CHAPTER 4

CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

(CONSERVATION OF MASS, MOMENTUM
AND ENERGY)
Outline

 Introduction
 Conservation of Mass
 Linear Momentum
 Energy Equation
 Examples
 Control Volume Analysis: Introduction

• Practical flow problems involve finite regions, we call

these regions control volumes
• Physical laws govern these regions, we Apply
Conservation Laws
• We look at Conservation of Mass, Momentum, and
Energy of control volume
 Conservation of Mass: Fixed Control Volume

Apply the Reynold’s Transport Theorem to the System of Mass:

With B = Mass, and b = 1, for a fixed non-deforming control volume:

Conservation of Mass: Fixed Control Volume

Time rate of change Net rate of flow of

Time rate of change of the mass of the mass through the
of the mass of the contents of the control surface
coincident system coincident control
volume

Recall:
“Coincident Condition”

Time = t Time = t + dt
Time = t - dt
 Conservation of Mass: Fixed Control Volume
Recall,

Then, Conservation of Mass in Control Volume Form:

If the flow is steady:

And, we sum up all the differential elements for mass flow through the surface:

= 0

where the control surface has the area A, r is the

density of the fluid, and Q is the volumetric flow rate.
 Conservation of Mass: Fixed Control Volume

Mass flow rate:

“outflow across the surface”

“inflow across the surface”
“no flow across the surface”

The Average Velocity:

If the velocity, is uniformly distributed:

Control Volume
 Conservation of Mass: Fixed Control Volume
If the flow is steady and incompressible, then:

Q is the volumetric flow rate.

If the flow is unsteady:
is important.

(+) means mass is being added to the C.V.

( - ) means mass is being subtracted from the C.V.

If the flow is one dimensional (uniform flow):

If the flow is not uniform:

For steady flow with one stream in and out:

For steady and incompressible flow with one stream:

 Conservation of Mass: Fixed Control Volume

For steady flow, involving more than one stream:

Conservation of Mass: Example Control Volumes
Air in a Pipe:
Steady Flow
One inlet an one outlet:
Non-uniform velocity, V2 is an average velocity
Air Density varies at each location
Calculate:
Dehumidifier:
If we choose a control volume that excludes the
fan and the condenser coils:
Three inlet/outlet combinations, steady state:

If we choose the a second control volume:

Five inlet/outlet combinations:

Gives the same answer!

 Linear Momentum (Newtons 2nd Law): Fixed Control Volume

For “coincidence” of the system with the control volume:

Apply the Reynold’s Transport Theorem to the System of Mass:

Using Reynolds Transport Theorem with b = V, and B = Momentum:

 Linear Momentum: Fixed Control Volume

Time rate of change Net rate of flow of

Time rate of change of the linear linear momentum
of the linear momentum of the through the control
momentum of the contents of the surface
coincident system coincident control
volume
Recall:
“Coincident Condition”

Time = t
 Linear Momentum: Fixed Control Volume

Then,

•The forces that act on the control volume are body forces and surface forces
•The equation is a vector equation—linear momentum has direction.
•Uniform (1-D) flows are easiest to work with in these equations
•Momentum flow can be positive or negative out of the control volume
•The time rate of change of momentum is zero for steady flow.
 Linear Momentum: Fixed Control Volume

•If the control surface is perpendicular to the flow where fluid enter or leaves the control
volume, the surface force exerted by the fluid at the control surface will be due to
pressure.
•At an open exit, the surface pressure is atmospheric pressure.
•Gage pressures may be used in certain situations.
•The external forces have an algebraic sign, either positive or negative.
•Only external forces acting on the control volume are considered.
•If the fluid alone is considered in the control volume, the reaction forces dues to any
surfaces will need to be considered.
•If the fluid and the surface are in the control volume, reaction forces do not appear
between the surface and the fluid.
•Anchoring forces are considered external forces
•Anchoring forces will generally exist in response surface stresses (shear and pressure
acting on the control surface.
Linear Momentum Examples: Fixed Control Volume
Control Volume only includes Fluid:
Pressure forces exerted on each side
Reaction force due to the walls must be
considered.

Control Volume includes Fluid and Wetted

Surface:
Pressure forces exerted on each side
Anchor force considered.
 Linear Momentum: Control Volumes

Fluid Flows can Lead to Reaction Forces by:

1. Linear Momentum flow variation in direction or

magnitude

2. Fluid Pressure Forces

3. Fluid Friction Forces

4. Fluid Weight
The Energy Equation: Fixed Control Volume

Energy Heat Transfer Rate Work Rate

Rewriting,

Also, noting that energy, e, can be rewritten (all per unit mass):

Internal Energy Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy
 The Energy Equation: Fixed Control Volume
Now, invoking “coincidence” of the control volume and the system:

Apply the Reynold’s Transport Theorem to the System of Mass:

Using Reynolds Transport Theorem with b = e, and B = Total Energy:

The Energy Equation: Fixed Control Volume
Noting and Substituting,
=
 The Energy Equation: Work and Heat
Heat:
represents heat transfer, conduction, convection, and radiation.
Heat transfer into the control volume is positive, heat transfer
out is negative.
If the process is adiabatic, there is no heat transfer.
If the heat transfer in equals the heat transfer out, the net is zero:

Work:
Work transfer rate, power, is positive when the work is done on the
contents of the control volume, by the surroundings.
Work includes shaft work such as turbines, fans, propellers, and other
rotating equipment.
Other types of work are due to normal stresses and tangential
stresses acting on fluid particles.
 The Energy Equation: Work and Heat
Work (continued):
Shaft Work:

Normal Stress:

Only non-zero at the control surface.

Shear Stress: The tangential stress exists at the boundary, but due to
“no-slip” condition, zero velocity, it is not transferred
typically, and we consider it negligible if the appropriate
control volume is chosen.
 The Energy Equation: Fixed Control Volume
Now, the Energy Equation take the following form:

Rearranging, and Substituting,

+ =

Then,
 The Energy Equation: Applications

(1) (2) (3)

(1) Assume Steady Sate then, =0

(2)

Assume properties are uniformly distributed over the flow cross-section,

Assume one inlet and one outlet:

 The Energy Equation: Applications

The previous assumption is fairly

good for a fluid particle following a
stream tube in a steady state flow.

The previous assumption of uniform 1D flow is often an oversimplification

for control volumes.

Now, we can introduce shaft work. We note that shaft work is unsteady locally,
but its effects downstream are steady.

One Dimensional Energy Equation for Steady-in-the-Mean Flow:

 The Energy Equation: Applications
Now, Introduce Enthalpy:

Then the 1D energy equation becomes the following:

With no shaft work—the fluid stream is constant throughout:

Or, the steady flow energy equation:

 The Energy Equation: Compare to Bernoulli’s
If the flow is incompressible, in addition to being 1D and steady,

Divide the mass flow rate out:

Where,

If the flow is inviscid (frictionless), we obtain Bernoulli’s equation:

or, per unit mass,

Thus, the friction terms are the following:

 The Energy Equation: 1D, Steady, Incompressible, Friction Flow

For steady, incompressible, frictional flow:

Useful or available energy:

Loss terms:

Then we can rewrite the energy equation for 1D, Steady, incompressible
Frictional flow:
 The Energy Equation: 1D, Steady-in-Mean Flow, Incompressible,
Friction Flow
For Steady-in-Mean Flow, we introduce shaft work again:

Divide the mass flow rate out:

Where,

Then,
 The Energy Equation: In Terms of Heads
Multiply by density:

Then, divide by specific weight:

Where,
can be due to a turbine or pump
Turbine: If we only have a pump or turbine, the
Pump: terms on the R.H.S become these.

is all other losses not associated with pumps or turbines

 Bernoulli’s Equation: Introduction

Swiss mathematician, son of Johann Bernoulli, who showed that as

the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure decreases, a statement
Daniel Bernoulli known as the Bernoulli principle. He won the annual prize of the
(1700-1782)
French Academy ten times for work on vibrating strings, ocean tides,
and the kinetic theory of gases. For one of these victories, he was
ejected from his jealous father's house, as his father had also
submitted an entry for the prize. His kinetic theory proposed that the
properties of a gas could be explained by the motions of its particles.

•Acceleration of Fluid Particles give Fluid Dynamics

• Newton’s Second Law is the Governing Equation
• Bernoulli equation is applied to an Idealized Flow
• There are numerous assumptions
• Bernoulli equation is one of the most used equations
 Newton’s Second Law: Fluid Dynamics

F are the forces acting on the fluid particle, m is the mass of a fluid
particle, and a is the acceleration of the fluid particle
Possible Forces: Body Forces and Surface Forces
Surface Forces: Pressure and Shear Stresses
Body Forces: Gravity, Magnetic Fields, etc.
Consider Inviscid Flow:
• If a flow is inviscid, it has zero viscosity, and likewise no thermal
conductivity or heat transfer.
• In practice, there are no inviscid fluids, since all fluids support shear.
In some flows, the viscous effect is very small, confined to a thin layer.
Water flows can be of either type, a lot of gases have situation where
viscosity is negligible
 Newton’s Second Law: Fluid Dynamics

Thus, for this lecture, we only consider Pressure and Gravity Forces
using the inviscid approximation:

This balance of forces on fluid has numerous applications in Fluid Dynamics

All fluid flows contain three dimensions and time.
Cartesian Coordinates, (x, y, z) and Cylindrical Coordinates, (r, q, z) are common
coordinates used in fluid dynamics.

For this lecture we will concern ourselves with flows in the x-z plane.
 Newton’s Second Law: Fluid Dynamics
We describe the motion of each particle with a velocity vector: V
Particles follow specific paths based on the velocity of the particle.
Location of particle is based on its initial position at an initial time,
and its velocity along the path.
If the flow is a steady flow, each successive particle will follow the
same path.
 Newton’s Second Law: Steady Flow
For Steady Flow, each particle slides along its path, and the velocity
vector is every tangent to the path.
The lines that the velocity vectors are tangent to are called streamlines.
We can introduce streamline coordinate, s(t) along the streamline and n,
normal to the streamline.
Then (s) is the radius of curvature of the streamline.
 Newton’s Second Law: Steady Flow

For 2-D Flows, there are two acceleration components:

s-direction by chain rule:

Normal direction (n) is the centrifugal acceleration:

In general there is acceleration along the streamline:

There is also acceleration normal to the streamline:

However, to produce an acceleration there must be a force!

 Newton’s Second Law: Steady Flow F.B.D.

Remove, the fluid particle from its surroundings.

Draw the F.B.D. of the flow.

Assume pressure forces and gravity forces are important.

Neglect surface tension and viscous forces.

 Newton’s Second Law: Along a Streamline
Use Streamline coordinates, our element is ds x dn x dy, and the unit vectors
are n and s, and apply Newton’s Second Law in the Streamline Direction.

Streamline, F = ma:

Gravity Forces:

Pressure Forces (Taylor Series):

arises since pressures vary in a fluid

P is the pressure at the center of the element

Shear Forces: Neglected, Inviscid!

 Newton’s Second Law: Along a Streamline
Then,

Divide out volume, recall

The change of fluid particle speed is accomplished by the appropriate

combination of pressure gradient and particle weight along the streamline.

In a static fluid the R.H.S is zero, and pressure and gravity balance.

In a dynamic fluid, the pressure and gravity are unbalanced causing fluid
flow.
 Newton’s Second Law: Along a Streamline

Note, we can rewrite terms in the above equation:

0 = constant along a streamline

Then,

Simplify,
 Newton’s Second Law: Along a Streamline
Integrate,

In general, we can not integrate the pressure term because density can vary with temperature and
pressure; however, for now we assume constant density.

Then,

Celebrated Bernoulli’s Equation

Assumptions:
1) Viscous effects are assumed negligible (inviscid).
2) The flow is assumed steady.
3) The flow is assume incompressible.
4) The equation is applicable along a streamline.

* We can apply along a streamline in planar and non-planar flows!

 Newton’s Second Law: Normal to a Streamline

Normal, F = ma:

Gravity Forces:

Pressure Forces (Taylor Series):

arises since pressures vary in a fluid

P is the pressure at the center of the element

Shear Forces: Neglected, Inviscid!

 Newton’s Second Law: Normal to a Streamline
Then,
rdVa n 

Divide out volume, recall

A change in direction of a flow of a fluid particle speed is accomplished by

the appropriate combination of pressure gradient and particle weight normal
to the streamline.
A large force unbalance is needed for motion resulting from a large V or r or
small .
If gravity is neglected (gas flow):
Pressure increases with distance away from the center of curvature, as in a tornado or
Hurricane where at the then center the low pressure creates vacuum conditions.
 Newton’s Second Law: Normal to a Streamline
Hurricane Pick a Streamline

1013 mb

922 mb at Eye

Now, using the hydrostatic condition, how high would the sea level rise due
to lower pressure ?

Free Vortex:
Newton’s Second Law: Normal to a Streamline

Multiply the above equation by dn, and assume that s is constant, such
that,

Integrate,

Assume density is constant, incompressible, however, we do not

know
Thus, for across streamlines for steady, incompressible, inviscid flow:
 Physical Interpretation: Normal and Along a Streamline
Basic Assumptions:
1) Steady
2) Inviscid
3) Incompressible

•A violation of one or more of the assumptions mean the equation is invalid.

•The “Real World” is never entirely all of the above.
•If the flow is nearly Steady, Incompressible, and Inviscid, it is possible to
adequately model it.

The three terms that the equations model are: pressure, acceleration, and
weight.

Pressure Acceleration Weight

The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the work-energy principle:

The work done on a particle by all forces acting on the particle is equal to the
change of kinetic energy of the particle.
 Physical Interpretation: Normal and Along a Streamline
As a fluid particle moves, pressure and gravity both do work on the particle:

p is the pressure work term, and gz is the work done by weight.

1/2rV2 is the kinetic energy of the particle.

Alternatively, the Bernoulli equation can be derived from the first and
second laws of Thermodynamics (energy and entropy) instead of the
Newton’s 2nd Law with the appropriate restrictions.
Bernoulli’s Equation can be written in terms of heads:
p V2
  z  cons tan t on a streamline .
g 2g

Pressure Velocity Elevation

Head Head Term
Pressure Head: represents the height of a column of fluid that is needed to produce the pressure p.
Velocity Head: represents the vertical distance needed for the fluid to fall freely to reach V.
Elevation Term: related to the potential energy of the particle.
Physical Interpretation: Normal and Along a Streamline
For Steady Flow the acceleration can be interpreted as arising from
two distinct sources:

(⑴)Change in speed along a streamline

(⑵)Change in direction along a streamline

Bernoulli Equation gives (1), change in Kinetic Energy.

Integration Normal to the Streamline gives (2), Centrifugal
Acceleration.

In many cases  , and the centrifugal effects are negligible,

meaning the pressure variation is hydrostatic even though the fluid is
in motion.
 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure: Bernoulli Equation

Static Dynamic Hydrostatic

Pressure Pressure Pressure
Static Pressure: P is the static pressure (it does not incorporate any
dynamic effects); it represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid.
This is the same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
Dynamic Pressure: iit represents the pressure rise when the fluid in
motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
Hydrostatic Pressure: potential energy due to elevation changes.
Following a streamline:
1 1
p2  rV2 2  gz 2  p1  rV12  gz1 Follow a Streamline from point 1 to 2
2 2
0 0, no elevation 0, no elevation
1 p2  gH “Total Pressure = Hydrostatic pressure+ Dynamic Pressure +
p2  p1  rV12 Note:
Static Pressure”
2
H>h
V1  g  H  h  In this way we obtain a measurement of the centerline flow with piezometer tube.
 Stagnation Point: Bernoulli Equation
Stagnation point: the point on a stationary body in every flow where V= 0
Stagnation Streamline: The streamline that terminates at the stagnation point.
Symmetric:

Axisymmetric:
If there are no elevation effects, the stagnation pressure is
largest pressure obtainable along a streamline: all kinetic
energy goes into a pressure rise:
rV 2
Po  p 
2
Total Pressure with Elevation:
1
p rV 2  gz  pT  cons tan t on a streamline
2
 Pitot-Static Tube: Speed of Flow
p2 = p3

p2 p1
p1 = p4
H. De Pitot
(1675-1771) p2 p1
p1
p2
p2 p1

Stagnation Pressure occurs at tip of the Pitot-static tube:

1
p2  p  rV 2  p3
2
Static Pressure occurs along the static ports on the side of the tube:
p1  p  p4 (if the elevation differences are negligible, i.e. air)

Now, substitute static pressure in the stagnation pressure equation:

1 1
p3  p4  rV 2 p3  p4  rV 2
2 2
Now solve for V:
2 p3  p4 
V
r
 Uses of Bernoulli Equation: Free Jets
New form for along a streamline between any two points:

If we know 5 of the 6 variable we can solve for the last one.

Free Jets: Case 1

Torricelli’s Equation (1643):

Note: p2 = p4 by normal to
the streamline since the
streamlines are straight.
Following the streamline between (1) and (2):
As the jet falls:

0 gage 0 h 0 gage V 0
 Uses of Bernoulli Equation: Free Jets
1 1
Free Jets: Case 2 p3  r V32  gz3  p 4  r V4 2  gz 4
2 2
=g(h-l) 0 l 0 gage V 0

Then,

Physical Interpretation:
All the particles potential energy is converted to kinetic energy assuming no
viscous dissipation.
The potential head is converted to the velocity head.
 Uses of Bernoulli Equation: Free Jets
Free Jets: Case 3 “Horizontal Nozzle: Smooth Corners”

However, we calculate the average

Slight Variation in Velocity due
velocity at h, if h >> d:
to Pressure Across Outlet

Free Jets: Case 4 “Horizontal Nozzle: Sharp-Edge Corners”

vena contracta: The diameter of the jet dj is less than that of the
hole dh due to the inability of the fluid to turn the 90° corner.

The pressure at (1) and (3) is zero, and the pressure varies
across the hole since the streamlines are curved.

The pressure at the center of the outlet is the greatest.

However, in the jet the pressure at a-a is uniform,

we can us Torrecelli’s equation if dj << dh.
 Uses of Bernoulli Equation: Free Jets
Free Jets: Case 4 “Horizontal Nozzle: Sharp-Edge Corners”
Vena-Contracta Effect and Coefficients for Geometries
 Uses of the Bernoulli Equation: Confined Flows
There are some flow where we can-not know the pressure a-priori because
the system is confined, i.e. inside pipes and nozzles with changing diameters.

In order to address these flows, we consider both conservation of mass

(continuity equation) and Bernoulli’s equation.

Consider flow in and out of a Tank:

The mass flow rate in must equal the mass flow rate out for a steady state flow:
and

With constant density,

 Uses of the Bernoulli Equation: Final Comments
In general, an increase in velocity results
in a decrease in pressure.

Flow in a Pipe:
Airplane Wings:
 Uses of Bernoulli Equation: Flow Rate Measurement
Flowrate Measurements in Pipes using Restriction:
Horizontal Flow:
An increase in velocity results in
a decrease in pressure.

Assuming conservation of mass:

Substituting we obtain:

So, if we measure the pressure

difference between (1) and (2) we have
the flow rate.
Air flows through a pipe at a rate of 200 L/s. The pipe consists of two sections
of diameters 20 cm and 10 cm with a smooth reducing section that connects
them. The pressure difference between the two pipe sections is measured by a
water manometer. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the differential height
of water between the two pipe sections. Take the air density to be 1.20 kg/m3.
Answer: 3.7 cm