal
sex.
 Infants born to mothers with HIV who did not receive HIV therapy during pregnancy.
 Injection drug users who share needles.

Prevention of HIV/AIDS

 Avoid oral, vaginal or anal contact with semen from HIV infected people.
 Avoid sharing needles or syringes. Always use new and disposable needles.
 Avoid having sex with multiple partners.
 People who are HIV positive should not donate blood, plasma, body organs or sperms.
 Adopt safer sexual behaviours. This will reduce the risk of getting the infection.

Reproductive Health: -

This is the right to decide when and how often one becomes a parent or not to be a parent at all.

37
Elements of reproductive health:-

 Family planning.
 Child health and nutrition.
 Promotion of breast feeding.
 Prevention of abortion and its associated complications.
 Adolescents and youth health.
 Management and prevention of STDs, HIV/AIDS.
 Counseling on reproductive health and sexuality.
 Prevention and treatment of infertility.

Puberty: This is the process of physical change by which a child’s body matures into an adult.
The changes youths develop at puberty are controlled by hormones produced by the pituitary
gland and by glands found in the reproductive organs.

Major hormones at puberty are:-

Oestrogen and testosterone. Both are present in male and female.

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Physical Changes

MALE FEMALE

 Growth of chest hair  Breast development

 Development of muscle tissue  Widening of the hips

 Voice becomes soft

 Enlargement of the penis
 Menstruation
 pubic hair grows
 Growth of pubic hair
 Growth of hair under the arms
 Growth of hair under arms

 The voice becomes deep  Pores on the skin become larger

 Skin starts to produce more oil  Produce more oil and sweat

 Glands in the skin

 Penis foreskin retraction

39
The menstrual cycle:-

It is a woman’s monthly reproductive cycle. Its purpose is for sexual reproduction. This occurs in
the uterus and ovary. It happens in girls at 12 years, some at 9 or late 16 years. Ovulation is
when the egg is released from the ovaries. The egg moves through the fallopian tube to the
uterus.

40
As the egg moves through the fallopian tube, the uterus lining becomes thicker, preparing the
uterus for pregnancy in case of fertilization. If the egg is not fertilized, it breaks down into fluid
containing and flow through the vagina and it becomes known as menstruation.

Teenage Pregnancy

This is when a girl under the age of 20 gets pregnant. It appears after menarche. Menarche is the
first menstrual cycle or first menstrual bleeding in female humans.

Reasons for Teenage Pregnancy

 High rate of poverty

 Low education levels or lack of education
 Cultural beliefs

The effects are that teenage girls are likely to drop out of school, can lead to death at the time of
giving birth, bones and muscles are not ready for physical stress of pregnancy. As a result, it can
lead to giving girth to premature babies. Also, it will lead to having low birth weight babies and
babies experience many medical problems because of the ignorance of teenage mothers.

Early sex

Early sex is a sin before God. It may hinder social development and contribute to an individual’s
participation in prostitution and adultery.

Early sex can also lead to sexually transmitted infections (STIs)which are infectious diseases that
are spread from one person to another by sexual contact during sexual intercourse (syphilis,
gonorrhea, AIDS). Early sex also can lead to unwanted pregnancies, leading to street children,
malnutrition and suffering among innocent children.

First aid techniques

41
The purpose of safety education is to prevent accidents, hence, there is need to endeavor to
examine the situation to determine how accidents can be prevented. Though exercise, sport or
games are enjoyable, they have the potential to cause injury. Most exercise-related injuries start
with warning signals, into painful inhibiting conditions requiring rest and treatment.

The injuries are internally and externally caused injuries. An injury in physical education is
sudden or unplanned event which has the ability to produce personal injuries.
Causes of sports injuries

 Doing exercises like stretching before warm-up.

 Outstretching
 Twisting or turning quickly
 Performing when one is tired
 Bouncing while stretching

Overcoming sports injuries

Safety precautions are important to be followed during physical education. These include:

 Warm up before doing exercises, proper gradual warm-up goes a long way to prevent
injuries e.g. walking, jogging.
 Do not overdo exercises at the start. Begin with moderate exercises of about 20 minutes.
 Have a routine physical exercise. Any new activity can stress one’s body.
 Avoid bouncing while stretching. It is a wrong belief that bouncing while stretching helps
muscles to stretch further.
 Since working through the pain causes more damage, the learner needs to rest in case he
or she has an injury.
 Do not ignore body signals of fatigue, discomfort and pain. Learners have to report such
signals.
 Follow proper training techniques.

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Basic first aid techniques

These are the methods used by the first aider when treating a victim or casualty. As explained
earlier, first aid is practical and it is an immediate care for an injury or sudden illness. And, it is
given to protect the affected part of the body from further injuries. Hence, the first aider should
apply some methods or techniques to prevent further injuries and need to know how to monitor
ABCs.

A-Airway

B-Breathing

C-Circulation

Monitoring of ABCs requires or involves three steps:-

 Keeping the injured person’s airway open

 Checking the person’s breathing, if airway is blocked, use rescue breathing technique.
For instance, mouth to mouth.
 Checking circulation by feeling for a pulse and looking for signs of bleeding. If
circulation has stopped, Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) should be given by a
person trained in CPR.

CPR is an emergency procedure for manually preserving breathing in a person and improving
upon blood circulation. It helps to preserve brain function until further measures to treat the
person are attained.

Rescue breathing techniques:-

43
  Placing a person on his or her back. Tilt the injured person’s head back with the chin
pointed upwards to help open the airway.
 Use mouth to mouth ventilation; check the chest for breathing movements. Listen and
feel for signs of breathing at the mouth and nose. If not breathing, use mouth to mouth
ventilation which is effective to restore breathing, even chest compression can be used to
restore breathing.
 Pinching of the nose with index finger and middle finger can be done in case of shock,
loss of consciousness, make the person lie on the back with feet raised to ensure enough
blood gets to the brain. If shock, dizziness and unconsciousness occur, it implies that the
brain is not receiving enough oxygen which reads to the feeling of faintness.

Bone and joint problems :

The human body is able to move because of the bones and muscles. Bones and muscles grow
stronger with use and grow weaker with disuse.

Functions of bones : -

 They help to support the body.

 They protect the body as they provide ahard covering for some soft tissues or body
organs. e.g. ribs protect the heart and the lungs. Skull protects the brain.
 They help in movement. Bones help to produce movement by functioning as leavers for
muscles to pull against.
 Bones also act as storage for minerals like calcium and phosphorus, which are important
minerals for the body to function healthily.
 A joint is a place where two or more bones come together and a ligament is a thick cord
of tissue that crosses a joint and hold bones together.

There are four common types of freely movable joints which are: hinge, pivot, grinding and
the ball and socket joints.

Bone and joint problems

44
Bones get stressed when a person moves, runs and walks, thus causing bone and joint injuries.
Examples include: - fractures, strains and dislocation.

Bone fracture

When a bone is broken, it is called or known as a fracture. There are two types of fractures-
simple (close) and open/compound fractures. Green stick fracture is the cracking of the bone and
it is common in babies.

Simple/closed fracture

Open compound fracture

Joint injuries

These are injuries caused by twisting movement e.g. actions of jumping, running, quick
movements and sudden changes in direction put stress and strain on joints. If stress is great, it
causes sprain, strain and dislocation.

Sprain : - Is a tear in a ligament caused by stretching ligament too far.

Signs of sprain:- Pain, swelling and restricted joint movements. Applying Ice packs helps to
heal.

45
Strain : - It is an injury on the muscle or tendon. A tendon is a fibrous cord of tissue that
attracts muscles to bones. It is brought about by overuse of muscle and tendons. Signs are: -
muscle weakness, swelling, and inflammation and cramping.

Dislocation

When the end of one bone is pulled out of the joint, a dislocation appears. Causes are: - fall, a
blow or unusual physical effort. It is common in people who play football and hockey. Signs are
similar for sprain but are more intense. Treatment is pulling dislocated bone back into the joint
and holding in place with a bandage.

Prevention

 Participate in regular physical exercises.

 Do stretching exercises every day.
 Wear protective fitting shoes e.g. while playing football.
 Eat a balanced diet, as this nourishes.
 Warm up before sports activity.
 Wear appropriate equipment for a given sport.

QUESTIONS : -

1. List down two first aid techniques

2. Create a situation where a person has fainted and you need to apply first aid techniques,
but first you need to know how to monitor ABCs.
a) Explain the steps involved in monitoring ABC and then write its initials in full.

b) Explain the difference between a sprain and a strain.

c) Explain how you would treat a strain

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENTS

Facilities refer to building, services, equipment and many amenities that are provided for a
particular purpose, game or sport. The term equipment refers to things that are needed for a
particular activity. In physical education and sport, these facilities are permanent in one place

46
and thus not movable. These are places like playing grounds for soccer, netball, hockey, rugby
and so on, and courts of badminton, volleyball, basketball, handball, swimmingpools, athletics,
tracks, sand pits, and gymnastics and so on. The equipment include balls, rackets, nets, bats,
boards., hockey sticks, high jump standards, cross bar, cones, javelin, shot put, discuss among
others.

DESIGNS

Facilities should be planned in terms of maximum expected enrolments. Often it’s done in terms
of present situation. This normally results in challenges in the near future as numbers increase of
participants.

The facilities of P.E.S can be classified into two groups; outdoor and indoor. This is normally
determined by climatic conditions of the place or area.

The outdoor space provides enough room for several classes to work simultaneously.

CONSTRUCTION OF OUTDOOR FACILITIES

Finding a place where to put up these facilities is up to the school. But once this is done, marking
to indicate dimensions of these facilities should be done by the teachers of P.E.S and the pupils.
This will help the learners to be conversant with the appropriate measurement as they are the
future teachers of P.E.S and coaches of tomorrow. Play fields should be leveled, drained and
turfed because grass is the most suitable field surface.

Watering of the play fields if possible should be done in the evening to avoid the place being
soggy the next day during play.

On dry and hard play surfaces, injuries are likely to occur, thus care of these facilities is
necessary.

CONSTRUCTION OF INDOOR FACILITIES

If the school has money, gymnasium is would be an ideal situation.

Do not combine a gymnasium with an auditorium cafeteria as a , “multiple room” it causes more
harm than good. It is important to separate the gym from classes to avoid noise as sport is a noise

47
activity and also to allow access to it without reaching other parts of the school. However,
consideration of spectacles should not be a primary factor or concern. Marking should be done
on the floor of the play areas for the more common activities. For the floor, a wooden one is
more recommended as other surfaces limit community use and create both safely and
maintenance problems. Lighting should be sufficient an easy to be serviced.

In short, the facility/facilities should be endowed with things which are easy to maintain and
manage. Storage and the use of P.E.S Storage of bulky auditorium facilities should have a large
room.

In short, for better management of these facilities there is need to.

- Have a lager storage room or separate store rooms

- Have a separate storage cabinet for outside group that use the facility
- Groups should not access to the regular physical education supply room
- Check out equipment to the group and check in with them.
- The shower rooms should be enough for the group
- Shower rooms should be separate those of boys from girls

DESIGNING SIMPLE EQUIPMENT

- Teacher and pupils should be creative to design simple sports and game facilities. To do
this use the environmental and material available to make equipment such as use plastics,
sisal, sucks, etc
- You can also involve art department to design these simple equipment such as the
industrial arts and so on.

48
 - Through designing these equipments, entrepreneurship skills can be developed by selling
the excess

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

Equipment refers to items of more or less fixed nature. Supplies are those non durable items that
have a limited period of use and as thus need periodic replacement. This calls for planning for
them and consideration of their life span. Supplies are usually purchased on annual basis.

PURCHASING POLICIES

Purchasing of supplies involves careful study of needs, price, quality and material, safety of the
users is of vital concern. Thus one individual should be responsible for this purchasing.

An accurate inventory should be taken at each beginning of each academic year.

Ordering and purchasing should be done at the end of each academic year.

OUTDOOR EQUIPMENT

Two factors are important in selecting outdoor equipment

- Each piece of equipment must contribute to development of the learner.

- The equipment must have value to the learner.

INDOOR EQUIPMENT

Several factors should be considered here:

- You must have a reasonable variety

- The amount of the equipment should be enough and available to learners
- The type that the learners will be able to use effectively without causing injuries

MANAGEMENT OF FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

49
 It is important to look after these facilities and equipment well.

This should be fulfilled by:

- Mowing the field regularly

- Marking regularly play grounds and courts
- Proper storage of equipment
- Locking the store room regularly
- Counting the equipment to be used before and after lessons

This will result in:

- Less annual expense

- Minimal accidents
- School becomes land mark in the area.
- Avoiding travelling expenses as you will be hosting games mostly
- Hiring the facilities to other schools and thus will bring funds to the school.

MAINTENANCE

The facilities should be regularly maintained by

- Repairing of facilities and equipment

- Remove damaged equipment that may cause injuries
- Replace damaged equipment
- proper handling of equipments
- Use of corrects sports shoes

50
 - Have racks in the store for proper storage
- Have a responsible and permanent store keeper besides the teacher if funds are available.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

- Balls must be inflated to proper pressure

- Area should be established where to repair equipment
- Kick only balls meant for kicking
- Bats should not be used for hitting rocks
- All equipment and supplies should be marked.
- A master list in stipulating the types and quality of supplies in storage should be
established.

ACTIVITY

- Why is it important for pupils and teachers together to mark play fields
- What are the benefits of managing and maintaining your facilities and equipment well to
the school?

SWIMMING

There are about four types of swimming strokes /styles commonly used and these are :-

1. Butterfly stroke
2. Back stroke
3. Free style
4. Breast stroke.

COMPETITIVE SWIMMING.

The teacher or coach should provide swimmers with adequate practice in order to perfect their
swimming strokes. They should work seriously on the following:-

51
 - Body alignment
- Breathing techniques
- Starts and turns
- Speed
- Racing dives

The teacher should also organize build up swimming galas. For example, inter- house swimming
gala and inter school swimming galas. This helps swimmers to reduce the tension when called to
participate in competitive swimming galas.

SURVIVAL SKILLS
- A system of an emergency plan
- Safety equipment
- Development of site procedure
- Emergency medical services (EMS) system in the school or community at large and how
to access it.
- Emergency phone call.
- Posting emergency information and phone numbers.
- Emergency plan for facility(indoor/beach) or lake front.
- Plans for non life guarded areas such as a pond, private pool, quarry or lake.

WATER SAFETY

Water safety course is to help participants become familiar with potential hazards of water
activities. To prevent accidents and to respond effectively if an emergency occurs. The course
builds on the goals and shares the objectives of basic water safety course

The dangers in entering the water really demand certain personal rules of conduct to be observed
for aquatic participants; to mention but a few;

- Never swim alone.

- Know the area from where you plan to swim.
- Do not swim immediately after a heavy meal
- Do not run, push or involve in fun play on a pool deck.
- Put on the correct swimming costume.
- Never swim when it is raining or during thunderstorms.
52
 - Do not chew gum while swimming.

ACTIVITY

1. Mention down the four commonly known and used swimming style.
2. List down six water safety rules to be taken into consideration before one begins to swim.

GRADE ELEVEN NOTES

INTREPRENEURSHIP
Before we can involve ourselves in any entrepreneurship venture, its best firs to understand what
entrepreneurship is.

The term entrepreneurship refers to the process of launching a new business.

It is the capacity and willingness to develop, organise and manage a business venture. Apart
from knowing what entrepreneurship is, its important also to know the elements of
entrepreneurship. The following are the elements of entrepreneurship;

- have a relationship and connection with the scouts/experienced entrepreneurs for

support

53
 - to take part or involve yourself in meetings where other small entrepreneurs discuss
critical skills

- seek connection and mentorship of experienced entrepreneurs

With the information above, we can try to identify areas of business and project we can
undertake in which we are sure we will be successful.

We have to bare and mind that in this context, the business we want to start is business oriented.
And has such, we will have to look at our area and see in which area of business concerning
sports we will venture into.

Most schools surroundings us do not have sports equipments to use in their PES lesson,
equipments such as shot put, high jump standards, long jump sand pits, long jump take off
boats, relay exchange buttons, javelin spears, etc.

STARTING THE PROJECT

- Identify a project you can do with less challenges and with cheap materials but are available
in your area.
- Identify places where you can find these materials you want to use for project
- Mobilise these materials required for your project
- Set a time frame in which to do your project
- Start working on your project
- Identify schools or people in need of the product you have produced
- Market your product

There are so many sports projects you can venture in such as the ones listed below.

You can make:-

- A shot put
- Javelin spears
- Discus discs
- High jump standards
- Swimming life jackets
- Own made soccer balls
- Skipping ropes
- Dum bells
- Netball/soccer bibs

The above items can all be made using local, cheap, and several materials. These can be sold to
school and others in need of them and you as a school can realise funds for them.

ACTIVITIES
54
 1. State two elements of entrepreneurship
2. Why do you think teaching entrepreneurship in physical education and sport is important
in schools?

SPORTS SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

BALL GAMES AND BOARD GAMES

Ball games, or ball sports, are any form of game or sport which feature a ball as part of play.
These include games such as association football (soccer), baseball, basketball, and American
football. Such games have diverse rules and histories and are of mostly unrelated origins. Ball
games can be defined in several broad types:

 Bat-and-ball games, such as baseball and cricket.

 Racquet and ball games, such as tennis, squash and badminton.
 Hand and ball-striking games, such as various handball codes, rebound handball and four
square.
 Goal sports, such as basketball and all forms of football, lacrosse, and hockey (except ice
hockey).
 Net games, such as volleyball
 Precision sports, such as bowling, lawn bowls, croquet, and golf, as well as cue sports,
including snooker, pool, and forms of billiards.

55
FOOTBALL

History

The game of football also known as soccer traces its origin in England, though the game was also
played in other countries like China, Greece and among the Romans a long time ago.

In the 18th century, soccer was played in many public schools in England.

In 1863, the Football Association (FA) was formed in England. The new organization introduces
most of the football rules which have survived up to the present.

In 1904, FIFA (federation of International Football Association) was founded in Switzerland.

In 1908, soccer was adopted as a formal event at the London Olympic. The world cup of soccer
started in 1930.

Play field

56
Remember:

- Touch lines: 90-120m (International game: 100-110m)

57
 (Olympic game & World cup: 105m)

- Goal lines: 40-90m (International game: 64-75m)

(Olympic game & World cup: 68m)

- Centre line: same as long as goal lines

- Goal area: 5.5m X 18.32m

- Penalty area: 16.5m X 40.32m

- Penalty spot: Diameter 0.22m, 11m from goal)

- Penalty arc: 9.15m from penalty spot

- Goals: 7.32m X 2.44m

- Center circle: Radius 9.15m

- Corner area: Radius 1m

* Line is less than 12cm wide. And width of goal line is the same as width of goal post.

* Goal post and cross bar must be white.

Skills
- Inside kick - Outside kick
- Passes - In front kick - Instep kick
- Toe kick - Heel kick
- Kicking and shooting

- Trapping

- Heading

- Throwing (Throw - in)

- Dribbling

- Goal keeping

- Charging (Shoulder charge is allowed but other charges are considered foul.)

- Tackling

Rules

[Team, Game period, Score, Win and loss]

58
- Team -

(1) One team has maximum of 11 members.

(2) One of the11 members must be a goal keeper.

(3) If either of one team becomes less than 7 members, the game is stopped.

- Game period -

(1) The two periods (the first half and the second half) are 45 minutes each. And half time is from 5
minutes to 15 minutes.

(2) Chief referee has to decide injury time (over time, extra time) and chief referee has to extend the time.

- Score, Win and loss -

(1) When the ball passes through between goal posts and under the
crossbar, and the ball cross as goal line completely, the team gets 1
point.

(2) When the game finishes, the team that gets points more than another
team is the winner.

(3) When both of the teams can not get any point up to the end of the
game or both of the teams get same points up to the end of the game,
the game ends in a draw.

[Playing the game] ○…no goal

- Kick off - ●…goal in

(1) Before the game starts, the referee calls both of the team captains
and tosses coin. The team that wins the toss chooses territory (end) or starts kick off.

(2) Before the kick off, every player has to stay in their own territory.

(3) The players who are not part of the team that kicks off can not enter the center circle.

(4) When the player kicks the ball as a kick off, this player must kick it forward.

(5) The person who kicks the ball as a kick off, after that, this player can not touch the ball before
someone touches the ball.

(6) After half time, both teams change courts and the team that didn’t do kick off at the start of the game
can do kick off.

59
(7) When either team gets a point, the game resumes from kick off.

- When the ball goes out of the court,-

(1) If the ball goes out from the touch line, the game is resumed bythrow-in.

→The team player whose team did not touch the ball last can do throw-in.

→The player who tries to throw-in shall have to face to the play field and the player
has to stand on touch line or out of touch line using both of feet.

1-3: O.K.

4: Foul throw

→The player who tries throw- in will have to hold the ball using both hands and the
player has to throw the ball through from the back of the head and above the head.

(2) When the attacking team gets the ball out from goal line, the game is resumed from goal kick by the
defense team.

→The defense team player puts on the ball inside goal area and this player has to kick it
outside the penalty area directly.

(3) When the defense team player gets the ball out from goal line, the game is resumed from corner kick
by the attacking team.

a, b

→ O.K 60

c, d, e, f

→ Foul
 →The offense player tries to kick from the
corner area where it is nearest to the point
the point the ball crossed the line.

[Foul and dirty work]

- In the case of using direct free kick -

(1) Kicking someone or trying to kick someone. (Kicking)

(2) Trying to make trip. (Tripping)

(3) Jumping on someone. (Jumping at)

(4) To charge using power or using careless method. (Foul charge)

(5) Striking someone or trying to strike someone. (Striking)

(6) Spiting on someone. (Spiting)

(7) Pushing against someone. (Pushing)

(8) When you tackle the opponent, if you touch the player before you touch the ball, it is foul. (Tackling)

(9) Holding someone. (Holding)

(10) Using your hand and arm to touch the ball intentionally. (Handling)

*Of course, the GK who is in own penalty area can touch the ball using his/hers hand.

* When you commit these fouls in your defense penalty area, Penalty kick is given to opponent
team.

- In the case of using indirect free kick -

(1) The player does play that the referee judges dangerous.

(2) The player obstructs opponent’s course deliberately without playing the ball.

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(3) The player obstructs the opponent’s GK to release the ball from hands.

(4) The referee pronounces offside on the player.

[Offside]

- Offside position -

In your opponent territory, if you stand nearer the goal than the ball and
you stand nearer the goal than the defense players who are standing 2nd
position from goal line, this position is offside position.

- Offside -

If the player only stands in an offside position, it is not foul. If the player stands in offside position and
interferes with play or gains advantage, referee will pronounce offside foul.

- Decision on timing of offside -

When you decide that the player who is

standing in an offside position is offside foul
or not, you have to watch the timing when the
backward player touches the ball or plays it.

* When the player who is standing in offside position gets the ball directly from goal kick, throw-in, and
corner kick, it is not offside foul.

[Position]

In present-day’s football, pressing football is major. Defense line is pressed forward aggressively. And
between defense lines to forward players are kept about 30m. The player who hasthe ball always is under
pressure. In the case of using the system, we can divide players into 3 groups. (DF…Defender,
MF…Midfielder, FW…Forward)

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The system is called according to number of position from backward.

- 4-4-2 system -

10

5 8 11

4 6 9

DF MF FW

- This system gains a footing in defense.

- This system puts on 4 DF and Volante. Volante is one of MF. Volante become the pillar of offense and
defense.

- In the case of this drawing, 6 and 8 are Volante. In the case of 2 Volantes, we call it double Volante or
German Volante.

- 3-5-2 system -

63
 3 10

6 11

1 5 8

4 9

8 7

DF MF FW

- This system gains a footing in offense.

- In the case of this drawing, 4 and 6 are Volantes.

VOLLEYBALL

History

In 1895, Mr.William. G. Morgan who was in U.S.A YMCA leader of PE thought of Volleyball as a
recreation. He used the idea of tennis to make Volleyball rules.

64
At first, they used 16 members system. After that, this system changed to 12 members system and 9
members system. 6 members system was adopted as a formal event at the Tokyo Olympic in 1964.

But 9 members system is used up to now.

Play field

65
Skills

- Passing

- Volley pass

(- Toss)

- Dig pass

- Serving

- Under hand service

- Side service

- Over hand service

- Floater service

- Tennis service (Jumping service)

- Blocking

- Attack hit

- Spiking (Spiking is one of attack hit.)

* Counter attack = Receiving → Toss → Spiking

Rules

[Serve]

- The player who is positioned on BR (No.1) has to serve using one hand or arm from service zone. When
receiving team has missed, the same person can serve again. But if serving team has missed, the serve
goes to receiving team.

- When player serve to opponent, every player has to move to a given position. We can decide our
position according to foot position (back and forth, right and left).

How to touch the ball

- We can touch the ball using any pat of body (not including serving action.)

- We have to hit or flick. If you catch ball or carry or throw, umpire pronounces a foul (Holding).

66
- Player can not touch the ball two times in row except for the case of blocking (Double contact).

- In the same team, they can touch the ball 3 times before they return it to the other team. If they touch the
ball at blocking, they can touch it 3 times except for blocking touch.

- Two or three players may touch the ball at the same moment – when to or three team mates touch the
ball simultaneously, it is counted two or three hits except when blocking.

- Contact with the net is a fault except when a player not attempting to play the ball accidentally touches
the net.

Point, Set, Change court

- When opponent make a mistake or a team wins in rally, the team can get a point, regardless of serve
(Rally point).

- A team wins a set when it gets 25 points and 2 points or more ahead of the other team. In the case of 24
to 24, they have to continue until either team has a lead of 2 points.

- In the case of 5 set match and in the case of tie (2 to 2 set count), the team which can get 15 points
having lead of 2 points is a winner (Deciding game).

- Before the warm-up, the referee carries out a toss in the presence of the two captains. The winner of the
toss is given the chance either the right to serve or receive the serve or side of the court.

- A team may consist of a maximum of 12 players, 6 on the field of play and 6 substitutes.

- The rotation order as determined by the starting line up has to be maintained throughout the set.

- There must be 6 players per team in play.

- When each set finishes, both teams have to change court.

Attack hit

- We call attack hit when returning the ball to the opponent. The best attack hit is the spike.

- Forward player can attack hit from anywhere. But backward player can not attack hit above the net
while in front zone. But backward player can attack hit above the net in back zone.

- Every player cannot spike the ball coming from opponent as a serve.

Playing actions, Rules and some faults

- The ball is out of play at the moment of the fault which is whistled by the referee.

- The “Ball in” happens when it touches the floor of the playing court including the boundary lines.

- The “Ball out” happens when the part of the ball contacts the floor which is completely outside of the
boundary lines or it touches any objects outside the court.

67
Player and position

- If you have your serve, you are a serving team.

- If you don’t have your serve, you are a receiving team.

- Rotation is clockwise and each player must rotate one position clockwise whenever the receiving team
has gained the right to serve.

FL FC FR

● → ● → ● FL: Forward (Front) Left

↑ ↓ FC: Forward (Front) Centre Front-row player

FR: Forward (Front) Right

○ ← ○ ← ○ BL: Back Left

BLBCBR BC: Back Centre Back-row player

BR: Back Right

- The players in the front row are called front-row players and occupy position 4 (Left front player), 3
(Centre front player), 2 (Right front player). The other three are back-row players occupying position 5
(Left back player), 6 (Centre back player) and 1 (Right back player).

68
NETBALL

History

The game of Netball was invented in 1891 in America and was called Basketball because shooting targets
were made by fixing an adapted waste paper basket to some support such as the walls of a hall or high
jump stand.

In 1895, Dr. Toles from America visited England and introduced the game at Dart ford College of PE.

No clear rules were applied except the aim of scoring by shooting the ball through the basket.

In 1901, a set of rules were published and the name. ‘Netball’ was introduced because it was decided that
a net should be attached to the circular ring which replaced the basket.

Netball is a ball passing game passed using hands. It is a game played by girls and women. Today, this
game is also being played by boys. Recently Netball for boys has been introduced in high schools in
Zambia.

Netball is organised by the International Federation of Netball Associations (IFNA).

In Zambia, Netball is organised by the Netball Association of Zambia.

69
Play field

Rules

1. Players and Playing areas

Netball is played by two opposing teams. Each team consists of 7 players. In addition, each team is
allowed three substitutes to be on the bench.

The following are 7 netball players.

(Playing areas) (Starting positions)

GS – Goal shooter (1 and 2)

GA – Goal Attack (1, 2 and 3)

WA – Wing Attack (2 and 3)

C – Centre (2, 3 and 4)

WD – Wing Defense (3 and 4)

GD – Goal Defense (3, 4 and 5)

GK – Goal Keeper (4 and 5)

Each player is supposed to wear a bib bearing any of the initials.

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2. Duration of the game

It is depending on the rules of the league or tournament.

International games should consist of 4 quarters of 15 minutes each with 5 minutes break at half time and
3 minutes for quarter times. Teams change after each quarter.

Other possibilities are: - 20 minutes each way

- 15 minutes each way (School league)

- 7 minutes each (Tournament)

Playing time lost for stoppages must be noted and added onto that quarter or half.

3. Out of court

The ball is out of court when:

- It touches the ground outside the court.

- It touches an object or a person in contact with the ground, an object or a person outside the court.

- It is held by a player in contact with the ground, an object or person outside the court.

→Penalty: If any player enters the Centre Third before the whistle is blown, a free pass is awarded to the
opposing team where the infringement occurred.

4. Positioning of players for the start of play

- The centre must stand on one or both feet inside the centre circle.

- The opposing Centre is free to move around the Centre Third.

- All the other players should be in their appropriate Goal Third and free to move.

→Penalty: If any player enters the Centre Third before the whistle is blown, a Free Pass is awarded to the
opposing team where the infringement occurred.

5. Start of play

- The Umpire blows the whistle to start and restart play.

- Play is started and restarted after goal and after each interval by a CentrePass taken alternately by the 2
Centers.

- If the ball is still in the Centre’s hand when the Umpire’s whistle is blown to signal the end of a quarter
or half, that team will take the pass after the interval.

71
 - The CentrePass shall be caught or touched by any player who is standing wholly within the Centre
third or whose landing foot is wholly within this third.

→Penalty: Free pass awarded to the opposing team in the Goal Third close to the point where the ball
crossed the line. (Not received in the Centre Third.)

6. Playing the ball

- A player who has caught the ball shall play it or shoot it within 3 seconds. (HELD BALL)

→Penalty: Free Pass

- There must be room for a third player to move between the hands of the thrower and those of the
receiver. (SHORTPASS)

→Penalty: Free Pass or Throw In

- The ball may not be thrown over a complete third without being touched or caught by a player who at
the time of touching the ball is wholly within that third. (OVER THIRD)

7. Foot work

A player may receive the ball with 1 foot grounded or jump to catch land on 1 foot and then:

- Step with the other foot in any direction, lift the landing foot and throw or shoot before this foot is re-
grounded.

- Step with the other foot in any direction, any number of times, pivoting on the landing foot.

A player may receive the ball while both feet are grounded or jump to catch and land on both feet
simultaneously. In this case, one foot is chosen as the landing foot and the above rules then apply.

→Penalty: Free Pass awarded to the opposing team.

8. Scoring a goal

A goal is scored when the ball is thrown or batted over and completely through the ring by GS or GA
from any point within the Goal Circle.

- If a defending player deflects a shot for goal and the ball then passed through the ring, a goal in scored.

- GS or GA may shoot if the ball is won a Toss Up in the goal circle.

- If the whistle is blown for an interval before the ball has passed through the ring, no goal is scored.

- If the whistle for an interval or time is blown after PenaltyPass or Shot has been awarded in the goal
circle, the pass or shot is allowed to be taken.

In taking a shot for goal, a player shall:

72
 - have no contact with the ground outside the Goal Circle either during the catching or the holding of the
ball. However, the player is permitted to lean on the ball outside this area.

- shoot within 3 seconds of receiving the ball.

- obey the Footwork rule.

→Penalty: Free Pass or Shot to the opposing team.

A defending player may not cause the Goal Post to move so as to interfere with the shot at goal.

→Penalty: PenaltyPass or Shot to the opposing team.

9. Obstruction

An attempt to intercept or defend the ball may be made if the distance on the ground is not less than 0.9
meters from a player in possession of the ball.

From the correct distance, a defender may attempt to intercept or defend the ball:

- by jumping towards the player with the ball, but if the landing within 0.9 meters of that player and
interferes with the throwing or shooting motion, obstruction occurs.
- If the player with the ball steps forward to lessen the distance between them.

A player may within 0.9 meters of an opponent in possession of the ball as long as effort is made to
defend and there is no interference with the throwing or shooting action.

From the correct distance, a defending player may not attempt to defend or intercept the ball by stepping
towards the opponent.

CONDUCTING PENALTIES

The Penalties awarded for breaking rules are:

Free pass

PenaltyPass or PenaltyPass OR Shot

Throw In

Toss Up

10. General rules for taking of Penalties

- Advantage may be played by the umpire if the non- offending team would be placed at a disadvantage.

- With the exception of Toss Up, any team member may take the penalty if allowed in the area where the
penalty has been awarded.

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 - The footwork and Three Second rule apply to all penalties.

[Free pass]

A Free Pass is awarded for infringement on court with the exception of the rules of Obstruction, contact
and simultaneous offences by 2 opposing players and interference with the post.

When a Free Pass is awarded in the Goal Circle to the attacking team, the player taking the penalty may
not shoot for goal. If this is attempted, the opposing team will receive a Free Pass.

[Penalty Pass or Penalty Pass OR Shot]

This is awarded for infringement of the rules of Obstruction, Contact and interference with the Goal
Post.

A player penalized must stand beside and away from the thrower taking the penalty and must make no
attempt to take part in the play until the ball has left the throwers hands. If the infringer moves too soon
the penalty shall be retaken unless the shot is successful.

Throw In

When the ball goes out of court, it shall be put in by a player of the opposing team.

The player throwing the ball in shall:

- Stand outside the court and place one or both feet close to or at the point where the ball crossed the
line.

- Wait for the umpire to say PLAY and then throw within 3 seconds of this call.

- Not enter the court until the ball has been thrown.

- Obey the Over a Third rule.

- Throw only from behind a boundary line remaining behind this line until the ball has been released.

- Apply the footwork rule.

[Toss Up]

A Toss Up puts the ball into play when:

- Opposing players gain simultaneous possession of the ball with either or both hands.

- Opposing players simultaneously cause an offence.

- After an accident, the umpires are unable to say who had the ball, or the ball was on the ground when
play stopped.

The Toss Up is taken on court between the 2 players involved as near as possible to the place where the
incident occurred.

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 The 2 players shall stand facing each other and their own goal ends with arms straight and hands to sides
but feet in any position. There shall be a distance of 0.9 meters between the nearer feet of each player.
They shall not move from that position until the whistle has been blown. If one player moves too soon, a
Free Pass is awarded to the opposing team.

BASKET BALL

History

The game of Basketball was invented in 1891 in America.

In 1935, FIBA (Federation of international Basketball Association) was founded.

In 1936, Basketball was adopted as a formal event in the Berlin Olympic in the case of men.

In the case of women, Basketball was adopted as a formal event in the Montreal Olympic in 1976.

In America, there is a professional basketball (NBA…National Basketball Association).

Play field

75
Skills

- Passing (Chest pass, Shoulder pass,Underhand pass, Overhand pass, Side hand pass)

- Dribbling - Bouncing

- Pivoting - Shooting (Jump shot, Set shot, Lay up shot)

- Catching - Screening

- Defense (Man-to-man defense, Zone defense↓)

2-3 system 3-2 system 2-1-2 system

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Rules

Team

A team is composed of 12 members. 5 members of a team can play at a time. One of 5 becomes captain.
So, 7 members are substitutes.

Start of game

In the case of 1st period, we use Jump ball within Center circle. In the case of 2nd period, we use Throw-In
from outside court and near centre line.

Game period

We play 4 times. Each period is 10 minutes.

Between 1st period and 2nd period, we have to put 2 minutes as an interval. Between 3rd period and 4th
period, we also have to put 2 minutes as an interval.

Between 2nd period and 3rd period, we have to put 10 minutes as a half time.

If the game ends in draw at the end of 4th period, it is extended by 5 minutes.

How to play

We use hands to play Basketball. If you use legs and feet deliberately, the referee will pronounce a
violation.

When you want to pass the ball:

- You have to pass the ball within 2 steps after you hold the ball.

- You cannot pass the ball from front court to back court.

When you carry the ball using dribbling:

77
 - If you touch the ball using both hands or have the ball using one hand or both hands, this dribble
finishes.

When you stop having the ball after dribbling:

- You cannot dribble before you release the ball. But you can pivot. Then, you have to use a landing
foot as a pivoting foot.

When two members of opposing team catch the ball at the same time completely:-

- It is called held ball

- Players start using Throw-In. Player of opposing team alternate to Throw-In.

Out of bounds

- When the player who is controlling the ball touches the line or out of the court, it is out of bounds.

- When the ball touches an object or a person in contact with the ground outside the court, it is out of
bounds.

- When the ball touches the support of the goal or back boards, it is out of bounds.

→ Penalty: Throw-In awarded to the opposing team.

Shot and Point

- A player can shoot from anywhere, provided the place is within court.

- If the player who is moving as a shooter is fouled, the player can gain Free throw.

- If you shoot the ball from three point area and the shot goes into the goal, your team gains 3 points.

- If you shoot the ball from inside of three point line and the shot goes into the goal, your team gains 2
points.

- If your shoot is Free throw and the shot goes into the goal, your team gains 1 point.

- After goal, the player who is an opponent of the shooter has to resume by Throw-In from outside of end
line.

Restriction according to time

(a) 3 seconds rule

The player who controls the ball in front of court cannot play in Key zone more than 3 seconds. At the
moment of shooting, application of 3 seconds rule is reset.

78
(b) Restriction of 5 seconds

- The person who holds the ball can not hold the ball more than 5 seconds without passing, shot,
dribble, and so on.

- In the case of Throw-In, the player who gets the ball from referee has to Throw-Inwithin 5 seconds.

- In the case of Free throw, the player who gets the ball from referee has to shoot within 5 second.

(c) 8 seconds rule

If you get the ball in back court from opponent team or by Throw-In, your team has to carry the ball to
front court within 8 seconds.

(d) 24 seconds rule

If you get the ball from opponent team or by resume, your team has to shoot within 24 seconds.

Illegality

We can divide illegality into 2 types.

One is violation. Another is foul.

(a) Violation

Every illegality is called violation except illegality according to contact of body and according to
unsuitable sportsmanship.

Examples: Out of bounds, Line cross, Traveling, Double dribble, Restriction according to time

(b)Foul (Personal foul and Technical foul)

Foul is illegality according to contact of body and according to unsuitable sportsmanship.

Examples: Pushing, Charging, illegal use of hand, Complaining against judgment of referee.

* In the case of foul, we have to count the number of foul.

- If you have 5 fouls, you will be eliminated,

- If your team has 5 fouls in each period, the opponent team gains 2 Free throws.

79
Drugs in Sport
Drugs come in a number of forms. They can be medical, recreational or performance enhancing.
Many of these are prohibited in sporting competitions, if they are thought to have a positive
effect on performance.

Performance Enhancing Drugs

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) have a list of banned substances, as do most other
governing bodies of all different sports. The following drugs are on the IOC's list:

Anabolic agents (steroids)

 These are used by athletes who want to bulk up and increase their muscle mass. They
also allow the athlete to train harder
 They have many side-effects, including high blood pressure; heart disease; infertility and
cancer. They can also cause women to take on male characteristics such as facial hair!

Stimulants

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  Stimulants reduce pain, increase reaction speed and raise aggression
 They are highly addictive and have side effects including high blood pressure, strokes, a
heart and liver problems. They can also increase the risk of injury as pain is suppressed,
causing the athlete to continue to train or compete

Diuretics

 Athletes use diuretics for one of two reasons. Either to loose weight quickly (such as a
boxer or jockey needing to meet weight) through the effect of increased urination, or to
clear traces of other substances from their urine
 They cause dehydration which can seriously affect your performance in a negative way!

Narcotic analgesics

 These are pain killers which athletes use to mask pain from an injury or overtraining
 These are highly addictive and cause withdrawal symptoms when you stop using them.
Constipation and low blood pressure are other side effects

Peptide hormones

 These include EPO (Erythropoietin) which works a bit like blood doping. Most other
peptide hormones have similar effects to anabolic steroids
 They can cause strokes and abnormal growth patterns

The above drugs are completely banned from use under the IOC. However, other substances are
restricted, usually meaning they have a genuine medical use in some cases. In order to use one of
the following drugs in competition (with the exception of alcohol) you must have a Therapeutic
Use Exemption (TUE) certificate.

Beta blockers

 These are used to lower the heart rate, but also have the effect of reducing anxiety
and steadying shaking hands
 They're banned in some sports where they may cause an advantage, such as
shooting

Corticosteroids

 These are used to reduce pain and inflammation from injuries and also in
inflammatory conditions like asthma
 They can side-effects including diabetes and brittle bones

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Alcohol

 Alcohol is sometimes used by athletes to calm nerves.

 It can however reduce coordination, judgment and reactions. Long term use has
more serious side-effects such as liver, kidney and heart failure

Local anaesthetics

 These are usually in the form of an injection to an injured area to reduce pain
 They may be allowed in some sports for medical purposes

Drug Testing

Drug testing is monitored closely to make sure results are accurate and athletes are
protected. Tests can be performed at any time, in or out of competition.

 Urine samples are taken and divided into two samples - A and B
 The A sample is then tested
 If a positive result is found, sample B is then tested
 If this is also positive the athlete faces as much as a lifetime ban
 Refusing to take a drugs test is taken as failing a drugs test

Blood Doping

Blood doping involves:

 Removing red blood cells from the athlete and freezing them
 Over the next few weeks the athletes body makes more red blood cells to replace
those removed
 A few days before a competition the athlete injects the stored red blood cells back
into their body
 This means they now have the capacity to carry more Oxygen which improves
cardiovascular performance
 This has possibly dangerous side effects such as allergic reactions, kidney damage,
stroke and transfer of viruses and infections

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Modified Sports

Basketball
One change is to emphasize the dribbling rule. Encourage those who can dribble to do so.
Encouragethe rest of the class not to worry if some players carry the ball occasionally or all of
the time.
Probably one of the best changes is to have a bonus of 50 points if everyone on the team scores
a basket. Quickly this will change how active all the players are on the team. Strategy will evolve
to assist that personwho needs twenty attempts to make a basket. The logical consequence will
be that this person will getbetter. Oh, the excitement when the team cashes in on the 50 point
bonus.
Another idea which fosters teamwork is that all players on a team must take a shot before
anyone else onthat team can shoot a second time. This continues for the third shot, etc. Also try
having every player on theteam must touch the ball before a shot can count. Try giving points for
just hitting the backboard, doublescore if the ball rolls around the hoop and comes out.

Around the World

This was a school yard favorite for years but it seems to be less well known by kids today for
some reason. Dividethe basketball key into 11 positions around the key. From center to
counterclockwise, 1 is middle area directly infront of the hoop, 2, 3, 4 are the lines on the left
side perpendicular to the basket, 5, 6, 7 are at the top of the keyalong the “free throw” line, 8, 9,
10 are the right side of the key along the line perpendicular to the basket, and 11 isthe very top of
the key behind the round end of the key. Each player takes a turn shooting the ball from
eachposition, if the player makes the shot the player moves onto the next position if the shot
misses the player’s turn isover for that round and they stay where they are. The first player to
make a basket from all 11 positions on the keywins.
Poison
Get the participants together and agree on a shooting order. Have the person who is selected to
go first stand at thefree throw line with the basketball. The first shooter attempts a shot standing
at the free throw line. If the shot goesin, the shooter rebounds the ball and runs and touches the
basketball hoops pole with the ball and yells Poison.
(When the other participants see that shooter one made their shot they, take off running to the
other side of the court,until they hear the shooter yell Poison then they have to freeze) The
shooter must then stay where they are and rollthe ball at the feet of one of the other participants.
If the ball touches that person's feet, that person is awarded theletter P If the shooter misses their
shot then the next person in line must catch the rebound in no more than onebounce. If they fail

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to make a rebound on one bounce they earn a letter. Eliminate players as they accumulate all
theletters in the word "Poison." The last person standing is the winner.

Football
Philadelphia Football
Philadelphia football is really just Ultimate Frisbee using a football. The game begins by having
both teams start ontheir end zone. Chose one team to kick off to the other team. Once the other
team catches the ball the game hasbegun. The player with the ball gets three steps to move
forward and then must stop running but can either pivot andpass the ball to a close partner or
stop and throw the ball to a farther player. The defensive team may guard or blockthe player with
the ball but must remain three feet away from and cannot touch the player with the ball at any
point.
Should the team with the ball try to pass the ball and the other team can intercept it or the ball
touches the grounddue to an incomplete pass the defending team gets procession of the ball from
wherever the ball landed. Each time ateam is able to get eh ball across the other team’s end zone
without the ball touching the ground they score a point.
After each point scored (“touchdown”) the game continues with the scoring team kicking off to
the other team andboth teams swap which direction their team is trying to go. Play until a set
score is achieved by one of the teams.

Soccer
Camp Town Races
Line up all the players on one end of the field. They each have a ball. On the whistle, they all
dribble to opposite end,shoot ball into goal, get ball out of goal, and run back and finish with a
shot on opposite goal. The first one to finish isthe winner. Ask them "Who is going to win the
race?" They all learn to say "The player who can dribble it thestraightest!" A variation is to start
half at one end and half on the other. This really teaches them to try to do it fastwhile
maintaining possession. This drill really helps players deal with the balls that pop out of the
bunch.

Crab Walk Soccer

Two teams sit on lines a short distance apart. Team members are numbered. Soccer ball sits in
the centre. Officialcalls number. The member of that number from each team crab walk and
attempts to get the ball over the opponent’sgoal line. When a point is scored, the ball is returned
to the centre and another number is called. Team members mayhelp but not score.

IMPACT OF SPORTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

When a person engages in sports there is an impact on environment. Equipment, facilities, all
have “ecological footprint “an impact of the natural environment. Building and managing a
sport facility and operating an event uses energy and contribute to air pollution, as well as to
ozone layer depletion, habitats, soil erosion and water pollution.

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SOME COMMON WAYS IN WHICH SPORT AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT
- Development of fragile ecosystems or scarce land for sport
- Noise and light pollution from sport
- Consumption of non-renewable resources (fuel, materials e.t.c)
- Consumption of natural resources (water, wood, paper e.t.c)
- Emission of greenhouse gases by consuming electricity and fuel
- Ozone layer depletion (from refrigerants)
- Soil and water pollution from pesticides use
- Soil erosion during construction and from spectators
- Waste generation from construction of facilities and from spectators.

IMPACT OF SPORTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

When a person engages in sports there is an impact on environment. Equipment, facilities, all
have “ecological footprint “an impact of the natural environment. Building and managing a
sport facility and operating an event uses energy and contribute to air pollution, as well as to
ozone layer depletion, habitats, soil erosion and water pollution.

SOME COMMON WAYS IN WHICH SPORT AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT

- Development of fragile ecosystems or scarce land for sport
- Noise and light pollution from sport
- Consumption of non-renewable resources (fuel, materials e.t.c)
- Consumption of natural resources (water, wood, paper e.t.c)
- Emission of greenhouse gases by consuming electricity and fuel
- Ozone layer depletion (from refrigerants)
- Soil and water pollution from pesticides use
- Soil erosion during construction and from spectators
- Waste generation from construction of facilities and from spectators.

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RECREATION GAMES AND ACTIVITIES

When we are talking about recreation games and activities, we refer to all activities that in
physical education and sports carry meaning and lessons and as well impart skills in participants
as they take part in them during performance or play.

These benefit both the participants and the spectator.

We have looked at traditional games in details in grade ten already. We have seen how they are
grouped according to what they try to benefit the participant and the audience. We have seen
how they are used to deliver life lessons, to warn where it is due, and to encourage were it is
necessary. We have looked at conventional games and their benefit to us and what they are, and
how they compare to traditional games in terms of differences and similarities. We have looked
at aerobic dances and step patterns and how they benefit us.

From the information in grade ten (10) and what has been said above, what now remains is to
demonstrate and perform some of the activities in traditional games, aerobic and dance activities
in a more and advanced way.

TRADITIONAL GAMES

Under traditional games, list a number of them and perform them. The songs and games should
be explained as to what to they mean and the lessons they carry. Some of these games are listed
below, but you can add to the list.

- Agode
- Namuchelela
- Nsale nsale chinkamba
- Kamuchuchute
- Elyoni elyoni sansa kuwa
The list is endless

Under traditional games and activities, dance cannot miss out, and as such performances of some
traditional dances like Manchancha, Infukutu, Ching’ande, Akalela, Chambo, Makwasha etc.

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Should be done. The meaning should be explained in terms of what context they are performed
in and situation, i.e. what they depict

LEADERSHIP

Leadership is the ability and art of guiding others in doing something so that work or activity
gets done. It is the skill and ability of leading others in doing something right, (getting them on
board to do something) as such, learners should be trained in leadership skills by giving them
chance to captain their peers in activities. Example, giving them chance to lead in warm up
activities before the lesson, to lead in songs, to lead others during orienteering sports and so on.

ACTIVITY

1. What is leadership?
2. Who is a leader?
3. Describe how a traditional game, “insolo” is played and explain how it benefits you.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

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The human body performs many functions.Thedifferent parts, organs and systems play important
roles for the body parts to carry out these functions or for the body to work.

Important to our study are the systems below. These systems play very important roles during
physical activities. These systems are skeletal system the circulatory system and the muscular
system, the respiratory system, the artificial system among others. The skeletal system is the one
that supports the body and gives it form.The skeletal system performs other functions such as
production of white and red blood cells. Providing surface area for the attachment of muscles and
also the skeletal system makes movement possible.

The circulatory system function more like transport network of the body. This system consists of
the heart, blood vessels, such as the arteries and the veins.The blood is also part of the circulatory
system.

The role of this system in the human body is to carry food stuffs or required nutrients from some
parts of the digestion system to the rest of the bodyand also carry waste productsof respirationin
cells for removal out of the body. It is this system that carry waste productsof respiration in cells
for removal out of the body. It is this same system that carries oxygen from the lungs to body
tissues. From the above and as in line with physical activities, it is important to understand that
oxygen is needed for respiration to take place. Respiration is the burning of sugar in the tissue
cells to release energy, the energy which is needed for doing any work. In this context, physical
exercises. Thus it is important to note that the circulatory system is important to physical
activities in that it carries the oxygen to body organs and tissuesthat performs action for any
physical activity to be done. As stated earlier it is the circulatory system which transports in the
blood apart from oxygen, the food nutrients, starch and other minerals the body needs to the
organs thatrequire them. All these nutrients are required in the cells and in the end get used to
give strength to the body,build the body and this resultin energy and power and strength the body
needs to perform physical activities.The waste products from tissue respiration are again
removed from the body via this same circulatory system.

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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is another one that plays an important role in the body. This system
consists of the nose, the mouth, the trachea, the bronchi, the bronchioles in the lungs and air sacs
in the lungs. The respiratory system is the passage way of air into the body and out of the body.
For any physical activity to be carried out or performed there is need for energy. For energy to be
released from the sugar, glucose,there must be respiration.For respiration to take place, there
must be oxygen.As such respiration system plays an important role in support of physical
activities because it is the system that makes it possible for oxygen to reach the body tissues and
cells for them to respire and release energy needed for any physical activity. At the end of that,
waste products from the body tissues carried in the blood leave the body via this system.

It is important to note that this system start from nose and mouth and end in the air sacs of the
lungs.

It is between the blood vessels (capillaries) and the air sacs where exchange of gases occur. Here
oxygen from the air sacs enter the blood vessels and carbon dioxide from body tissues via blood
vessels enter the air sacs for removal out of the body.

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During physical activities there is more tissue respiration thus more oxygen is required and the
respiration system actively play the role of supplying the needed oxygen for energy to be
released for this activity to be performed. At the same time more waste products (carbon dioxide)
is produced and again the respiration system play the role of transporting carbon dioxide out and
thus supporting physical activities in this way

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

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The effect of exercises on the bonds, muscles, respiratoryand circulatory systems.

Physical exercises have many benefits to the human body. They promote wellness of the body or
good health. The food we eat accumulate in the body assurplus from these foods get stored as fat.
Not only that,but some of it make blood vessels narrow due to fats that accumulate there. These
hampers the functioning well of the circulatory system. Physical activities or exercises help burn
these excess fat in the body that affect the good work of the circulatory system.

Physical activities help increase strength and endurance of the muscles. Because muscles have
become stronger and are in good shape they also rest more. This effect is true even to the
respiratory system. When the involuntary muscles of the chest cavity are in good shape due to
exercises, the intervals between breaths are longer and this means the muscles rest
longerbetween breaths.

When the body is involved in physical exercises, demand for oxygen is more. This has an effect
of making the lung capacity to increase. This has the direct effect on the respiration because now
that they will be more air into the lungs, the breaths will be long and slow when the body is at
rest. The lungs become strong, healthier and with large lung capacity. This result in endurance in
performing physical exercises.Physical exercises make bones strong and healthy in that supply of

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oxygen increases, supply of nutrients increases as the body demands more food nutrients during
exercises and the same is for the remove of waste products.

Exercises help to prevent and relieve pain in joints. Exercises also help tostrength muscles and
increase flexibility thus taking excess pressure off joints if a person exercises regularly, it
improves on strength of bones and thus reduces the likelihood of fractures.

The density and size of the bones also increase with exercise. This helps athletes especially to lift
their weight without difficulty while running. Thesize of muscles also increasesignificantly with
regular exercises. Strengthen increase with the increase in size of the muscles.

People who don’t involve themselves in physical exercises have weaker bones and risk
themselvesto physical injuries like sprains, strains, fractures, dislocations among others.

Terms To Understand And Know

Ligaments

These are strong bonds of connective tissues that attach bone to bone. They are made of collagen
fiber that gives them their strength.Ligament can loosen up if not subjected to regular exercises

Tendons

These form ends of the muscles that hold the muscles to bones

Tendons are long enough and strong to transmit immerse forces without damaging themselves.
Tendons expand and stretch and can coil with regular exercises, tendons become stronger with
exercises and thus prevent physical injuries.

Cartilage

These are semi smooth tissues that form a cap at the end of the bones. They protect the bones
against weight bearing action. For cartilage to be healthy, it should be engaged with joint
movement and weight bearing exercises.

Joints

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This is a place where two or more bones meet. Joints hold bones together while allowing
movement between them.Exercises help to develop the extent of joint movement (range or
motion) without feeling any discomfort.

Caution

Excessive exercise is not good or healthy for it may induce injury to the skeletal and muscular
system. Therefore it is important to rest yourself periodically from exercising to relax the
structure involved and also to regain lost energy in exercises.

Activity

1. Name three body systems you know.

2. Explain briefly how the circulatory system supportphysical exercises.
3. What do you think would happen to bones if a person does not involve himself in
physical exercises?

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BIOMECHANICS
Sports biomechanics uses the scientific methods to study the effects of various forces on the
sports performer. It also considers aspect of the behavior of sports implements, footwear and
surfaces where these affect the performer or injury.

ENERGY AND MOVEMENT

During exercises there four major sources of energy:

- PROTEIN: protein can be used by the body for fuel or aerobic processes. Protein is used
as an energy source if calories are insufficient. However, with sufficient calories, they
break down of amino acids (the building blocks of protein) contributes only minimally to
the total amount of energy used by working muscles. When a person is doing exercises
they lose more proteins than they take in (ingest). Meaning a performer should ingesting
more proteins than they need so that they promote increase in muscle size and muscle
strength. The recommended protein intake is 8 – 20 gm protein/ kg body weight per day
or 12 – 20 % of total energy intake.
- FAT: Fat is the major fuel for light-intensity to moderate-intensity exercises, such as
jogging, dancing, cycling e.t.c. it is recommended that athletes consume 20- 30% of
calories as fat. These fats should include the “good” fat, such as the essential fatty acids
that are found in fish, olive oil as well as typical meat/ dairy fats.
- CARBOHYDRATES: carbohydrates are the main source of fuel for athletes, especially
those participating in endurance sports. It is beneficial to eat meals 3-4 hours before
exercising or athletic competition. Carbohydrates intake during intense exercise should
be average of 25-30gm / 30 minutes activity. Carbohydrates solution should not exceed
6-8%, otherwise the athlete may experience cramps, nausea and diarrhea.
- FLUIDS: Water intake is a crucial part of our diet that is often overlooked due to its lack
of “substance”. Water ranks the most important for every living thing. A person can
survive only eight to ten days without water, while it takes weeks or even months to die
from lack of food. Water transport oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing waste
through urine and sweat. Water also maintains the natural balance between dissolved
salts and water inside and outside cells. Water has no caloric value and therefore is not an
energy source, but without it in our diet we could not digest or absorb the foods we eat or
eliminate the body’s digestive waste.

Although muscles and engines work different ways, they both convert chemical energy into
energy of motion.

- A motor bike engine uses the stored energy of petrol and converts it to heat energy and
energy of motion (kinetic energy).

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 - Muscles use the stored chemical energy of food we eat and convert that to heat and
energy of motion (kinetic energy).

When the body do exercises, the cells are more active, they need more energy and more oxygen
these must be provided. Muscles in the circulatory system and respiratory system respond to the
body’s new requirements. The heart rate increases to speed up the supply of oxygenated blood to
muscles and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. It also increases the supply of glucose to the
muscles.

The breathing rate increases to increase the supply of air to the lungs, so that more oxygen can be
absorbed. If the rate of exercises is increased due to greater muscular activity, a point is reached
at which not enough oxygen is supplied to meet the requirements of the muscle cells for aerobic
respiration.

NUTRITION

NUTRITION FOR FITNESS AND SPORT

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The following are some of the types of nutrients:-

Carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, proteins, vitamins and water.

Nutritional values

Carbohydrates– a group nutrient that supplies energy and includes sugar, starch, and fiber.

Fats- a group of nutrient that provides energy and carries certain vitamins through the body.

Proteins- the group of nutrients that builds, repairs, and maintains body cells.

Vitamins- a group of nutrients needed in small amounts to keep the body working properly

Minerals- a group nutrients needed to provide healthy teeth, bones, muscles, and blood cells.

Water- carries wastes away from the cells, and helps to cool the body.

Diet plans for sports persons

Performing at your best starts with a healthy diet. Getting the proper nutrition is essential for
your body to operate at its peak. The key is to eat a well-balanced diet consisting of
carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, fiber, and healthy fats. You also need to eat more than the
average person, but be sure to make healthy food and choices for the best results.

A sports nutrition chart is not just meant for a sportsperson. Anyone with an active and tedious
daily routine can make use of this chart, as the kind of nutrients that an adult body requires is
almost the same as that of a sportsman. Hence it is very important for active people, athletes,
sportsmen and dietician to know the particulars of a sports nutrition chart. The entire routine can
be managed with this nutrition chart that includes high energy boosting food before exercise and
other important activities through the day.

You can prepare a sports nutrition chart by yourself if you know the nutrients require and their
correct quantities

Nutrition chart

No sportsperson or an equally active person would like to lose out on their activities because of
lack of nutrients. For this, an efficient sports nutrition is on chart is given below that takes care of
all the nutrients like proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins.

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The guidance and the timely facts about the require nutrients will even make a sportsperson fall
in line with his or her routine. An appropriate nutritional diet for sports person consist of a
minimum of 2000 calories per day, in which the division from different nutrients are as follows

- 55- 65% from carbohydrates

- 15- 20% from proteins
- 20-30 % from fats.
1. Proteins:
These are very important in the diet plan of a sportsperson as they are also the cell
damage and cell formation agents. These must be obtained from dairy like fruits and
vegetables.
2. Carbohydrates:
All the sportspersons and active people must maintain a good inflow of this nutrient as it
is an important source of fuel required by the body. Carbohydrate raises blood glucose
level in the body.

3. Fats:

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 Fat has the best concentration of energy. Do not think that you can not eat before an
exercise routine. The fact is a low fat meal can be absorbed easily and a high fat meal
must be skipped before work out
It is not necessary to drink as soon as you feel thirsty as it maybe due to excessive
sweating. Water intake should happen slowly and not at once. For a sportsperson, water
is an important part of their routine can be supplemented with glucose tonic which is a
good source of instant energy.
4. Iron:
Foodstuff rich in iron must be included in a good way as it is very important for the
exercise and sustainability of the body.
5. Calcium:
High calcium food must also be included for the bone strength
A combination of all these nutrients including vitamins and minerals obtained from fruits
sprouts and light veggie diet is suitable for the routine of a sportsperson

BODY WEIGHT AND PERFORMANCE

Being overweight or over fat affects performance.

Being over-weight means weighing more than normal.

Being over fat means having more body fat than you should. Being obese means being very over
fat.

- You get tired easily, you might not be able to do high endurance sports.
- It limits your flexibility and limb movement.
- Can make doing vigorous exercise potentially harmful.

ACTIVITY

1. List down the six food nutrients that makes a balanced diet.
2. Briefly explain how body weight affects the performance of a sports person.

SWIMMING

There are four types of strokes / styles namely:-

1. Butterfly stroke-the butterfly stroke also requires precise timing in addition to coordination.
You time the movement of your arms with a dolphin kick as your body undulates, similar to the
way worms move, through the water

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2. Freestyle stroke- it is sometimes referred to as the crawl, the free style is one of the fastest
strokes, and it is performed on your stomach with your face in the water and your whole body
close to the surface.

3. Back stroke- sometimes referred to as the back crawl, the back stroke is the fastest stroke
performed on your back. Your arms alternate the pushing and pulling parts of the stroke with a
circular, windmill motion.

4. Breast stroke- the breast stroke is more complex, requires practice timing and is performed
on your face in the water. Your arms extend forward, below the water, pull backward in an
outward sweeping motion toward your chest and then extend again to glide and start the next
stroke.

The other two strokes not commonly known are:-

1. Side stroke- the side stroke is performed while on your right or left side. The stroke starts
with your bottom arm extending forward, above your head, your palm down and your top arm
resting along your side.

2. Dog paddle- the first stroke a young swimmer learns, the dog paddle is very basic, easy to
learn and allow you to keep your head above the water for easy breathing

Diving styles

Diving into the water is as much fun as swimming especially when you know how to do the
different types of dives.

1. Forward
2. Backward
3. Reverse
4. Inward
5. Twisting
6. Arm-stand.

Water game

The following are some the watergames

- The friendly dolphin

- Dodge ball
- Follow the leader
- Hula hoops
- Ring around the rosey

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 SURVIVAL SKILLS
- A system of an emergency plan.
- Safety equipment.
- Development of site procedures,
- Emergency medical services (EMS) system in the school or community at large and how
to access it.
- Emergency phone call.
- Posting emergency information and phone numbers.
- Emergency plan for facility (indoor/beach) or lake front.
- Plans for non-life guarded area such as pond, private pool, quarry or lake.

ACTIVITY
1. Name any four diving styles you know.
2. Mention any tree water games.
3. Briefly explain any six survival skills used in swimming.

GRADE TWELVE (12)

SPORTS SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

ATHLETICS
These are activities that test skills in walking, running, jumping and throwing. The activities are
divided into two categories: track events and field events.

Track Events

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OFFICIATING TRACK EVENTS
Here are some rules for track events:
1- The Starts
In order to allow the athletes to adjust their starting blocks, to warm-up on the hurdles, they
enter the arena 10 to 15 minutes before the start of their event.

- The starter’s assistant checks the athletes with the start list. He must place them according
to the information on the list (heats and lanes: the positions are numbered from left to right
in the direction of the race).
- The starter’s assistant checks the bib number (up to and including 400m races they will be
placed on the back, if there is only one bib number; above 400m, they are placed on the
chest).
- Up to and including 400m, the athletes must use starting blocks (included for the start of
the 4×100, 4×200 and 4×400); for these races both feet of the competitors must be in
contact with the starting blocks and both hands and one knee must be in contact with the
ground.
- The competitors must not touch either the starting line or the ground beyond the start line
with their hands (or their feet).
- The starter orders the athletes to take their marks, the starter’s assistant indicates to the
starter when the athletes are ready and then the starter gives the final command “set”. The
athletes assume immediately and without delay their final set position, when they are
completely still the starter will fire the gun.
- The commands are: up to and including 400m “on your marks”, “set” then fire of the gun;
over 400m, the commands are “on your marks” and when the runners are completely still
the starter fires the gun.
- An athlete who causes a false start received a warning; after two false starts he will be
disqualified and must retire.

2- Finish Judges
Duty: to decide the order of the athletes at the finish of the races
a. How to proceed:
The chief judge allocates the duties:
If there are 5 officials: A-B-C-D-E
A will take the first and second.
B will take the second and third.
C will take the third and fourth.
D will take the fourth and fifth.
E will take the fifth and sixth.
Each official takes note of the athletes he has to judge as well as their bib numbers (or the
colour of their bib).

b. How to judge:
- The judge must be placed on the side of the track, on the extension of the finish line.
- The athlete must be judged when he crosses the finishing line: only the torso of the
athlete counts.

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 - You must concentrate on the finish.
- Do not speak to each other.
- Don’t let yourself be influenced.
- Be objective and impartial.

3- Lap Counters
For races of 800m and over, a board indicating the number of laps remaining is located by
the finishing line.
A judge is in chief of this board, he double-checks with the chief-judge (or with the chief-
timekeeper).

When the athletes cross the finishing line and begin their final lap, the lap counter rings a
bell. When athletes have been lapped, it is necessary to indicate to them the number of laps
remaining; the bell must be rung for all athletes when they start their final lap.

4- Track Umpires
The chief umpire allocates the duties and positions to each umpire for each race.
- For races in a straight line (up to 100m) make sure that the athletes do not leave their
lanes and impede other competitors.
- For races run in a bend (from 120m to 400m and the first bend of the 800m) the
athletes must not run on the line situated on their left.
- For the 800m make sure that the athletes do not break for the inside before the line
marked at the entrance of the opposite straight.
- For middle-distance race, make sure that the athletes do not jostle each other on
purpose and that they do not leave the track (by running on the grass).

- For hurdle races, up to 110m hurdle, make sure that the hurdles do not overlap each other,
that the athletes do not impede each other when going over the hurdles
For all hurdle races, ensure that the hurdles correctly with both feet over the hurdle athletes
clear the hurdles correctly with both feet over the hurdles, which they do not push the
hurdles down on purpose before going over.

- For the relays, before the race, in the take-over zones: make sure that each athlete is in the
correct lane.

- In relay races up to and including 4×200m, the athletes are allowed to place themselves in
the run-up zone (10m before the take-over zone). They can put adhesive tape on the ground.
During the transmission, keep an eye on the baton: you must judge the position of the baton and
not that of the athlete in the take-over zone.

There is a foul: if the baton is taken before entering the take-over zone (1) or after leaving it (2).

How to indicate a foul:

When he notices a foul, the track umpire places himself where the foul has been committed
and raises a yellow flag.

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 The chief umpire or the track judge will go to him and ask him what he has seen: it is the
Referee who will make the decision.

These are further sub-divided into:

[A] Short Distance or Sprint Races

1. 100M
2. 200M
3. 400M
The races are run completely in lanes and are started by sprint starts (Crouching start)on
staggers or straight starts depending on the race. The 100M race is known as the home straight
and is started on a straight start. The other races are started on staggers. Three start commands
are then given: On your marks, Set, Fire (Go).

[B] Middle Distance Races

1. 800M
2. 1500M
These are started on staggers and are started by standing starts. Here after the onyour marks,
the go command is given no set command is given in the standing starts.

The 800M race is run in two ways:

1. At the first bend the runners break [the first 100M are run in lanes]
2. The first lap is run in the lanes and runners break after the 400M.
3. The 1500M race is open for women but competitive for men.

[C] Long Distance Races

They include 3000M, 5000M and 10000M races. These are open races and at colleges of
education competitions in Zambia the 3000M race is for men as well as the 5000M.

[D] Relays or Relay races

These are races in which pieces of wood or metal are changed over from one set of runners to the
next. The pieces are called batons and are about 30cm long. There are areas on the track that are
clearly marked. One is 10m long and is the acceleration zone; a 20m zone named the take-over
or the change-over zone follows it. The out-going runners begin to sprint when the in-coming
runners enter the acceleration zone so that the changing over of batons takes place in the take-
over zone designated on the track.

4x100m Relay
There are four runners for each team and each of the runners covers 100m.
4x400m Relay
Here again each of the runners covers 400m before handing the baton to the next runner.

[E] Cross Country

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This one is usually run out-of-doors and teams get points according to the number the
runners have emerged in the race. There is a funnel kind of finish and a runner who enters the
funnel at the end of the race has completed the race. The team with the lowest number of points
is the winner.

Field Events
These are divided into throwing and jumping events.
Throwing EventsJumping Events
- Discus - Long jump
- Shot put - Triple jump
- Javelin - High jump
- Hammer - Pole vault

OFFICIATING HIGH JUMP

Basic Principles the Jury

1. Position and role of the judges
1. Chief-Judge of the event
2. Two persons to help place the bar on the up-rights
3. Secretary of the event: keeps the score sheet, according to the information given by the
chief-judge, and on which are written the names of the athletes and the heights of the bar.
4. One person in charge of the scoreboard.
5. One person in charge of the clock: the athletes have 1 1/2 minute to make their jump;
when there are only 2 or 3 athletes they have 3 minutes; when there is only one athlete
left in the competition he has 5 minutes for each jump.

2. During the event

- Athletes check their marks (the use of chalk is forbidden)
- The competitors can opt that they don’t jump at the first attempt. They cannot
attempt the 2nd or 3rd trial at that height.

3. Validity of the jumps

○ = valid jump
× = failure
― = did not jump
An athlete is eliminated after 3 consecutive failures. When there is only one athlete left and
he has won the competition, he can request that the bar be placed at the height he wishes to
attempt.
The height of the bar is measured each time the bar is raised; it is also checked whenever an
athlete lands on the bar while making an attempt.
It is checked before any attempt at a new record height.
The bar should never be raised by less than 2cm after each round.

4. Fouls

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 A competitor commits a foul
- If he knocks the bar off its supports.
- If he touches the ground, including the landing area, beyond the plane of the uprights, with
any part of his body without clearing the bar first (if during a successful attempt the
competitor touches the landing zone without gaining any advantage, this jump will not be
considered as failure.)
- If he exceeds the time allowed to make his attempt.
- The athlete is not allowed to leave the competition area without prior authorization.
5. Standings

Order Bib Name 1.80m 1.85m 1.90m 1.93m 1.96m 1.98m 2.00m 2.02m Fare Fouls Rank
1 11 A ― ○ ××○ ×○ ××○ ○ ×○ ××× 2.00 6* 3
×○ ○ ― ×○ ××○ ○ ○ ×××
2 21 B 2.00 4* 1
××○ ○ ×○ ×○ ×○ ○ ○ ×××
3 31 C ×○ ××× 2.00 5* 2
×○ ××○ ○ ○ ×○ ×○
4 41 D ×× ×
2.00 6* 3
5 51 E ×× ○ ××× ×○ ××× ○ ×××
6 61 F 1.98 5

○ = valid jump
× = failure
― = height not attempted
*number of failure between 1.80m and 2.00m

B is 1st because he cleared the bar at 2.00m at his first attempt but he has 4 failures.
C is 2nd because the bar at 2.00m was cleared at his first attempt but he has 5 failures.
E is eliminated ― 3 consecutive failed attempts ― not in the standings.

The ties are resolved as follows:

a) The competitor who has the smallest number of attempts at the height at which the tie
occurs will come before the other competitor.
b) If the tie is still not resolved, the competitor who has the smallest number of failures in
the whole event will come before the other competitor.
c) If the tie is still not resolved, and only if it is for the first place, the competitors tying will
jump one more time at the last lowest height at which they both failed:

If an athlete has failed at 2,28m and the other, not having attempted that height but
having failed at 2,30m, the bar shall be placed at 2,28m and both athletes will attempt
that height. If they both succeed in clearing it the bar shall be raised by 2cm, if they fail,
it shall be lowered by 2cm until the tie is resolved.

OFFICIATING SHOT PUT

Basic Principles
1. Position and role of the judge
1. Chief-judge;
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 - checks the throwing area, the equipment:
- distributes the duties among the judges:
- determines the validity of the throw at the circle;
- checks the measurement;
- determines the final standings of the field event;
2. Two persons help checking the validity of the throw in the throwing area and make the
measurement.
3. One person places the marker at the point of impact and checks the validity of the throw
at the landing.
4. One person helps with the measurement (point 0).
5. The secretary of the event;
- Keep the result sheet on which are written the names of the competitors.
- Writes down the performances announced by the chief judge:
×= foul
― = attempt not made
6. One person in charge of the scoreboard
1
7. One person in charge of the clock, (each athlete has 12 minute to make his throw).

2. During the field event

- The athletes have two practice throws in the throwing order of the event.
- The shot is put from a circle, and it must be started from a stationary position.
- The competitor is allowed to tough the inside of the metal rim and of the stop board.
- The shot shall be put with one hand from the shoulder. At the time of the throw, the
shot shall tough or be very close to the chin. The hand cannot be dropped below this
position during the throw.
- The shot must not the taken behind the line of the shoulders.
- The use of gloves is not allowed.
- The athletes are not allowed to spread or spray any substance in the circle or on their
shoes.
- When there are more than 8 competitors, each shall have three trials and the 8 best
shall have 3 further trials. When there are 8 or less competitors, they are all entitled
to 6 trials.

3. Fouls
(1) The shot is placed away from the chin.
(2) The competitor touches the ground outside the circle.
(3) The competitors touch the top of the stop board.
(4) When leaving the circle the first contact with the top of the metal rim or with the ground
outside must be completely behind the white line which passes through the center of the
circle or behind its extension.
(5) The shot falls outside the sector or on the lines demarking the sector.
1
(6) The competitor exceeds the time allowed (1 2 minutes ).

4. How to measure a put

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 The measurement is made immediately after the throw, from the nearest mark made by the
shot, to the inside of the circle. The ribbon must pass through the centre of the circle.
Distances are measured to the nearest centimeter below the distance measured.

5. Standing
In the shot put, the athlete who achieves the best performance is first. In the event if a tie, the
2nd best performance or 3rd, etc… shall be considered.

OFFICIATING DISCUS THROW

Basic Principles

1. Position and role of the judges

1. Chief-judge:
Checks the throwing area, the equipment distributes the duties among the judges,
determines the validity of the throw at the circle, checks the measurement, determines the
final standings of the field event.
2. Two people help checking the validity of the throw in the throwing area, make the
measurement.
3. The judge responsible for the validity of the throw at the judge.
4. Two people keep an eye on the landing point. One of them holds the end of the ribbon
(point).
5. The secretary of the event:
- keeps the result sheet on which are written the names of the competitors;
- writes down the performances announced by the chief judge;
× = foul ― = attempt not made (pass)
6. Persons in charge of the scoreboard
7. One (or two persons) in charge of bringing back the discus.
8. One person is in charge of the clock, the athlete has 1 1/2 minute to make his throw once
his name has been called.

2. During the field event

- The athlete has two practice throws in the throwing order of the event.
- The discus is thrown from a circle situated inside a protection cage in order to ensure
the safety of the athletes, of the officials and of the spectators. At the time of the
throw, the athlete must be alone inside the cage.
- The competitor must his throw from a stationary position. He is allowed to touch the
inside rim of the circle.
- When there are more than 8 competitors, each shall have three trials and the 8 best
shall have 3 further trials. When there are 8 or less competitors, they are all entitled
to 6 trials.
- The use of gloves is not allowed.
- The athletes are not allowed to spread or spray any substance in the circle or on their
shoes.

3. Fouls

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 (1) The competitor touches the top of the circle (it is important to watch during the rotation,
allowed to go over even outside the edge of the circle, but there is foul if he touches the
top of edge of the circle or the ground outside the circle).
(2) The competitor leaves the circle in front of the line which passes through the centre of
the circle.
(3) The discus lands on the lines demarking the sector or outside the sector.
(4) The competitor exceeds the time allowed (1 1/2 min.) from the moment is name is
called.
(5) The competitor must not leave the circle before the discus touches the ground.

4. How to measure a throw

- Place the marker and the 0 point of the ribbon on the mark made by the discus at the
point nearest to the throwing circle.
- Pull on the ribbon so that it passes through the centre of the throwing circle.
- The reading is done from the circle, inside, rounded to the nearest even centimeter
below the distance measured.

5. Final standings
In the discus throw, the athlete who achieves the best performance is 1st. In the event of a
tie, the 2nd best performance or the 3rd, etc. shall be considered.

Officiating Javelin Throw

Basic Principles
1. Position and role of the judges
1. Chief-judges:
Checks the throwing area, the equipment distributes the duties among the judges,
determines the validity of the throw at the start, checks the measurement, determines the
final standings of the field event.
2. One person helps checking the validity of the throw in the throwing area.
3. One person helps with the measurement by holding the ribbon which must pass through
point.
4. The judge responsible for the validity of the throw at the landing.
5. Two persons keep an eye on the landing point. One of them holds the end of the ribbon
(point).
6. The secretary of the event:
- keeps the result sheet on which are written the names of the competitors
- writes down the performance announced by the chief judge
× = foul
― = attempt not made (pass)
7. Person in charge of the scoreboard.
8. One or two persons in charge of bringing back the javelins.
9. One person is in charge of the clock, the athlete has 1 1/2 minute to make his throw once
his name has been called.

2. During the field event

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 - The athletes have two practice throws in the throwing order of the event.
- The javelin must be held at the grip. It shall be thrown over the shoulder or upper
part the throwing arm. It cannot be thrown in a rotating move.
- When there are more than 8 competitor, each shall have three trials and the 8 best
shall have 3 further trials.
- When there are 8 or less competitors, they are all entitled to 6 trials.
- The use of gloves is not allowed.

3. Fouls
It shall be a foul throw if the competitor who has started his throwing touches with any part
of his body or limbs the ground outside the runway, including the lines demarking it.
- A throw shall be valid only if the tip of the mental head strikes the ground before any
other part of the javelin.
- The tip of the javelin must fall completely within the edges of the landing sector.
- At no time during the throw, until the javelin has been discharged into the air, may
the competitor turn completely around, so that his back is towards the throwing arc.
- A competitor may interrupt a trial once started, may lay the implement down inside
the runway and may leave the runway, without committing a foul, and return to
begin a fresh trial (within the 1 1/2 min).
- A competitor may not leave the runway before the javelin has touched the ground.
- When leaving the runway the first contact with the parallel lines or the ground
outside the runway must be completely behind the white line of the arc at right
angles to the parallel lines.
- At athlete has 1 1/2 minute to make his throw from the moment his name is called.

4. How to measure

The measurement shall be made immediately after each from where the tip of the metal head
first struck the ground (point 0) to the inside of the arc. Pull the ribbon tight so that it passes
through point 1, the reading shall be made from the inside edge of the arc and the
measurement shall be given to the nearest event centimeter below the distance measured.

5. Standing
In the javelin throw, the athlete who achieves the best performance is first.
In the event of a tie, the 2nd best performance or the 3rd, etc. shall be considered.

OFFICIATING LONG JUMP, TRIPLE JUMP

Basic Principles
The Jury
1. Position and role of the judges
1. Chief-judge
- Checks the installations (landing area, humidity of the sand, take-off board, plasticine,
tape measure, wind gauge)
- Indicates (with flags if a trial is valid or not)
2. One person rakes the sand after each jump

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 3. One person places the marker at the last imprint left by the athlete, and holds the tape
measure on the 0 point.
<How to hold the ring of the tape measure>
4. One person holds the other end of the decameter (toward the take-off board). The
performance shall be read on the take-off line, the lower cm.
5. Secretary who writes down the performance:
× = foul
― = attempt not made (pass)
6. Wind gauge operator who is positioned 20m from the take-off board and who activates the
apparatus for 5 seconds when the athlete is 40m (long jump) and 35m (triple jump) from
the take-off board.
7. One person in charge of the scoreboard.
1
8. One person in charge of the clock (1 2minute for each athlete to make their jump).

2. During the event

The athletes take their marks. No mark is allowed on the run way, but must be on the side of
the runway. The use of chalk is not allowed.
- The take-off is done from a board. Immediately after the take-off line is located the
plasticine (or wet sand) to retain the imprint of the athlete’s foot when there is a foot
fault.
- The athletes jump in the order indicated on the score sheet.
- Between each trial, the sand is reconditioned and so is the plasticine.
- When there are more than 8 competitors, they all have 6 trials.
- When there are more than 8 athletes, they all have 3 trials, the 8 athletes having
achieved the best results shall be entitled to 3 further trials.
- The wind speed must be measured for each jump by each athlete.

3. Fouls
An athlete commits a foul if;
- He leaves a make in the plasticine.
- He takes-off outside the lateral extremities of the take-off board.
- After having jumped, he walks back in the landing area.
- While falling, he touches the ground outside the landing area nearest to the take-off
line than the nearest mark make in the landing area:

4. Measuring
All valid jumps are measured from the nearest break made in the landing area, by any part of
the body or the limbs, to the take-off line.

5. Standings
For field events where the result is based on distance, the athlete who has achieved the best
performance is first; in the event of a tie, the 2nd best performance or the 3rd, etc shall be
taken into consideration.

6. Triple Jump

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 Same rules as for the long jump with one exception: the jump shall be made so that the
competitor lands first upon the same foot as that from which he has taken off, then in the step
he hall land on the other foot from which the jump is performed. The athlete must land in the
landing area.
The take-off board shall be at 13m for the senior men and 11m for the senior women.

Play field of Athletics

Track event

Running track

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Field events (Jumping events)

1cm 15 – 20 cm

Bar (The bar is 2.9 – 3.0cm wide)

(The length is 3.98 – 4.02 m)

* Runway length is minimum 15m

3.0 – 3.5 cm

Minimum 6m
Support 3.0 – 3.5 cm

Min
(Mat)
3m

4.00 – 4.04m

High jump

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 (Triple Jump) (Long jump)

Take off board Take off board 20cm Landing Place

1.22 – 1.25m
Minimum 2.75m
Minimum 13m

Runway: Minimum 40m

Plasticine 10cm

Minimum 1m minimum 9m

Long jump & Triple jump

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Field events (Throwing events)

Shot put

After you throw, you have to go out from behind this line.

Discus

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 Javelin

OFFICATING FOOTBAL

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The Authority of the Referee
Each match is controlled by a referee who has full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in
connection with the match to which he has been appointed.

Powers and Duties

The Referee:
• enforces the Laws of the Game
• controls the match in cooperation with the assistant referees and, where applicable, with the
fourth official
• ensures that any ball used meets the requirements
• ensures that the players’ equipment meets the requirements
• acts as timekeeper and keeps a record of the match
• stops, suspends or abandons the match, at his discretion, for any infringements of the Laws.
• stops, suspends or abandons the match because of outside interference of any kind
• Stops the match if, in his opinion, a player is seriously injured and ensures that he is removed
from the field of play. An injured player may only return to the field of play after the match has
restarted.
• Allows play to continue until the ball is out of play if a player is, in his opinion, only slightly
injured
• Ensures that any player bleeding from a wound leaves the field of play. The player may only
return on receiving a signal from the referee, who must be satisfied that the bleeding has stopped
• Allows play to continue when the team against which an offence has been committed will
benefit from such an advantage and penalises the original offence if the anticipated advantage
does not ensue at that time.
• Punishes the more serious offence when a player commits more than one offence at the same
time.
• Takes disciplinary action against players guilty of cautionable and sending-off offences. He is
not obliged to take this action immediately but must do so when the ball next goes out of play.
• takes action against team officials who fail to conduct themselves in a responsible manner and
may, at his discretion, expel them from the field of play and its immediate surrounds
• Acts on the advice of the assistant referees regarding incidents that he has not seen
• Ensures that no unauthorised persons enter the field of play
• Indicates the restart of the match after it has been stopped
• Provides the appropriate authorities with a match report, which includes information on any
disciplinary action taken against players and/or team officials and any other incidents that
occurred before, during or after the match.

Decisions of the Referee

The decisions of the referee regarding facts connected with play, including whether or not a goal
is scored and the result of the match, are final.

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The referee may only change a decision on realising that it is incorrect or, at his discretion, on
the advice of an assistant referee or the fourth official, provided that he has not restarted play or
terminated the match.

Assistance
The assistant referees also assist the referee to control the match in accordance with the Laws of
the Game. In particular, they may enter the field of play to help control the 9.15 m distance.
In the event of undue interference or improper conduct, the referee will relieve an assistant
referee of his duties and make a report to the appropriate authorities.

Periods of Play
The match lasts two equal periods of 45 minutes, unless otherwise mutually agreed between the
referee and the two teams. Any agreement to alter the duration of the periods of play (for
example, to reduce each half to 40 minutes because of insufficient (light) must be made before
the start of play and must comply with competition rules.

Half-time Interval
Players are entitled to an interval at half-time.
The half-time interval must not exceed 15 minutes.
Competition rules must state the duration of the half-time interval.
The duration of the half-time interval may be altered only with the consent of the referee.

Allowance for Time Lost

Allowance is made in either period for all time lost through:
• Substitutions

117
• Assessment of injury to players
• Removal of injured players from the field of play for treatment
• wasting time
• Any other cause
The allowance for time lost is at the discretion of the referee.

Penalty Kick
If a penalty kick has to be taken or retaken, the duration of either half is extended until the
penalty kick is completed.

Abandoned Match
An abandoned match is replayed unless the competition rules provide otherwise.

START AND RESTART OF THE GAME

Preliminaries
A coin is tossed and the team that wins the toss decides which goal it will attack in the first half
of the match.
The other team takes the kick-off to start the match.
The team that wins the toss takes the kick-off to start the second half of the match.
In the second half of the match, the teams change ends and attack the opposite goals.

Kick-off
A kick-off is a way of starting or restarting play:
• At the start of the match
• After a goal has been scored
• At the start of the second half of the match
• At the start of each period of extra time, where applicable
A goal may be scored directly from the kick-off.

Procedure
• All players must be in their own half of the field of play
• The opponents of the team taking the kick-off are at least 9.15 m from the ball until it is in play
• The ball must be stationary on the centre mark
• The referee gives a signal
• The ball is in play when it is kicked and moves forward
• The kicker must not touch the ball again until it has touched another player
After a team scores a goal, the kick-off is taken by the other team

Infringements and Sanctions

If the player taking the kick-off touches the ball again before it has touched another player:
• An indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team to be taken from the position of the ball
when the infringement occurred.

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In the event of any other infringement of the kick-off procedure:
• The kick-off is retaken

Dropped Ball
If, while the ball is still in play, the referee is required to stop play temporarily for any reason not
mentioned elsewhere in the Laws of the Game, the match is restarted with a dropped ball.

Procedure
The referee drops the ball at the place where it was located when play was stopped, unless play
was stopped inside the goal area, in which case the referee drops the ball on the goal area line
parallel to the goal line at the point nearest to where the ball was located when play was stopped.
Play restarts when the ball touches the ground.

Infringements and Sanctions

The ball is dropped again:
• If it is touched by a player before it makes contact with the ground
• If the ball leaves the field of play after it makes contact with the ground, without a player
touching it.

Ball Out of Play

The ball is out of play when:

• It has wholly crossed the goal line or touch line whether on the ground or in the air
• Play has been stopped by the referee

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Ball In Play
The ball is in play at all other times, including when:
• It rebounds off a goalpost, crossbar or corner flag post and remains in the field of play
• It rebounds off either the referee or an assistant referee when they are on the field of play.

Ball in play
Ball in play
Ball in play

Ball in play
Ball out of play

Goal Scored
A goal is scored when the whole of the ball passes over the goal line, between the goalposts and
under the crossbar, provided that no infringement of the Laws of the Game has been committed
previously by the team scoring the goal.

Winning Team
The team scoring the greater number of goals during a match is the winner. If both teams score
an equal number of goals, or if no goals are scored, the match is drawn.

Competition Rules
When competition rules require there to be a winning team after a match or home-and-away tie,
the only permitted procedures for determining the winning team are those approved by the
International F.A. Board, namely:
• Away goals rule
• Extra time
• Kicks from the penalty mark

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 Goal
No goal
No goal

No goal

Offside Position
It is not an offence in itself to be in an offside position.
A player is in an offside position if:
• He is nearer to his opponents’ goal line than both the ball and the second last opponent
A player is not in an offside position if:
• He is in his own half of the field of play or
• He is level with the second last opponent or
• He is level with the last two opponents

Offence
A player in an offside position is only penalised if, at the moment the ball touches or is played by
one of his team, he is, in the opinion of the referee, involved in active play by:
• interfering with play or
• interfering with an opponent or
• gaining an advantage by being in that position

No Offence
There is no offside offence if a player receives the ball directly from:
• a goal kick
• a throw-in
• a corner kick

Infringements and Sanctions

In the event of an offside offence, the referee awards an indirect free kick to the opposing team
to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.

Direct Free Kick

A direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team if a player commits any of the following
seven offences in a manner considered by the referee to be careless, reckless or using excessive
force:

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• kicks or attempts to kick an opponent
• trips or attempts to trip an opponent
• jumps at an opponent
• charges an opponent
• strikes or attempts to strike an opponent
• pushes an opponent
• tackles an opponent
A direct free kick is also awarded to the opposing team if a player commits any of the following
three offences:
• holds an opponent
• spits at an opponent
• handles the ball deliberately (except for the goalkeeper within his own penalty area)
A direct free kick is taken from the place where the offence occurred

Penalty Kick
A penalty kick is awarded if any of the above ten offences is committed by a player inside his
own penalty area, irrespective of the position of the ball, provided it is in play.

Indirect Free Kick

An indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team if a goalkeeper, inside his own penalty
area, commits any of the following four offences:
• controls the ball with his hands for more than six seconds before releasing it from his
possession
• touches the ball again with his hands after he has released it from his possession and before it
has touched another player
• touches the ball with his hands after it has been deliberately kicked to him by a team-mate
• touches the ball with his hands after he has received it directly from a throw-in taken by a team-
mate

An indirect free kick is also awarded to the opposing team if, in the opinion of the referee, a
player:
• plays in a dangerous manner
• impedes the progress of an opponent
• prevents the goalkeeper from releasing the ball from his hands
• commits any other offence, for which play is stopped to caution or send off a player.
The indirect free kick is taken from the place where the offence occurred.
Disciplinary Sanctions
The yellow card is used to communicate that a player, substitute or substituted player has been
cautioned.
The red card is used to communicate that a player, substitute or substituted player has been sent
off.
Only a player, substitute or substituted player may be shown the red or yellow card.
The referee has the authority to take disciplinary sanctions from the moment he enters the field
of play until he leaves the field of play after the final whistle.

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A player who commits a cautionable or sending-off offence, either on or off the field of play,
whether directed towards an opponent, a team-mate, the referee, an assistant referee or any other
person, is disciplined according to the nature of the offence committed.

Cautionable Offences
A player is cautioned and shown the yellow card if he commits any of the following seven
offences:
• un sporting behaviour
• dissent by word or action
• persistent infringement of the Laws of the Game
• delaying the restart of play
• failure to respect the required distance when play is restarted with a corner kick, free kick or
throw-in
• entering or re-entering the field of play without the referee’s permission
• deliberately leaving the field of play without the referee’s permission
A substitute or substituted player is cautioned if he commits any of the following three offences:
• un sporting behaviour
• dissent by word or action
• delaying the restart of play

Sending-off Offences
A player, substitute or substituted player is sent off if he commits any of the following seven
offences:
• serious foul play
• violent conduct
• spitting at an opponent or any other person
• denying the opposing team a goal or an obvious goal-scoring opportunity by deliberately
handling the ball (this does not apply to a goalkeeper within his own penalty area)
• denying an obvious goal-scoring opportunity to an opponent moving towards the player’s goal
by an offence punishable by a free kick or a penalty kick
• using offensive, insulting or abusive language and/or gestures
• receiving a second caution in the same match
A player, substitute or substituted player who has been sent off must leave the vicinity of the
field of play and the technical area.

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Types of Free Kick
Free kicks are either direct or indirect.

The Direct Free Kick

Ball Enters the Goal

• if a direct free kick is kicked directly into the opponents’ goal, a goal is awarded
• if a direct free kick is kicked directly into the team’s own goal, a corner kick is awarded to the
opposing team

The Indirect Free Kick

Signal
The referee indicates an indirect free kick by raising his arm above his head. He maintains his
arm in that position until the kick has been taken and the ball has touched another player or goes
out of play.

Ball Enters the Goal

A goal can be scored only if the ball subsequently touches another player before it enters the
goal:
• if an indirect free kick is kicked directly into the opponents’ goal, a goal kick is awarded
• if an indirect free kick is kicked directly into the team’s own goal, a corner kick is awarded to
the opposing team

Procedure
For both direct and indirect free kicks, the ball must be stationary when the kick is taken and the
kicker must not touch the ball again until it has touched another player.

Position of Free Kick

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Free Kick inside the Penalty Area
Direct or indirect free kick to the defending team:
• all opponents must be at least 9.15 m from the ball
• all opponents must remain outside the penalty area until the ball is in play
• the ball is in play when it is kicked directly out of the penalty area
• a free kick awarded in the goal area may be taken from any point inside that area
Indirect free kick to the attacking team:
• all opponents must be at least 9.15 m from the ball until it is in play, unless they are on their
own goal line between the goalposts
• the ball is in play when it is kicked and moves
• an indirect free kick awarded inside the goal area must be taken on the goal area line parallel to
the goal line at the point nearest to where the infringement occurred

Free Kick outside the Penalty Area

• all opponents must be at least 9.15 m from the ball until it is in play
• the ball is in play when it is kicked and moves
• the free kick is taken from the place where the infringement occurred or from the position of
the ball when the infringement occurred (according to the infringement)

Penalty kick

A penalty kick is awarded against a team that commits one of the ten offences for which a direct
free kick is awarded, inside its own penalty area and while the ball is in play.
A goal may be scored directly from a penalty kick.
Additional time is allowed for a penalty kick to be taken at the end of each half or at the end of
periods of extra time.

Position of the Ball and the Players

The ball:
• must be placed on the penalty mark

The player taking the penalty kick:

• must be properly identified

The defending goalkeeper:

• must remain on his goal line, facing the kicker, between the goalposts until the ball has been
kicked
The players other than the kicker must be located:
• inside the field of play
• outside the penalty area
• behind the penalty mark
• at least 9.15 m from the penalty mark

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THE THROW-IN

A throw-in is a method of restarting play.

A throw-in is awarded to the opponents of the player who last touched the ball when the whole
of the ball crosses the touch line, either on the ground or in the air.
A goal cannot be scored directly from a throw-in.

Procedure
At the moment of delivering the ball, the thrower:
• faces the field of play
• has part of each foot either on the touch line or on the ground outside the touch line
• holds the ball with both hands
• delivers the ball from behind and over his head
• delivers the ball from the point where it left the field of play

All opponents must stand no less than 2 m from the point at which the throw-in is taken.
The ball is in play when it enters the field of play.
After delivering the ball, the thrower must not touch the ball again until it has touched another
player.

THE GOAL KICK

A goal kick is a method of restarting play.

A goal kick is awarded when the whole of the ball passes over the goal line, either on the ground
or in the air, having last touched a player of the attacking team, and a goal is not scored.
A goal may be scored directly from a goal kick, but only against the opposing team.

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Procedure
• The ball is kicked from any point within the goal area by a player of the defending team
• Opponents remain outside the penalty area until the ball is in play
• The kicker must not play the ball again until it has touched another player
• The ball is in play when it is kicked directly out of the penalty area

Infringements and Sanctions

If the ball is not kicked directly out of the penalty area from a goal kick:
• the kick is retaken

Goal kick taken by a player other than the goalkeeper

If, after the ball is in play, the kicker touches the ball again (except with his hands) before it has
touched another player:
• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where
the infringement occurred.
If, after the ball is in play, the kicker deliberately handles the ball before it has touched another
player:
• a direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where
the infringement occurred.
• a penalty kick is awarded if the infringement occurred inside the kicker’s penalty area.

THE CORNER KICK

A corner kick is a method of restarting play.
A corner kick is awarded when the whole of the ball passes over the goal line, either on the
ground or in the air, having last touched a player of the defending team, and a goal is not scored.
A goal may be scored directly from a corner kick, but only against the opposing team.

Procedure
• The ball must be placed inside the corner arc nearest to the point where the ball crossed the
goal line
• The corner flag post must not be moved
• Opponents must remain at least 9.15 m from the corner arc until the ball is in play
• The ball must be kicked by a player of the attacking team
• The ball is in play when it is kicked and moves
• The kicker must not play the ball again until it has touched another player

Infringements and Sanctions

Corner kick taken by a player other than the goalkeeper
If, after the ball is in play, the kicker touches the ball again (except with his hands) before it has
touched another player:
• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where
the infringement occurred.
If, after the ball is in play, the kicker deliberately handles the ball before it has touched another
player:

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• a direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where
the infringement occurred.
• a penalty kick is awarded if the infringement occurred inside the kicker’s penalty area
Corner kick taken by the goalkeeper

If, after the ball is in play, the goalkeeper touches the ball again (except with his hands) before it
has touched another player:
• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team, the kick to be taken from the place where
the infringement occurred (see Law
13 – Position of Free Kick)
If, after the ball is in play, the goalkeeper deliberately handles the ball before it has touched
another player:
• a direct free kick is awarded to the opposing team if the infringement occurred outside the
goalkeeper’s penalty area, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.
• an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team if the infringement occurred inside the
goalkeeper’s penalty area, the kick to be taken from the place where the infringement occurred.
In the event of any other infringement:
• the kick is retaken

CORNER KICK

PROCEDURES TO DETERMIN THE WINNER OF A MATCH

Away goals, extra time and kicks from the penalty mark are the three methods approved for
determining the winning team where competition rules require there to be a winning team after a
match has been drawn.

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Away Goals
Competition rules may provide that where teams play each other home and away, if the
aggregated scores are equal after the second match, any goals scored at the ground of the
opposing team will count double.

Extra Time
Competition rules may provide for two further equal periods, not exceeding 15 minutes each, to
be played.

OFFICIATING NETBALL

A netball team consists of up to 12 players with 7 players allowed on court at any one time.
Ateam may take the court with a minimum of 5 players.

Netball Court showing starting positions for a centre pass

Playing positions & court areas

POSTION RESPONSIBILITIES COURT

S AREA

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 GS To score goals and to work in and around the circle with the GA 1&2

GA To feed and work with GS and to score goals 1, 2 & 3

WA To feed the circle players giving them shooting opportunities 2&3

C To take the Centre Pass and to link the defence and the attack 2, 3 & 4

To look for interceptions and to prevent the WA from feeding the circle

WD 3&4

GD To win the ball and reduce the effectiveness of the GA 3, 4 & 5

GK To work with the GD and to prevent the GS from scoring goals 4&5

PLAYING THE GAME:

Centre passes are taken alternately by the Centre of each team, after each goal is scored and at
thestart of each quarter. Each team endeavours to pass the ball to down to their goal circle and
scoregoals. The team with the most goals at the end of the playing time wins the game.

CENTRE PASS:
Before the whistle all players must start in the goal thirds except the two Centres. The Centre
withthe ball must be wholly within the Centre Circle and must obey the footwork rule after the
whistlehas been blown. The opposing Centre stands anywhere within the Centre Third and is free
to move.
After the whistle the Centre pass must be caught or touched by a player standing in or
landingwholly within the Centre third.

SCORING A GOAL:
Only GS or GA can score – they must be completely within the goal circle when the ball is
receivedin order to shoot for goal. A goal is scored when the ball passes over and completely
through thegoal ring.
PLAYING TIME:
A game consists of 4 x 15 minute quarters with an interval of 3 minutes between the first
andsecond and third and fourth quarters and a 5 minute half time interval. There is up to 2
minutes oftime allowed for each injury.

UMPIRES:
Two umpires have control of the game and their decisions are final. When rules of the game
arebroken the penalties awarded by the umpires are free pass, penalty pass (or penalty pass or
shot),throw in, and toss up.

MINOR INFRINGEMENTS- FREE PASS:

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Breaking the following rules will result in a FREE PASS being awarded to the opposing team.
Whena FREE PASS is awarded to a team it may be taken by any player from that team allowed
in thatarea, as soon as they are in position. (A player may not shoot from a free pass in the goal
circle).

OFFSIDE:
Player moving out of own area, with or without ball (on a line counts as within either area).

BREAKING AT THE CENTRE PASS:

A player moving into the Centre third before the whistle is blown for the Centre pass.

PLAYING THE BALL:

A player who has caught or the ball shall play it or shoot for goal within three seconds
A player may bounce or bat the ball once to gain control
Once released, the ball must next be touched by another player
There must be room for a third player between hands of thrower and catcher
A player on the ground must stand up before playing ball

PASSING DISTANCE:
At the moment the ball is passed there must be room for a third player between hands of
throwerand catcher.
OVER A THIRD:
Ball may not be thrown over a complete third without being touched or caught by a player
whollywithin that third.

FOOTWORK:
Having caught the ball, a player may land or stand on:
One foot – while the landing foot remains grounded, the second foot may be moved anywhere
anynumber of times, pivoting on the landing foot if desired. Once the landing foot is lifted, it
must notbe re-grounded until the ball is released.
Two feet (simultaneously) – once one foot is moved, the other is considered to be the landing
foot, as above. Hopping or dragging the landing foot is not allowed.

MAJOR INFRINGEMENTS- PENALTY PASS

Breaking the following rules will result in a PENALTY PASS or PENALTY PASS OR SHOT
beingawarded to the opposing team.

A PENALTY PASS (or PENALTY PASS/ PENALTY SHOT if in the goal circle) is awarded
where theinfringement occurred. The offending player must stand out of play beside the thrower
until thepass or shot has been taken. Any opposing player allowed in that area may take the
penalty.

OBSTRUCTION:
Player with ball: the nearer foot of the defender must be 0.9m (3ft) feet from the landing foot
ofthe player with the ball, or the spot where the first foot had landed if one has been lifted.
Thedefender may jump to intercept or defend the ball from this 0.9m (3ft) feet distance

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Player without ball: the defender may be close, but not touching, providing that no effort is
madeto intercept or defend the ball and there is no interference with the opponents throwing
orshooting action. Arms must be in a natural position, not outstretched, and no other part of the
bodyor legs may be used to hamper an opponent.
Intimidation: of any kind, is classed as obstruction
A standing player is not compelled to move to allow an opponent a free run, but dangerous
playmust be discouraged, e.g. moving into the landing space of a player already in the air or
steppinglate into the path of a moving player.

CONTACT:
No player may contact an opponent, either accidentally or deliberately, in such a way
thatinterferes with the play of that opponent or causes contact to occur.

OUT OF COURT - THROW IN

A THROW IN is awarded to the opposing team of the player who last had contact with the ball
orwho received the ball whilst in contact with anything outside the court. Ball is out of court
when itcontacts anything outside the court area (except the goalpost). The ball is returned into
play by aThrow-In taken from a point outside the court where the ball crossed the line. The
player standswith foot close to the line, and the ball must be thrown onto the court within three
seconds.

TOSS UP:
This is administered for all simultaneous infringements. The two players stand facing each other
attheir own shooting ends with hands by their sides and the umpire flicks the ball upwards not
more than 600mm in the air as the whistle is blown.

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BOARD GAMES

A board game is a game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked
surface or "board", according to a set of rules. Games can be based on pure strategy, chance (e.g.
rollingdice), or a mixture of the two, and usually have a goal that a player aims to achieve. Early
board games represented a battle between two armies, and most modern board games are still
based on defeating opposing players in terms of counters, winning position.

There are many varieties of board games. Their representation of real-life situations can range
from having no inherent theme (e.g. checkers), to having a specific theme and narrative (e.g.
Cluedo).

The time required to learn to play or master a game varies greatly from game to game. Learning
time does not necessarily correlate with the number or complexity of rules; some games having
profound strategies (e.g. chess or Go) possess relatively simple rule sets.

OFFICIATING CHESS

RULES OF PLAY

 The game of chess is played between two opponents who move pieces alternately on a
square board called a 'chessboard'. The player with the white pieces commences the
game. A player is said to 'have the move', when his opponent's move has been
completed.
 The objective of each player is to place the opponent's king 'under attack' in such a way
that the opponent has no legal move which would avoid the 'capture' of the king on the
following move. The player who achieves this is said to have 'checkmated' the opponent
and to have won the game. The opponent who has been checkmated has lost the game.
 If the position is such that neither player can possibly checkmate, the game is drawn.

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The initial position of the pieces on the chessboard
 The chessboard is composed of an 8x8 grid of 64 equal squares alternately light (the
'white' squares) and dark (the 'black' squares). The chessboard is placed between the
players in such a way that the near corner square to the right of the player is white.
 At the beginning of the game one player has 16 light-coloured pieces (the 'white' pieces);
the other has 16 dark-coloured pieces (the 'black' pieces)

A white king, usually indicated by the symbol

A white queen, usually indicated by the symbol

Two white rooks, usually indicated by the symbol

Two white bishops, usually indicated by the symbol

Two white knights, usually indicated by the symbol

Eight white pawns, usually indicated by the symbol

A black king, usually indicated by the symbol

A black queen, usually indicated by the symbol

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 Two black rooks, usually indicated by the symbol

Two black bishops, usually indicated by the symbol

Two black knights, usually indicated by the symbol

Eight black pawns, usually indicated by the symbol

THE INTIAL POSITION OF THE PIECES ON THE

CHESS BOARD

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The eight vertical columns of squares are called 'files'. The eight horizontal rows of squares are
called 'ranks'. A straight line of squares of the same colour, touching corner to corner, is
called a 'diagonal'.

The moves of the pieces

No piece can be moved to a square occupied by a piece of the same colour. If a piece moves to a
square occupied by an opponent's piece the latter is captured and removed from the
chessboard as part of the same move. A piece is said to attack a square if the piece could
make a capture on that square.

(a) The queen moves to any square along the file, the rank or a diagonal on which it stands.

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(b) The rook moves to any square along the file or the rank on which it stands.

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 (c) The bishop moves to any square along a diagonal on which it stands.

When making these moves the queen, rook or bishop cannot move over any intervening
pieces.

(d) The knight moves to one of the squares nearest to that on which it stands but not on the same
rank, file or diagonal. It does not pass directly over any intervening square.

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(e) i. The pawn moves forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the
same file

(ii) On its first move the pawn may advance two squares along the same file provided both
squares are unoccupied, or

iii. The pawn moves to a square occupied by an opponent's piece which is diagonally in
front of it on an adjacent file, capturing that piece.

(iv) A pawn attacking a square crossed by an opponent's pawn which has advanced two
squares in one move from its original square may capture this opponent's pawn as though
the latter had been moved only one square. This capture can be made only on the move
following this advance and is called an 'en passant' capture.

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 (v) When a pawn reaches the rank furthest from its starting position it must be exchanged
as part of the same move for a queen, rook, bishop or knight of the same colour. The
player's choice is not restricted to pieces that have been captured previously. This
exchange of a pawn for another piece is called 'promotion' and the effect of the new
piece is immediate.

(a) The king can move in two different ways, by: (i) moving to any adjoining square that is not
attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces,

(ii) 'Castling'. This is a move of the king and either rook of the same colour on the same
rank, counting as a single move of the king and executed as follows: the king is transferred
from its original square two squares towards the rook, then that rook is transferred over the
king to the square the king has just crossed.

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 (1) Castling is illegal:
(a) if the king has already been moved, or

(b) with a rook that has already been moved

(2) Castling is prevented for the time being:

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 (a) if the square on which the king stands, or the square which it must cross, or the
square which it is to occupy, is attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces.

(b) if there is any piece between the king and the rook with which castling is to be
effected.

(b) The king is said to be 'in check', if it is under attack by one or more of the opponent's
pieces, even if such pieces cannot themselves move.
Declaring a check is not obligatory.
A player must not make a move which places or leaves his own king in check.

The act of moving the pieces

 Each move must be made with one hand only.

 Provided that he first expresses his intention (e.g. by saying "j'adoube"), the player
having the move may adjust one or more pieces on their squares.

 if the player having the move deliberately touches on the chessboard (a) one or more
pieces of the same colour, he must move or capture the first piece touched that can be
moved or captured, or

(b) One piece of each colour, he must capture the opponent's piece with his piece or, if this is
illegal, move or capture the first piece touched which can be moved or captured. If it is unclear
the player's own piece shall be considered to have been touched before his opponent's.

(a) If a player deliberately touches his king and rook he must castle on that side if it is legal.
(b) If a player deliberately touches a rook and then his king he is not allowed to castle on that
side on that move.

(c) If a player, intending to castle touches the king or king and rook at the same time, but castling
on that side is illegal, the player must choose either to castle on the other side, provided that
castling on that side is legal, or to move his king. If the king has no legal move, the player is free
to make any legal move.

- If none of the pieces touched can be moved or captured, the player may make any legal
move.
- When, as a legal move or part of a legal move, a piece has been released on a square, it
cannot then be moved to another square. The move is considered to be made when all the
relevant requirements been fulfilled.

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The completed game

The game is won by the player who has checkmated his opponent's king with a legal move. This
immediately ends the game.

The game is won by the player whose opponent declares he resigns. This immediately ends the
game.
The game is drawn when the player to move has no legal move and his king is not in check. The
game is said to end in 'stalemate'. This immediately ends the game.
The game is drawn upon agreement between the two players during the game. This immediately
ends the game.
The game may be drawn if the identical position is about to appear or has appeared on the
chessboard three times.
The game may be drawn if the last 50 consecutive moves have been made by each player
without the movement of any pawn and without the capture of any piece.

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144
Factors Affecting Performance
As well as all of the factors we have already reviewed, such as drugs, diet, age, somatotype and
personality, other factors can affect performance such as physical factors, psychological, or
external factors.

Physical Factors

These are medical and illness related factors:

 Colds and flu - cause a shortness of breath and feelings of fatigue

 Asthma - affects breathing if not properly controlled
 Anemia - usually due to a lack of iron which is important in oxygen carrying due to hemoglobin
within the red blood cells
 Hay fever - causes your nose to run and makes you sneeze and cough, affecting your breathing
 Fatigue - not having enough rest or overdoing things can cause you to feel permanently tired
 Lack of sleep - not enough sleep means you can't concentrate properly and feel weak and tired
 Menstruation - women perform better at different stages of their menstrual cycle
 Physical ability - your training, fitness and skill levels will all impact on your performance

Psychological Factors

These are factors related to the way you are thinking and your state of mind

 Mental preparation - relaxation techniques and imagery can help prepare the athlete for
competition
 Mental ability - your ability to concentrate and make good decisions
 Experience - a more experienced competitor will know how to prepare themselves mentally

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External Factors

These are things largely beyond our control:

 Environment - the weather can affect your performance either positively or negatively. For
example a good wind will improve a sailors performance but may impair a tennis players
performance
 Equipment - better equipment will help your performance, but even then sometimes equipment
can go wrong!
 Technology - the use of technology in sport is increasing with the use of better equipment and
video and computer technology for technique analysis
 Other players - an opponent’s or team mate’s performance can have an effect on our own. For
example a team mate performing well may inspire us to do the same
 Officials - a poor decision from an umpire or referee can either spur us on to perform better or
make us think there is no point trying.

RECREATION GAMES AND ACTIVITIES

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The inclusion of recreational games and activities has been discussed in detail especially at grade
ten. We again did learn these games and activities in grade eleven. The details and importance
thereof cannot be over emphasized as this has already been done in the proceeding grades.

At this level, it is important to look around us and see issues that pose challenges to us. We have
struggled with these issues but the battle, the war, is hardly getting to an end and victory is not
even sure. As such it is important to try and find ways to put across massages to people and even
to our selves about the impact of these issues surrounding us which we are faced with in our
society and indeed our lives. Some of these issues, most of them cross cutting, are as follows:-

1. GENDER BASED VIOLENCE (GBV)

This is abuse or violence against members of the opposite sex, and women are at the most of
being victims.

To put a message across to others about this in order bring about its end we can coin a massage
in any of our traditional games, dances and activities so that spectators and participants
themselves can learn about the evil found in it, that is G.B.V.

E.g. we can perform a dance called “fwemba” which depict the evil in violence and many other
dance performances that can help to bring about victory over G.B.V

2. HIV/AIDS

This is another cross cutting issue, a pandemic that has brought so much misery in our societies
and in our lives. Government is spending so much just to support those infected to prolong their
lives. Here we can still come up with songs, dances and activities that can be used to
supplement governments efforts to fight against HIV/AIDS the massages to be found in the
dances, songs, and physical activities should aim at prevention of the contraction and spread of
HIV/AIDS.

The impact of HIV/AIDS is vivid every were, just look at the street kids, think about the child
headed households, crime, drop out from school of pupils, shortage of human resource due to
death resulting from the pandemic to mention but a few. Songs like, “echo tufwila” can be used
to deliver a message about this pandemic and many lives can be saved.

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DRUG ABUSE

This is the illegal use of drugs to enhance performance or to alter one’s behaviour and feel high.
Drugs alter one’s behaviour and change his/her view of things. This is the danger in that it
increases violence, crime, the spread of Sexually Transmitted Infections (S.T.I(s)) and also
untimely death. Tradition games and activities can be used again to stop the use of these illegal
substances just as it can be done for HIV/AIDS. Examples of these abused substances are;
Hashish, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, to mention but a few.

Traditional games and activities or rather recreational games and activities has the potential to
stop a lot of undesired vices in our societies.

To do this, we can organize competitions in recreation games and activities, as games have the
power to pull crowds, where opportunities can be found to deliver messages of warning and
sensitization against and abuse of such substances. It is in such gatherings were and advantage
can be taken to sensitize many about the dangers of some of our activities to the environment
and also our attitude about stigmatization of the people living with HIV/AIDS.

These warning messages, the sensitization about the environment and also change of attitude
towards people with HIV/AIDS can be delivered in form of speeches, dance, songs, and the
games themselves to be competed in.

ACTIVITY

1. Name two drugs people abuse to enhance performance.

2. Explain in brief how drugs abuse can facilitate the spread of HIV/AIDS and also
increase gender based violence.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

DIGESTION SYSTEM

For living organisms to survive they need to eat among other things. The food eaten is digested
and absorbed into the body.

Digestion

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There are three classes of food taken into the body by human beings that needs to be digested.
These are complex carbohydrates (such as polysaccharides, disaccharide sand proteins) and
lipids.

Absorption of the end products of digestion occurs in the small intestine. Other foods are taken
in soluble form and are not digested. Therefore, vitamins, mineral salts, water, alcohol and drugs
like aspirin and penicillin are not digested but are absorbed directly through the lining of
thisalimentary canal.

The alimentary canal is a tube running through the body from the mouth to the anus of any
mammal. Different part of the alimentary canal are adapted in carryout the process of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and ingestion.

THE HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

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Digestion in mammals is divided into physical and chemical digestion. Physical digestion
includesphysical process that breaks large food particles into smaller ones. E.g.Mystification or
chewing food in the mouth is a physical aspect of digestion, the splitting of large fat droplets into
tiny ones by the bile is also physical digestion called emulsification. The churning of food in the
stomach is also physical digestion is that it increases surface area of food for chemical digestion
to take place well. Chemical digestion is achieved with help of chemicals called enzymes. Thus
the two types of digestion are complementary to each other.

These enzymes each type of them act on a specific type of food.

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Digestion is carried out in the mouth, stomach and small intestine and it is important to state that
digestion in mammals in exclusively extra cellular meaning that digestion here happens outside
the body or body cells.It happens in the alimentary canal.

During digestion is the mouth, food is mixed with saliva from the salivary glands i.eparotide,
sublingual and submandibular glands. The enzymes found in the saliva is the salivary amylase
and it can only work in an alkaline medium thus, can only work in the mouth where it is alkaline
and not in the stomach where it is acidic. The function of saliva is to lubricate food and to start
the process of digestion converting it to maltose.

As the food moves from mouth down to the esophagus it is rounded into what is called bolus and
the bolus moves down the alimentary canal by a process of peristalsis. The relaxation of the
longitudinal muscles of the alimentary canal and the contraction of the circular muscles propel or
pushes the food in a wave-like motion through all the region of the canal and it is this wave like
movement which is called peristalsis.

Stomach

The stomach is a muscular organ with a volume of about (2) two liters. The part of the stomach
near the heart is called cardiac end and at the opening of it is the cardiac sphincter muscle. Food
enters the stomach when this muscle relaxes.

The part of the stomach near the duodenum is called the pyloric end and at the very end of this is
a muscle called pyloric sphincter muscle located between the stomach and the duodenum. Food
leaves the stomach when this muscle relaxes and opens. When it contracts it closes. This is the
same with the cardiac sphincter.

The period of time food stays in the stomach depends on the type of food e.g a meal rick in
protein and fat may be held for one or two hours.

The thick walls of the stomach contains gastric glands which produce gastric juice and this juice
contain mainly two enzymes, pepsin and rennin, these act on the food to continue chemical
digestion started in the mouth. The enzymes in the stomach function in an acidic medium. The
ph of the stomach is above 2.0.The cells in the gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid, (the
oxyntic cells). This acid kills most of the bacterial taken in with food.

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The food in the stomach is mixed by rhythmic muscular contraction into a semi solid state called
chyme. Thus mixing is called churning. These contractions ofthe stomach muscles keep moving
the food towards the duodenum.

Digestion is completed in the small intestine and various enzymes are released to complete the
chemical digestion started in the mouth.

The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, 7 meter in adults. The duodenum
is the first part of the small intestine and is about 30cm. the other parts of the intestine are the
jejunum and the ileum. The jejunum and ileum is long and folded many time. The jejunum and
ileum are the main part of the digestion and is where absorption of food nutrients take place
mainly. The liver produce bile which is stored in the gall bladder, the bile is the one that
emulsifies fats. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice which also contains salts, sodium
hydrogen carbonate. This pancreatic juice neutralizes the acidic chyme from the stomach and
thus provides an optimum P.H for the enzyme.

The enzymes produced are secreted into the food in the intestines to complete digestion started
earlier.

Absorption

The end products of carbohydrate digestion are glucose, galactose and fructose which are simple
sugars. The end products of lipid digestion are the fatty acids and glycerol. These end products
are absorbed and assimilated into the body by the ileum together with those directly taken in.

The ileum is well adapted to carry out this function in that it is long (5m), folded, has thin
epithileum, has numerous projections called villi (singular, villus), each villus has dense network
of capillaries and each villus contains a lacteal which is part of the lymphatic system. Fatty acids
and glycerol are mainly absorbed into the lacteals

FIGURE OF VILLUS

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Large intestine

This is made up of the colon and rectum. In human, this intestine forms a loop around small
Intestine. In humans, it is divided into three sections. The ascending,horizontal and descending
colons. Peristalsis continues even here. Materials form the small intestines which cannot be
digested and absorbed together with water arepresent here. Here absorption of water take place
from the other materials and this leaves a semi-solid mass which move into the rectum,
containing largely the undigested materials, forming faeces. The faeces contain undigested
matter (cellulose), bile pigments, dead cells, and bacteria. Faeces are stored temporarily in the
rectum and eliminated at intervals through the anus by the process of egestion.

Fate of the absorbed end-products of digestion

The end products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharide such as glucose, galactose and
fructose while amino acids are the end products of protein digestion, and fatty acids and glycerol

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from lipid digestion. All these products together with those taken in directly are absorbed by the
ileum mainly. These are taken to the rest of the body by the blood via the liver.

In the cells, amino acids are used for synthesis of protein for growth, in various ways. Note that,
all the absorbed substances are used by the body and excess is stored. Others which do not get
used up or stored are removed through the blood stream.

Monosaccharide carried from intestine move to the liver through hepatic vein and from liver to
the respiring cells. Excess monosaccharide are converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and
muscles under the stimulus of insulin. Some are converted into fat for storage. When need arises
the glycogen is converted back to monosaccharide. Note that there is no limit as to how much fat
should be stored in the body.

Glucose and other simple sugars are principality used for respiration.

The energy so derived from respiration of monosaccharide is used in any ways such as in the
heart beat, breathing, synthesis of substances in the body, locomotion and many more.

From this, we can see how physical activities or exercises are supported by the functions of the
digestion system , as the products thereof are the sources of the energy needed for performance
of physical exercises such as playing soccer, tennis, swimming etc.

The monosaccharide in excess gets stored while the required ones are used in respirations. This
control measure by the body mechanism is called rationing. Rationing is the limiting of the
amount of food to be used and not more than what is required.

Activity

1. What is the name of the enzyme found in the saliva?

2. What do you think would happen to an athlete who has poor production of the insulin?
3. Describe how respiration supports physical exercises.

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BIOMECHANICS

LAWS OF MOTION

Newton’s laws of motion in sports forms the basis for principles used in sports movements.
Methods of training that depart from these laws would not make sense` `mechanically. Tips
for efficient sports performance are built around these laws and principles. There are two basic
types of motion:

- Linear motion occurs when an object or person travels in a straight line.

- Angular motion occurs when an object or person turns about the point axis, fulcrum and
does not travel from one place to another place. It is common in diving and gymnastic
skills when athlete rotates, twist or spin.

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First Law – The law of Inertia

A body at rest tends to remain at rest. a body in motion tend to continue in motion with
consistent speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an outside force.

Basically, if an object is in motion, it keeps going unless something stops it. Some examples of
outside forces that affect inertia are; gravity, the surface of the playing field, a defensive player,
or the braking action of an athlete’s body to stop.

Second Law- The law of Acceleration (law of momentum)

The velocity of a body is changed only when acted upon by an additional force. The produced
acceleration or deceleration is proportional to and in the same direction of force. For example if a
baseball player hits the ball with double the force, the rate at which the ball will accelerate (
speed up) will be doubled. Football players can slow down, stop or reverse the direction of other
players depending upon the how much force they can generate which direction.

Third Law - The Law of Counter force (law of interaction)

The production of any force will create another force opposite and equal to the first force. For
example a swimmer propels him through the water because the water offers enough counterforce
to oppose the action of his hands pushing, allowing him to move. An athlete can jump higher off
a solid surface because it opposes his body with as much force as he is able to generate, in
contrast to sand or other un stable surfaces.

Principles about projectiles in sports

Bodies launched into the air that are subject only to the forces of gravity and air resistance are
termed projectiles. Projectile motion occurs frequently in sport and exercise activities.
Often the projectile involved is an inanimate object, such as a javelin or golf ball. In some
activities the sports performer becomes the projectile, as in the long jump, high jump, diving
andgymnastics. An understanding of the mechanical factors that govern the flight path or
trajectory of a projectile is therefore important in sports biomechanics.

In other words projectile in sports include objects and athletes in flight as a result of throwing,
kicking, batting and jumping. If you are thrower, long jumper, basketball player or any other
athlete whose sport involve objects in flight, there principles about the effects of force on angle,
height, impact and spin can help.

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SWIMMING

SWIMMING COMPETITIONS AND WATER GAMES

Swimming is an individual or team sport and activity. Competitive swimming is one of the most
popular Olympic sports, with events in freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly.
Olympic swimmers also participate in long course, short course and relays.

Competitive swimming became popular in the 19th century. The goal of competitive swimming
is to break personal or world records while beating competitors in any given event. Swimming in
competitions should create the least resistance in order to obtain maximum speed. However,
some professional swimmers who do not hold a national or world ranking are considered the best
in regard to their technical skills

LONG COURSE

In long course the race course is 50 meters (164.0ft) in length. If the touch panels are used in
competition, then the distance between touch panels should be either 25 or 50 meters to qualify
for FINA (federation international de natation or international swimming federation) recognition.

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FINA is an international governing body for swimming. This means that Olympic pools are
generally oversized, to accommodate touch panels used in competition

SHORT COURSE

In swimming, the term short course(SC) is used to identify a pool that is 25 meters (27.34) in
length. The term is also often included in meet names when conducted in a short course pool.

Short course is the second type of pool configuration currently recognized by FINA and other
swimming bodies for pool competition.

MEDLEY (Relay races)

A swimming relay of four swimmers usually follows this strategy: second fastest, third fastest,
slowest, then fastest(anchor).

FINA rules require that a foot of the second swimmer must be contacting the platform while (and
before) the incoming teammate is touching the wall; the starting swimmer may already be in
motion, however, which saves 0.6-1 second compared to a regular start. Besides, many
swimmers perform better in a relay than in an individual race owing to a team spirit atmosphere.
As a result, relay times are typically, 2-3 seconds faster than the sum of best times of individual
swimmers.

OPEN WATER

Open water swimming takes place in outdoor bodies of water such as open oceans, lakes, and
rivers. There are also 5km, 10km and 25km events for men and women. However, only the 10
km event is included in the Olympic schedule, again for both men and women.

Open water competitions are typically separate to other swimming competitions with the
exception of the World Champion and the Olympics.

ACTIVITY

1. What does the abbreviation FINA stand for?

2. What is the aim of competitive swimming?
3. In relay how many participants are allowed per tea?
4. What is the difference between long course and short course race?

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ORGNISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GAMES AND SPORTS EVENTS

In the organization and management of games and sports events there two things to put into
consideration;

A. Organizing an event
B. Planning for sports trip

ORGANISING AN EVENT

Below are the things the organizers should look into;

 Necessary man power to run the event

 Facilities to run the event
 Finances to run the event
 Time
 Environment favourable
 Expertise will power ( group work or team spirit)
 Location of the event

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 - Are local interested
- Is the media interested
 Past history of the event
 Is my organization in favour of organizing the event
- Are there personalities or other problems with the organizing committee?
 Appoint who will play the key role in the organization.
 Create an organizing committee to do the planning process.

PLANNINING FOR A SPORTS TRIP

There are number things the organizers need to put into consideration before the sports trip;

-
Food availability
-
Accommodation where it is located and costs
-
Health facilities ( hospital)
-
Transport means (road, air, rail or water transport), what cost, how long will the journey
take?
- Competition facilities (location)
- Security concern
- Geography (altitude) weather.
- Clothing and equipment
- Tip itself before (briefing with players and coaches) going check everything is to be in
place.
- Attend all meetings, ceremonies and receptions given in your owner.
 When you come back evaluate and write a report to the person who sent you.

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ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES GRADE 10

NUTRITION

2. Doping is the deliberate use of substance by sports person.

3. – Carries nutrients from the body through the blood stream

- Helps in transportation of body cells.

- It regulates the body temperature

- It carries dissolved nutrients through-out the human body

- Helps in digestion of food.

- Helps lubricate joints and mucus membranes.

4.

- Getting drug related diseases

- It affects the normal working of the body organs.

- Loss of jobs in case one is a professional sports person.

- Loss of efficiency in the sports activities.

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SWIMMING

1.

- Butterfly

- Freestyle

- Backstroke

- Breaststroke

2.

- Never swim alone

- Do not chew gum while swimming.

- Put on correct attire

- Do not swim immediately after a meal.

- Know the area from where you plan to swim

BIOMECHNICS

1. WORK = F ORCEX DISTANCE

W = 325 X 20
W = 6500N

2.
𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸
SPEED = 𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑇𝐴𝐾𝐸

1300
S = 3600

S = 0.36 seconds

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

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 ACTIVITY ANSWERS

1. Why is it important for pupils and teachers together to mark play fields?
-Answer: - it helps learners to become conversant with the appropriate dimensions and
measurements of the facilities as they are the future teachers of P.E.S and couches of tomorrow.
2. What are the benefits for the school of managing and maintaining sports facilities and
equipment?
-Answer: - reduction of expenses
- Minimal accidents
- School becomes landmark in the area
- avoid travelling expenses as most of the time the school will be hosting the games
- hiring the facilities to others will result in income generation for the school

Sports skill development

Activity answers

1. Safety rules in field events include:

 Equipment should be kept in good conditions and stored in a safe place

 Throwing implements should not be used from the throwing area.
 Training should be undertaken before using the equipment
 The thrower should make sure that there is no one in the landing area before throwing.
 After throwing, the thrower should wait until instructed to collect the implement from the
landing area.
 Wet conditions increase the chances of accidents.

2. Modified sports are the modifications made to existing standard sports, like the rules, number
of players and the equipments. Modified sports are greater way to introduce children /beginners
to sport in a safe and fun way.

Answers on gymnastics

1. Pupils have to perform pretzel activities.

2. Gymnastics activities are sports which involve performing of exercises which require
strength, flexibility, balance and control.

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 3. The difference between flexibility and agility is that, flexibility is the ability of muscles,
ligaments and tendons to allow large movements of the joints and is increased by
stretching the muscles while agility is the ability to change the position of the body
quickly and still retain balance.

NUTRITION

ANSWERS
1.
- Carbohydrates or starch- they are necessary for producing heat and energy to the body.
- Proteins- help in the formation of new body tissues.
- Fats and oils - they produce heat in the body and energy for muscles
- Vitamins-they help in the proper growth of the body, in resisting diseases, facilitate
digestive system.
- Mineral salts- strengthen muscles and bone.
- Water-it is a mineral salt needed for body functions.

2.

- promotes digestion and reduces constipation.

- Helps to remove wastes and toxic substances from the body.

- It carries nutrients, hormones, disease fighting cells, anti-bodies from the body through
the blood stream.

- Water carries dissolved nutrients through the human body and assists in various body
functions.

- It helps in transporting body cells.

- It lubricates your joints and mucus membranes.

FIRST AID
Answers:
1. Mouth to mouth ventilation and chest compression.

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2. a). A B C is done by: keeping the injured person’s airway open, checking the person’s
breathing if the airway is blocked, using rescue breathing techniques e. g. mouth to
mouth and checking for circulation by feeling for a pulse and looking for signs of
bleeding. If breathing has stopped, use cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
ABC: Airway Breathing Circulation
b) A sprain is a joint injury where a ligament is stretched or torn and a strain is a tear in
a muscle or tendon.
c) Apply ice to it, apply compression using a bandage and elevate the injured body part
so that it is higher than the heart

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ANSWERS FOR ACTIVITIES GRADE 11
NUTRITION ACTIVITIES ANSWERS

1.

- Carbohydrates

- Proteins

- Fats

-Minerals

- Fiber

- Vitamins

2.

- You get tired easily, and you might not be able to do high endurance sports.

- It limits your flexibility and limb movement.

- It can make doing vigorous exercise potentially harmful.

SWIMMING ACTIVITIES ANSWERS

1.
– Forward
- Backward
- Reverse
- Inward
- Twisting

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 - Arm-stand

2.
- Friendly dolphin
- Dodge ball
- Follow the leader
- Hula hoops
- Ring around the rosey
3.
- A system of emergency plan.
- Safety equipment
- Development of site procedures
- Emergency medical facility
- Emergency phone call
- Emergency plan for facility or lakefront.
- Plans for non-life guarded areas such as lakes, ponds and pool.

RECREATIONAL GAMES AND ACTIVITIES

ANSWERS
1. Who is a leader?
Answer: -This is a person who guides others in order to get things done.
- It is a person who done the right thing by guiding others in doing something.
2. Describe how a tradition game, “insolo” is played and how it benefits a learner.
Answer: -it is played between two people opposing each other.
-the player moves stones or round objects and drops them one by one in small
depressions made on a surface until the stone picked from one depression finish in the hand
- if the stones get finished on the depression where there are no stones, but
there are stones in the opponent’s depressions in the same line, the one currently
playing picks the friends stones and uses them to play.
- if the stones finish where there are no stones, on either his or the opponents,
then its the opponents turn to play.
- the one who finishes the friends the friend’s stones, wins the game.
Benefits - it provides entertainment
- It sharpens the brain
- It develops manipulative skills

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 - It develops numeracy skills
- It promotes critical thinking
- It develops decision making abilities

ENTREPRENEURSHIP
ACTIVITY ANSWERS

1. State two elements of entrepreneurship

-Answer: - have a relationship with scouts/entrepreneurs who are experienced from
various fields
- Talk to peers from other fields to get ideas about what you are doing, that is
the business you are running
- seek mentorship from experienced entrepreneurs

2. Why do you think entrepreneurship is important in physical education and sport?

-Answer: -reduces expenses

- imparts survival skills to learners

- promote self sustainability/self reliance

- promotes creativity

- promotes cooperation

- promotes appreciation of others as one realizes that we are inter

dependent on each other

- generates funds for the school and the subject area/department

- equips learners with abilities and courage to face tomorrow

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ANSWERS

1. Name any three body systems of humans which are important to physical activities
-Answer: - The skeletal system
- The muscular system
- The digestion system
- The articular system
- The nervous system
- The circulatory system
- The respiratory system
2. Explain briefly how the circulatory system supports physical exercises
-Answer: - transport oxygen needed for respiration
- transport absorbed substances (food) to the body tissues
- remove waste products of respiration from the muscles or tissues resulting from the demand
for energy which is produced from respiration

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ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES GRADE 12

SWIMMING
1. Federation international denotation or international swimming federation.
2. The aim of competitive swimming is to break personal or world records while beating
competitors in any given event.
3. There are four participants per team.
4. Long course race is 50 meters in length and the pool are generally oversized, to
accommodate touch panels used in competitions while short course race is 25 meters
in length. Short course is the second type of pool configuration currently recognized
by FINA and other swimming bodies for competition

RECREATION GAMES AND ACTIVITIES

ANSWERS
1. Name two drugs people abuse to enhance their performance or feel high.
Answers: - Marijuana
- Cocaine
- Heroin
- Hashish
2. Explain in brief how drugs abuse can facilitate in the spread of HIV/AIDS and Gender
based violence.
Answers: - Some Drugs Are Inject able
- People involved in abuse or substances , sometimes share syringes and needles to
inject themselves, this spread of diseases
- Drugs reduce judgment, this lead people to do bad things
- Drugs alter one’s behaviour and view of things which can lead also to violence
against others or the opposite sex
- Drugs also promotes immorality and this leads to spread of STI(s)
- Drugs make one to feel and think that he or she is all knowing and always right,
this can lead to violence once opposed.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

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 ANSWERS

1. What is the name of the enzyme found in the saliva

-Answer: - salivary amylase
2. What do you think would happen to an athlete who has poor production of insulin?
-Answer: - insulin helps convert excess sugars (monosaccharides) to storable form (fat) that
can be changed back to monosaccharides later when need arise.
- It leads to loss of monosaccharides due to non avaiulabilty of insulin and so it cannot be
converted to storage form/state
- The athlete will lack endurance in physical activities
- The athlete would be risking his/her life and can collapse during physical activities
- The athlete will resign or retire from taking part in competitive physical activities
3. Describe how respiration supports physical activities
-Answer: - this is the passage way of air
- takes air (oxygen) to the lungs (air sacs) for gaseous exchange
- takes waste products (carbon dioxide) coming from body tissues resulting from respiration, out
of the body
- It supplies oxygen for respiration to take place in tissue for energy to be produced
- Energy is needed for any work to be done including physical activities
- in all this respiration system supports physical activities

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