Chapter two

2. DC circuit analysis
Simple resistive circuit
Parallel resistive circuit

Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same
two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
Two elements, branches, or networks are in parallel if they have two
points in common.

Find the total resistance of the network of Fig.

Ans. RT= R/N= 12/3=4Ω ans. RT= 1.053Ω

Series resistive circuit

Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry
the same current.
Two elements are in series if
1. They have only one terminal in common (i.e., one lead of one is connected to
only one lead of the other).
2. The common point between the two elements is not connected to another
current-carrying element

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 Voltage Sources in Series
The net voltage is determined simply by summing the sources with the same polarity and subtracting the
total of the sources with the opposite “pressure.”The net polarity is the polarity of the larger sum.

a. Find the total resistance for the series circuit

b. Calculate the source current
c. Determine the voltages V1, V2, and V3.
d. Calculate the power dissipated by R1, R2, and
R3.
e. Determine the power delivered by the source,

Series – parallel network

Example: Find equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in figure below

Ans. 14.4Ω

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Kirchhoff’s rule
Kirchhoff current rule: is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic
sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero.

Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current
entering (or leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while
currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

i1+ (−i2) +i3+i4+ (−i5) =0 IT =I1−I2+I3

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): States that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or
loop) is zero. It is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

Example:Determine Vo and I in circuit shown

Solution:
We apply KVL around the loop as shown in (b).
The result is
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 −12+4i+2vo−4+6i =0 -----------------1
Applying Ohm’s law to the 6Ω resistor gives
Vo=−6 i ----------------------2
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) yields
−16+10i−12i =0 ⇒i =−8A and VO=48 V.

Current divided rule

Consider the circuit where two resistors are connected
in parallel and therefore have the same voltage across
them. From Ohm’s law,

or
……..3

Given the total current i entering node a in figure above, how do we obtain current i1 and i2? We know that the
equivalent (Total) resistor of parallel circuit is
R1R2
Therefore, total resistance of the above circuit is Req¿ R 1+ R 2

…..4
Combining equation 4 and 3

…5
Which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances. This is
known as the principle of current division, and the circuit is known as a current divider.
Notice that the larger current flows through the smaller resistance.
As an extreme case, suppose one of the resistors in Figure below is zero, say R 2=0; that is, R2 is a short circuit,
as shown. It implies that i1 =0, i2 =i. This means that the entire
current i by passes R1and flows through the short circuit R 2 =0,
the path of least resistance. Thus when a circuit is short circuited,
as shown in figure two things should be kept in mind:
1. The equivalent resistance Req =0 and
2. The entire current flows through the short circuit.

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Another extreme case, suppose R2 =∞, that is, R2 is an open circuit, as shown in Figure the current still flows
through the path of least resistance,R1. By taking the limit
of Eq.
Req as R2→∞, we obtain Req =R1

R1R2
¿
R 1+ R 2

Example: Determine the current I2 for the network of Fig. below using the current divider rule.

Consider the single-loop circuits of the two resistors are in

series, since the same current i flow in of them. Applying
Ohm’slaw to each of the resistors, we obtain
v1=iR1,v2=iR2 ---1
If we apply KVL to the loop we have
−v+v1+v2=0 ---2
Combining equation 1 &2
…3
I=V/(R1+R2) .. ....4
Inserting Eqs 4 in to Eqs... 1
ans. I2=2A

Voltage divided rule Or other way

Notice that the source voltage is divided among the i1=i2=itotal where i1 is current through R1 and i2 is current
resistors in direct proportion to their resistances; the through R2
V1/R1 = V2/R2 = V/Req= V/(R1+R2)
larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This
Then by simply driving for V1
is called the principle of voltage division, and the V1=R1V/ (R1+R2)
circuit is called a voltage divider. In general, if a

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voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2... RN) in series with the source voltage V, the n th resistor (Rn) will have
a voltage drop of

Method of analysis
Nodal analysis
Then node equations of currents are written to satisfy
Kirchhoff's current law. By solving the node equations, we can
calculate the unknown node voltages. A node is a common
connection for two or more components. A principal node has
three or more connections (in this circuit only N and G).
To each node in a circuit a letter or number is assigned. A, B,
G, and N are nodes.
A node voltage is the voltage of a given node with respect to
one particular node called the reference node. Select node G
connected to ground as the reference node. Then V AG is the voltage between nodes A and G, V BG is the voltage
between nodes B and G. Since the node voltage is always determined with respect to a specified reference node,
the notations VA for VAG, VB for VBG, and VN for VNG are used.
The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero potential. A reference
node is indicated by any of the three symbols

-----10

Substituting the above equation to Eqs.(10)

Steps to Determine Node Voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1,v2,...,vn−1to the remainingn−1 nodes. The voltages
are referenced with respect to the reference node.

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 2. Apply KCL to each of then−1 non reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms
of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the un known node voltages.
Note: Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.

Example1: Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig (a).

Example2: Find V1and V2in the circuit shown in Figure

Also calculate i1 and i2and the power dissipated in the 12Ω and
40-Ω resistors
Answer: v1=5V, i1=416.7 mA, p1=2.083 W, V2=10 V, i2=250
mA, p2=2.5W

a) Solution:
Consider circuit (b) has been prepared for nodal analysis of circuit (a). Notice how the currents are selected for
the application of KCL. Except for the branches with current sources, the labeling of the currents is arbitrary.
The reference node is selected, and the node voltages v1and v2 are now to be determined.
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

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 By multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we obtain

or

Method 1: Now we have two

simultaneous equations
4V2=80 ⇒V2=20 V
3V1−20=20 ⇒ V1==13.33 V
Method2: To use Cramer’s rule, we
need to put those equations in matrix form as

If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from the values of the nodal voltages.

Cramer’s rule Consider the linear system which in matrix format is

Assume ad − bc nonzero. Then, x and y can be found with Cramer's rule as

The rules for 3×3 are similar. Given which in matrix format is

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Then the values of x, y and z can be found as follows:

Mesh analysis
A simplification of Kirchhoff’s laws is a method that makes use of mesh or loop currents. A mesh is any closed
path of a circuit. It does not matter whether the path contains a voltage source. In solving a circuit with mesh
currents, we first must decide which paths will be the meshes. Then we assign a mesh current to each mesh. For
convenience, mesh currents are usually assigned in a clockwise direction. This direction is arbitrary, but the
clockwise direction is usually assumed. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is then applied about the path of each mesh.
The resulting equations determine the unknown mesh currents. From these currents, the current or voltage of
any resistor can be found.

In this figure, we have a two-mesh circuit marked mesh 1 and

mesh 2. Mesh 1 is path abcda and mesh 2 is path adefa. All
voltage sources and resistances are known. A procedure for
finding mesh currents I1, and I2 is as follows:
Step 1:-after the meshes are selected, show the direction of
mesh currents I1, and I2 in a clockwise direction.
Mark the voltage polarity across each resistor, consistent
with the assumed current. Remember that conventional current flow in a resistor produces positive
polarity where the current enters.

Step 2: Apply Kirchhoff's voltage law, around each mesh. Trace each mesh in the direction of mesh
current. Note that there are two different currents (I l,I2 flowing in opposite directions through the same resistor,
R2, which is common to both meshes. For this reason two sets of polarities are shown by R2 on figure. Trace
mesh 1 in direction abcda.

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 Note that in the first expression i2R2 is + since we
go through a voltage drop from - to +.

Trace mesh 2 in direction adefa

Step 3: Find Il and I2 by solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously.

Step 4: When mesh currents are known, find all resistor voltage drops by using Ohm's law.
Step 6: Check the solution of mesh currents by tracing mesh abcdefa.

Example1
Calculate the mesh currents i1and i2 in the circuit

Example 2: Find VO?

2Ω 6Ω 4Ω

+
40 V i1 Vo 8Ω i2 6Ω i3
20 V
--

Solution:

We have 3 meshes (loops)

KVL left loop : −40+2i 1 +8 ( i 1−i 2 )=0

10 i 1−8 i2 +0 i 3=40

KVL middle loop : 8 ( i 2−i 1 ) +6 i 2+ 6 ( i2 −i3 ) =0

−8 i 1+ 20i 2−6 i 3=0

KVL right loop : 20+6 ( i 3−i 2 ) + 4 i 3=0

0 i 1−6 i 2+10 i 3=−20

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Solve the above three equations involving the variables i1, i2 and i3 using simaltaneous solving method. In
matrix form the equations can be expressed as

10 −8 0 i 1 40
[ ][ ] [ ]
−8 20 −6 i 2 = 0
0 −6 10 i 3 −20

Solving the matrix we can find that

i 1=5.6 A , i2=2 A , i 3=−0.8 A

V o =8 ( i 1−i2 ) =8 ( 5.6−2 )=8 ( 3.6 )=28.8V

Circuit theorem

Superposition theorem
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting
alone.
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one independent source by
calculating the contribution of each independent source separately. However, to apply the superposition
principle, we must keep two things in mind:
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned off. This implies
that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open
circuit).
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis. Repeat Steps to
Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
2. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent sources.
The total power delivered to a resistive element must be determined using the total current through or the
total voltage across the element and cannot be determined by a simple sum of the power levels established by
each source.
Example1: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit
Solution:
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Since there are two sources, let
v=v1+v2 wherev1andv2are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A current source,
respectively.
To obtain v1, we set the current source to zero
V1=2v
To getv2, we set the voltage source to zero, Using current division,V2=8v
And we find v=v1+v2=2+8=10 V

EXAMPLE 2 Using superposition, determine the current through the 4Ω resistor of Fig. below

Solution: Considering the effects of a 54-V source

Using the current divider rule,

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Considering the effects of the 48-V source

The total current through the 4Ω resistor

EXAMPLE 3
a. Using superposition, find the current through the 6-Ω resistor and power of the network of Fig. shown below

ans. I2= 8A and power =384W

Thévenin theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and
RThis the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off (short
voltage source and open current source).

<===

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The following sequence of steps will lead to the proper value of RTh and ETh.

1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Thévenin equivalent circuit is to be found. The load
resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (The importance of this step will become obvious
as we progress through some complex networks.)
RTh:
3. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short circuits, and current
sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the
internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is included in the original network, it must remain when
the sources are set to zero.)
ETh:
4. Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the open-circuit voltage
between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably the one that will lead to the most confusion and errors. In
all cases, keep in mind that it is the open-circuit potential between the two terminals marked in step 2.)
Conclusion:
5. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed replaced between the
terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is indicated by the placement of the resistor RL between the
terminals of the Thévenin equivalent circuit.

Example 1:Find the Thévenin equivalent to the circuit at terminals a and b (a).

Step 1. Find RTh. Short-circuit the voltage source V = 10 V (b).

Rl and R2 are in parallel

Step 2. Find VTh. VTh, is the voltage across terminals a and b, which is the
same as the voltage drop across resistance R2.

You can get VTh by voltage divider rule

Vth= R2V/ (R1 + R2) = (6*10)/ (4+6) = 6V

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Thevenin equivalent circuit is (c)

Example 2: Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network shown below

Steps 1 and 2: First remove the load resistor

Step 3 The current source has been replaced with an open-circuit equivalent, and the resistance determined
between terminals a and b
.RTh= R1 + R2 = 2 + 4 = 6Ω

Step 4: In this case, since an open circuit

exists between the two marked
terminals, the current is zero between
these terminals and through the 2Ω resistor. The voltage
drop across R2 is, therefore,

Step 5 is shown in Fig .below

Norton’s theorem

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Norton’s theorem states any two-terminal linear dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source and a parallel resistor. The discussion of Thévenin’s theorem with respect to the equivalent
Circuit can also be applied to the Norton equivalent circuit.

The steps leading to the proper values of IN and RN are

now listed.
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit is found.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.
RN:
3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short circuits, and current
sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the
internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is included in the original network, it must remain when
the sources are set to zero.) Since RN = RTh, the procedure and value obtained using the approach described for
Thévenin’s theorem will determine the proper value of RN.
IN:
4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then finding the short-circuit current
between the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be measured by an
ammeter placed between the marked terminals.
Conclusion:
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed replaced between the
terminals of the equivalent circuit.

To determine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that wefind:

• The open-circuit voltage Voc across terminals a and b(for Thevenin’s).
• The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b(for Norton).
• The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when all independent sources are turned off(for
both).
We can calculate any two of the three using the method that takes the least effort and use them to get the third
using Ohm’s law.

Example1
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit
shown below

Steps 1 and 2 : removing external load resistor.

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Step 3:

Step 4

The short-circuit connection between terminals a and b is in parallel with R2 and eliminates its effect. IN is
therefore the same as through R1, and the full battery voltage appears across R1 since

Substituting the Norton equivalent circuit for the network external to the resistor RL

Converting the Norton equivalent circuit to a Thévenin equivalent circuit.

Maximum power transfer

The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load.
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Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from
the load (RL =RTh).

since RL=RTh

Example: Find max power transfer of circuit

Since Pmax = V2th / 4 RTH = 36/9.6 = 3.75W

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