SANDIP FOUNDATION’S,

SANDIP INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT, NASHIK

Trimbak Road, Mahiravani, Nashik - 422 213.
Website : www.sandipfoundation.org
Phone No. : 02594 - 222581-584

LABORATORY JOURNAL OF

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
First Year Engineering
Academic Year - 20 -20

Name : --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Class : ------------------------------ Branch : ------------------------------------------------------

Division : -------------------Batch : ---------------------Roll No. : --------------------

Exam Seat No. : -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 SANDIP FOUNDATION’S,
SANDIP INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT, NASHIK
Mahiravani, Nashik

Certificate
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

This is to certify that Mr. / Ms. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

of first year engineering Div : -----------------------------------

Roll No : -----------------------------------------

-
Examination Seat No.--------------------------------------------has completed all the practical work in

subject Engineering Physics satisfactorily in Department as prescribed by the University

of Pune, in the academic year 20 – 20

Practical In-charge  Head of the Department

 SANDIP FOUNDATION’S,
SANDIP INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT, NASHIK
Mahiravani, Nashik

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

INDEX
Expt. Name of the Experiment Date of Date of Sign Remark
No. Performance Submission
1 Newton’s Rings.
2 Diffraction gratting
3 Half Shade Polarimeter
Determination of number
4
of line per cm.
5 Sound presssure level
6 Band gap
7 Hall effect
8 Solar cell
9 Absorption Coefficient
Reverberation time of
10
Hall
11 Brewster’s Law

Practical In-charge  Head of the Department

 EXPERIMENT NO. 1 NEWTON’S RINGS
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim:-
To determine the radius of curvature of the convex lens by measuring diameter of Newton’s
Rings.

Apparatus:-
Travelling microscope, 450 glass plate arrangement, plano-convex lens, plane glass plate,
Sodium lamp, etc.

Figure :-

Formula :-
D2m – D2n
1) R= ——————
4R ( m - n)λ

where, R = Radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass plate.
Dn and Dm = the diameters of the nth and mth dark or bright rings.

Theory :-

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 Young satisfactorily explained the reason behind the formation of Newton’s Rings. According
to Young these circular rings are formed due to interference of light rays reflected from the upper and
lower surfaces of the air film formed between glass plate and convex surface of Plano-convex lens.
The incident ray AB is divided in to two coherent rays 1 and 2 interfere and produce bright and dark
circular rings around the point of contact. The effective path difference between the interfering rays
in reflected light is

2μtcos (r + θ ) ± (λ/2) ---------- (1)

Where, μ = Refractive index of the film.
t = Thickness of the thin film at the point of incidence.
r = Angle of refraction.
θ = Angle of wedge.
In case of normal incidence
For very small wedge angle and r = 0,
cos (r + θ ) = cosθ = 1
Hence equation (1) can be written as
2μt ± (λ / 2 ) ---------- (2)
at the point of contact h = 0, hence equation (2) can be written as

= λ / 2 ---------- (3)
Hence effective path difference at point of contact is odd multiple of λ/2 and therefore, central spot
of rings system appear as dark. For bright ring (i.e. constructive interference ), the effective path
difference

= 2n (λ / 2 ) = nλ

So that 2μt ± (λ / 2 ) = nλ

Or 2μt = (2n – 1)(λ / 2 )

Where n = 1, 2, 3,-----
Or 2μt = (2n + 1 ) (λ / 2 ) ---------- (4)
Where, n = 0, 1, 2, ----
For dark ring (i.e. destructive interference )
The effective path difference = (2n ± 1 ) (λ / 2 )
So that, 2μt ± (λ / 2 ) = (2n ± 1 ) (λ / 2 )
---------- (5)
Or 2μt = nλ
where, n = 0, 1, 2, -----
Hence equation (4) and (5) indicate that for particular bright and dark ring, “h” should be constant.
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Every fringe is the locus of points having the constant thickness air film enclosed between the convex
surface of the plano-convex lens and glass plate. the loci are concentric circles with its center at
the point of contact of the two surfaces hence the fringes are circular with its center at the point of
contact.
Procedure :-
1. Level the microscope table and set the microscope tube in a vertical position.
2. Clean the Newton’s ring lens set and 450 glass plate. Place this lens in the wooden frame (450
plate arrangement ).
3. Setup the sodium vapour lamp assembly and open up the slit of the wooden box covering the
sodium vapour lamp such that only a small amount of light falls out.
4. Place the microscope and the wooden frame (with 450 plate) on a suitable platform in front of
sodium vapour lamp such that the height of the center of the 450 glass plate is same as that of the
sodium vapour lamp.
5. Adjust the wooden frame so that the maximum light enters the microscope after reflection from
the lens system.
6. Adjust the position of the microscope so that it lies vertically above the center of the lens
system.
7. Focus the microscope so that alternate dark and bright rings are clearly visible.
8. Adjust the position of the microscope till the point of intersection of cross –wires coincides
with the centre of the ring system and one of the cross - wires is perpendicular to the horizontal
scale.
9. Slide the microscope to the left till the cross wire lies tangentially at the centre of the 20th dark
ring. The position of cross wire when the microscope is focused on the 10th dark ring is shown
in fig2. note the reading on the vernier and the main scale of the microscope. Slid themicroscope
backward and note the readings when the cross wire lies tangentially at the centre of the 16th,
12th, 8th, and 4th dark rings respectively.
10. Keep on sliding the microscope to the right and note the reading when the cross wire again lies
tangentially at the centre of the 4th, 8th, 12th, 16th and 20th.dark rings respectively.
11. After reaching the 20th ring slid the microscope backwards and again note the readings
corresponding to the same rings on the RIGHT and then on the LEFT of the centre of the ring
system.

Observations :-

i. Wavelength of sodium vapour lamp λ= -------------------- A0

ii. Least count of traveling microscope

Value of one division on main scale

LC= ------------------------------------------- = ---------------- = ---------------- = cm
Total no.of division on vernier scale

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Observations Table :-

Ring Microscope Microscope Reading R Diameter

D2
No. Reading L (L.H.S.) (R.H.S.) D=L–R

Calculations :-

Result :-
1. Radius of curvature of given lens is found out to be.............cm

Precautions:-
1. The glass plate should be cleaned to avoid the presence of dust particles between them.
2. The lens should of large radius of curvature.
3. The glass plate should be inclined at an angle of 450 with the incident light.
4. Cross wire should be foucused tangentially on a ring.
5. The source of should an extended source.

Exercise:-
1. What is the aim of the experiment ?
2. Whether the source is monochromatic or not ?
3. Why two independent sources of light of same wavelength can not shown interference?
4. Define the term coherence, interference.
5. What do you understand by the terms interference of light?
6. What are Newton’ns rings? How these rings are formed?
7. Why Newton’s Rings are circular ?
8. On what factors the diameter’s of the ring depend?
9. What will happen if plane mirror is used instead of plane glass plate?
10. What will happen if white light is used?
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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2 DIFFRACTION GRATTING
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim: -
To determine the unknown wavelength of given source of light by plane diffraction grating.
Apparatus: -
Spectrometer, Diffraction grating, Source of light, magnifying glass, spirit level etc.

Diagram:-

Diffraction Gratting
Formula:-
[(a+b) Sinθ]
λ = ——————
n

Where, (a+b) = Grating element

θ = Angle of diffraction for formation of nth order
n = order of spectrum.
Theory:-
A grating is an arrangement which is equivalent in action to a number of parallel, equidistant,
small rectangular slits of equal width placed side by side. As the slits are arranged in a plane, so
diffraction grating also known as plane diffraction grating and is suitable device for study of spectra.
In diffraction grating, the slits are very narrow and are separated by opaque (non transparent) spaces,
which is not allow light to pass through them. It is made by rulings large equidistant parallel straight

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lines on glass, so that there are alternate transparent to opaque spaces on it. The lines are ruled by fine
diamond points. Original gratings are quite expensive, so their photographic reproduction or replicas
are got.
When plane wavefront of monochromatic light is incident normally on a grating, every point
in each slit acts as sources of secondary wavelets spacing in all direction. The central maximum is
formed where the secondary wavelets traveling in same direction as that of incident light are brought
to focus. At any other point where the rays travel with an inclination with respect to incident light. The
waves reach, if in different phase. As a result dark and bright bands are formed on either side of the
central maxima.
Condition for formation of maxima at a point is that the path difference between the waves
reaching at that point must be an integral multiple of wavelength.
i.e. [(a+b)] Sinθ = n λ
Procedure:-
1. Level the prism table and make sure that the axis of the telescope and collimator intersect the
principal vertical axis of rotation of the telescope.
2. Adjust the telescope and collimator to receive parallel light.
3. Brought the telescope in line with the collimator slit so that it will illuminate with given source
of light.
4. Adjust the width of collimator until a fine image of slit is obtained at cross wire of telescope.
5. Mount the diffraction grating on the on prism table so that its plane of perpendicular to the prism
table.
6. Arrange the face of the grating on the prism table such that its line is normal to the collimator
and note the readings of both vernier.
7. Rotate the telescope through 900
8. Rotate the prism table so that reflected image is seen on vertical cross-wire and take readings of
vernier.
9. Turn the prism table from this position through 450. in this position the grating is normal to the
incident beam.
10. Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image and adjust different spectral lines turn by turn
on the vertical cross wire for first order and note down readings which are θ1 . Similarly for right
side which are θ2.
11. Calculate 2θ , θ , Sinθ , and hence wavelength of each colour and Compare the result with
standard values.
Observations:-
1. Grating element (a + b) = = cm.
Smallest division on main scale
2. Least count for spectrometer = ———————————————— = —— = ——
Total no. of division on vernier scale

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Observations Table:-

RIGHT LEFT
WINDOW TR TR 2θ = A - B θ Mean θ
MSR VSR MSR VSR
(A) (B)
W

Calculation:
(a+b) sinθ
λ = ---------------
n

Result:
Wave length of sodium light is found out to be _____________ A0
Precaution:-
1. Measure the difference distances with accuracy.
2. Keep the grating surface perpendicular to the incident light.
3. Do not see directly towards the source.
4. The position of the laser should change the frequency.

Questions:-
1. What is mean by interference and diffraction?
2. What is mean by grating element?
3. What is mean by monochromatic source of light? Give one example of it.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 3 HALFSHADE POLORIMETER

Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim:
To determine the concentration of sugar solution by Laurent’s half shade polarimeter.

Apparatus:
Polarimeter, lamp, distilled water, sugar, polarimeter tube etc.

Diagram:-

Formula:-
10 Xθ
C = --------
LXS
Where,
C - Concentration of solution
θ - Angle of rotation in degrees
S - Specific rotation
Theory:-
Laurent half shade polarimeter is an instrument designed to measure the angle of rotation
produced by a substance. The essential parts of a Laurent’s half shade polarimeter are shown in above
figure. S is a source of monochromatic light. L is a convex lens which renders the incident light into a
parallel beam. N1 and N2 are two Nicol prisms. N1 acts as a polarizer while N2 acts as an analyzer. N2
is capable of rotation about a common axis of N1 and N2. The rotation of analyzer (N2) can be read
on a graduated scale. The vernier is also provided to read the fraction of degree. Light after passing
through polarizer becomes plane polarized with its vibrations in the principal plane of the Nicol prism
N1.The plane polarized light now passes through a half device (H.S.) and then through a tube T
containing the solution of optically active substance. Usually T is a hollow glass tube having a large
diameter in the middle so that no air bubble may be in the path of light when filled with a liquid. The
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emergent light on passing through analyzer N2 is viewed though a telescope T.
Procedure:-

1. Fill the polarimeter tube with water and put it in the polarimeter.
2. The telescope is focused on the half shade and the analyzer is rotated till the equal intensity is
obtained. The reading for this position of telescope is noted.
3. Now the tube is filled with optically active liquid.
4. The analyzer is rotated till the equal intensity is observed in the field of view. The new position
of analyzer is noted in the observation table. The difference in the two readings gives the angle
of rotation.

Observations:-
1. Least count of the polarimeter-
2. S = 660 ( for sugar solution)
3. For anguler of rotation
Observations Table:-
Sr.No. C.S.R. with distilled water C.S.R. with sugar solution Angle of rotation

MSR VSR TR(A) MSR VSR TR(B) θ = A-B

Calculations:-
10 Xθ
C = --------
LXS

Result:-
Concentration of sugar solution is found out to be --------- gms/cc.

Precaution:-
1. The polarimeter tube should be well cleaned and dust free
2. There should be no air bubble inside the polarimeter tube.
3. Before changing the solution in the polarimeter tube rinse it first with that solution.
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4. The position of analyzer should be adjusted accurately.
5. The water used should be pure and dust free.
6. Observations of the analyzer should be noted only when the two halves of the field of view
appear to be equally illuminated.

Questions :
1. What do you mean by optical activity?
2. On what factors does optical activity deepnd?
3. Whay come sustances are optically active & some are optically inactive?
4. Why does optical activity depend upon the wavelength of the light?
5. Name as many optical solution as you can?
6. Name as many optically active sustances as you can?

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 4 DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF LINE PER CM.
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim: -
To use diffraction grating to measure number of lines per cm of grating element.

Apparatus: -
Laser source, Screen, Grating etc.

Formula:- (a+b) sinθ = nλ

Where,
(a+b) - Grating constant
θ - Angle of diffraction
n - Order of diffraction
λ - Wavelength

Diagram:-

Fig : 1
Theory:-
The diffraction grating is a series of narrow, closely spaced slits. When light passes through the
grating, the numerous lines of the grating act as individual sources of light, all in phase with each other.
The result is that at certain angles downstream of the grating we find strong constructive interference,
while at angles in between there is destructive interference resulting in very little light. The angle
at which the interference maxima occur (the intense bright spots) depends on the wavelength of the
incident light and on the spacing of the lines of the diffraction grating.
The relation between wavelength A, slit spacing d, and the angle e for the first maximum is obtained
from the equation:
λ = d × Sinθ1 --------------------------1.
For Second maximum, the equation is
2 × λ = d × Sinθ2 ------------------------2.
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Thus, the greater the wavelength, the larger the angle of the maxima of the intensity pattern.

FIG-2

Procedure:-
1. Set up your laser so that it points away from the center of the room. The diagram of the
experiment is sketched in Fig. I.
2. According to the manufacturer, the diffraction grating has 15000 rulings per inch, so that the
spacing between rulings (the lines on the grating) is 1694 nanometer
3. Observe the pattern on the screen. Twist the grating and see what happens. If the beam is aligned
perpendicularly to the grating, the diffraction pattern should be sym-metrically spaced on the
left and right hand sides of the center. If it is not symmetric, adjust the position of the grating to
make it symmetrical.
4. Measure the distance L from the grating to the screen and enter in Table I. The geometry is
shown in Fig. 2.
5. Mark the positions of the central beam, of the two (left side and right side) first maxima, and of
the two secondary maxima.
6. Measure the distance from the central beam position to the first maxima (s1) and second maxima
(S2) and enter them in Table 1.
7. Calculate sine for the first and second maxima and enter the result in Table 1.

S
sin θ = ---------------------

√S2 + L2

Remember that sine is given by

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Observations Table:-

Average of
N= 1/a+b
L S Sinθ a+b No. of lines
per cm.
Per cm
S1=
S2=
S1=
S2 =

Calculations:
A. (a+b) sin θ = nλ
(a+b) = nλ / sinθ

B. (a+b) = 1/N
N = 1/(a+b) per cm

Result:-
The number of lines per cm of grating element is found to be ------

Questions:-
1. What is the aim of the experiment?
2. Which laser source is used in the experiment?
3. Why laser is diffracted by grating?
4. What is stimulated emission? How it is differ from spontaneous emission?
5. Is it true that stream of stimulated photon constitutes the laser light?
6. State the applications of LASER.

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 SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :
Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim: -
To determine the sound pressure levels in decibels (dB).

Apparatus: -
Sound level meter

Theory:-
This sound meter is designed for the direct reading of sound level over the range of 40dB to 120
dB. Sound level measurement ensures precise scientific analysis of annoying sounds. This also gives
clear indication of sound, which may cause hearing dangers and permits correction measures to be
taken. Thus it is powerful diagnostic tool in noise reduction.

Sound level meter: -

This consists of highly stable microphone impedance matching circuits, weighing network
and an indicating meter. Weight networks are electronic filtering circuits built in to the meter. The
three weighing networks A, B & C are used with (A) weighing noise loud of low frequencies can be
measured accurately moderately by B network & hardly at all by C network.

Procedure:-

1. Keep the selector switch to battery check positions to check the battery of instrument.
2. Keep the selector switch to CAL for checking the calibration of the instrument.
3. It should read 70dB that is calibrated by manufacturers.
4. Keep the selector on so position to measure the SPL in the range of 40dB to 80dB.
5. If SPL is more than 80dB, keep the selector switch on Hi position for measuring SPL in the
range of 80dB to 120dB.

Observations:-
The sound pressure levels of :-
1) Any Machine(Cutting/Drilling/Lathe) during operation =
2) Latching of door =
3) Fan =
4) Clapping =
5) Television at Full Sound =
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 6) Music System at Full Sound =
7) Laughing at Full Sound =
8) Shouting at Maximum Level =

Result:-
Sound pressure level measured are as tabulated in observation table.

Questions:-
1. What are the sources of generation of noise?
2. What are different ways by which noise pollution can be controlled?
3. What are the ambient air quality standards for noise set by ministry of Environment and
forest?
4. What do you mean by the term sound pressure level? What is the formula and unit for
determination of SPL?
5. What do you mean by the term temporary threshold shift (TTS) and permanent threshold shift?
6. What are the harmful effects of noise pollution?
7. What is the sound pressure level generated by following sources?
i. Rustling of leaf
ii. Broadcasting Radio
iii. Average living room, bedroom
iv. Ordinary conversation
v. Newspaper piece
vi. Motorcycle
vii. Jet plane at takeoff
viii. Rocket Engine

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 6 ENERGY BAND GAP
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim:-
To determine the Energy- Gap of semiconductor using a PN junction diode.

Apparatus:-
Semiconductor diode, thermometer, Oven, micrometer etc.

Figure :-

Formula:-

ΔE(Energy Gap) = Slope х 2 х 2.303 х k

Where, k= Boltzman’s Constant= 1.381х 10-23 Jk-1

Theory:-
Electrons moving within a crystal are confined to discrete energy levels or “bands,” separated
by regions for which there is no allowed state of motion for the electron, called energy gaps. The
energy gap to be measured in this experiment is that between the valence and conduction bands of a
semiconducting material. It is the size of this gap which, in part, determines the electronic properties
of semiconductors. The current passed by a semiconductor varies with temperature according to the
relation
(-Eg/2kT)
I = Io e

where I is the current of the device at a temperature T (K), Io is the current at some reference
temperature, Ee is the effective energy gap of the material and k is Boltzmann’s constant. Strictly
speaking, Ee is not independent of temperature, but its variation is very small over the temperature
SANDIP FOUNDATION
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range 20 to 90°C that is to be used in this experiment. From the equation, a plot of ln(I) versus 1/T
will yield a straight line with a slope (-Ee/2k) from which the Ee may be derived. In this experiment
we are determining the current passed by a forward biased junction in which case Ee is the difference
between the actual energy gap Eg and the applied potential eV so that
E g­­ = E g + eV

Procedure:-
1. Trace the circuit and Switch on the Training Board.
2. Insert the’ thermometer provided with the unit into the opening of the Bakelite Cap.
3. Now switch on the oven and allow the oven temperature to rise up to 900C. As the temperature
reaches this value switch off the oven. The temperature will further rise unto 100 to 1100C and
will become stable.
4. Now vary biasing voltage in steps of 0.1 Volt and note the corresponding current. The constant
current is the saturation current Is at the given temperature.
5. After some time the temperature will begin to fall. Now fix the voltage at 5 Volt.
6. Take current (in μA) and temperature reading in Kelvin in steps of 5μA fall in current.
7. Draw Graph between logIs and 1/T.

Observation table:-

Obs. Current Is Temp Temp 1/T

Log10 Is
No. [in μA] (in 0C) (in 0K) (in K-1)

10

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Calculations:-

Result:-
The Energy gap of given semiconductor is _______eV.
Exercise:-
1) What is Energy Gap?
2) State the value of energy band Gap for Si and Ge?
3) Compare Insulator, Semiconductor and Conductor in terms of energy gap?
4) What is the effect of temperature on energy gap?

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 7 HALL EFFECT
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim:-
To study Hall effect and determine the Hall coefficient of given semiconductor.

Apparatus:-
Hall effect setup, Hall probe, Electromagnet and Gauss meter etc.

Figure:-

Formula:-
VH.b
RH= x 104m3/ Coulomb [Experimentally]
BIC

b
RH= Slope x 104m3/ Coulomb [Graphically)
B

Where, VH = Hall Voltage Developed.

Ic = Current Through Probe.
B = Magnetic Field Applied.
b = Thickness of given Sample.

Theory:-
Consider a semiconductor sample placed in the magnetic field B that is in the z-direction (as
in figure ).

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Suppose we pass a current through that sample perpendicular to the magnetic field, say in
the x-direction. Then the “free” electrons and “holes” in the sample experience a force given by the
Lorentz’s equation,
F = q ( V × b ) ---------------------(1)
Where ‘q’ is the charge of free carriers and v their velocity. This force deflects any charge
carriers towards in the positive y direction. If the charge carriers are predominantly electrons, this
creates
an excess negative charge on the +y side of the semiconductor sample, and thus a positive charge on
the –y side. This charge distribution generates an electric field EH(the Hall field) pointing in the +y
direction which (1) balances the Lorentz force so as to keep current flowing along the x-direction, and
(2) yields a voltage difference
VH=sEH (the Hall voltage, named after E.H. Hall who discovered this effect in 1879)across the
sample of width. Considering the balance of forces on the charge carriers

F=q.( E+V×B ) = 0 ----------------------( 2)

We See that
EH=VxBz ----------------------( 3)
Since I α qvx , we see that the sign of the Hall voltage VH will depend on whether the charge carriers
are predominantly negatively (electrons) or positively (holes) charged. Thus, by measuring the Hall
voltage we can determine whether we have an n-type or p-type semiconductor. Let us now consider
how the velocity of charge carriers, as measured through the Hall effect, can be related to important
parameters of the semiconductor sample. Suppose the charge carriers in our sample are the (negatively
charged) electrons, i.e. our semiconductor is n-type. Taking into account the dimensions of the sample,
the total current is related to the density of charge carriers and their drift velocity VX as
I=( -envx).( sd) ------( 4)
i.e. as the product of the current density j=( -qnvx) and the cross-sectional area of the
conductor. Recalling the relation of the Hall voltage, we obtain the following expression by which the
electron density may be determined:
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 IXBZ
VH = - ——— ------( 5)
e.n.d

Using this definition, we also obtain the Hall coefficient RH as

EH 1
RH = ——— = —— ------(6)
jXBZ en

If the Hall voltage VH is negative, the given sample is n-type semiconductor however, if VH is positive,
given sample is a p-type semiconductor, the current through which is carried by holes the density
which, p , is determined through
IXBZ
VH = ——— ------(7)
epρ

and the Hall coefficient is given by

1
RH = - ——
(e p )

Finally, we note that the current through a semiconductor is due both to electrons and to holes.
To isolate the density of each, rather than just the overall charge-weighted carrier density, we must
examine and interpret the dependence of the Hall voltage on temperature.

Procedure
1) Connect Hall probe with the Hall Effect setup.
2) Keep range selector on mA range and select current around 5 or 10 mA. Now change selector
switch to m V range
3) Switch on electromagnet and bring hall probe between pole pieces of the electromagnet. Note
the reading of the hall voltage on the digital meter.
4) Rotate probe between pole pieces so that the direction of the field will be reversed. Note the
reading.
5) Interchange connections of extreme pins of ribbon wire to change (reverse) the direction of the
current through the hall element. Take readings of hall voltage for the two above said positions
of the probe between the pole-pieces.
6) Take other values of current along probe & repeat experiment.

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Observations:-
1. Thickness of the specimen (b) = mm.
2. Constant Current through probe(I) = mm.
3. Magnetic Field Strength (B) = Gauss.
Observation Table:-
Probe Current (Ic) Hall Voltage VH
Sr.No.
(in mA) (in mV)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Calculations:-
Plot Graph between VH and Ic

Result:-

1. Hall Coefficient RH [Experimentally]. = ________

2. Hall Coefficient RH [Graphically]. = ________
Exercise:-

1. What is the Hall Effect?

2. Define VH, RH, IH.
3. State different applications of Hall Effect.
4. What is sign of Hall coefficient for N type semicouductor?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 8 SOLARCELL
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim:-
To study the I-V characteristics and determine Fill Factor of a given solar cell.

Equipment:-
Solar cell Kit, Patch chord, Table Lamp etc

Figure:-

Formula :-
ImVm
Fill factor, FF = —————
Isc Voc

Where,
Isc = short circuit current.
Voc = open circuit voltage.
Im = Current at maximum power.
Vm = Voltage at maximum power.

Theory:-
The purpose of this experiment is to explore the basic characteristics of solar cells. Solar cells
can absorb electromagnetic waves and convert the absorbed photon energy into electrical energy. A
solar cell mainly consists of a diode, whose forward dark current-voltage relationship (i.e., I-V curve
SANDIP FOUNDATION
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under no light illumination) can be expressed as

I = Io(eβV – 1),
where Io and β are constants.
The diode is made up of a semiconductor with a band gap of Ec – Ev (see Fig. 1). When
the energy of the incident photon is larger than the band gap, the photon can be absorbed by the
semiconductor to create an electron-hole pair. The electrons and holes are then driven by the internal
electric field in the diode to produce a photocurrent (light-generated current). There are several
important parameters other than light-generated current involved in a solar cell.

Brief explanations of the terminologies and basic principles are listed below:
1. Short-circuit current (Isc) is the output current of the solar cell when the external circuit is
shorted, i.e., zero load resistance.
2. Open-circuit voltage (Voc) is the output voltage of the solar cell when the external circuit is
open, i.e., infinite load resistance. Voc is also referred to as photovoltaic voltage.
Pm is the maximum output power of the solar cell, i.e., the maximum value of IxV.
3. The filling factor (FF) is defined to be Pm/(IscVoc), which represents an important parameter
used to evaluate the quality of the solar cell.
4. Because the photocurrent is produced by photon absorption by the semiconductor, the spectral
response of the photocurrent can be used to determine the semiconductor band gap. From the
band gap value, one can infer the particular semiconductor material used.
5. Any incident photon with photon energy larger than the semiconductor band gap can contribute
to the photocurrent (Iph) of the solar cell, thus,
{I ph cc )( 2­­­­d 2c N (λ) d λ ,}
where N(λ) is the number of electrons per unit wavelength produced by photons with wavelength
(λ), is the cut-off wavelength of the optical filter and (λ) is the longest wavelength that is capable
of producing a photocurrent. N(λ) is constant in the visible spectral range, and each optical filter
provided in this experiment cuts off all light with wavelengths shorter than a certain cut-off
wavelength (λ). Therefore, the spectral response of Iph with an optical filter can be simplified to be
Iph ∝ (λo – λc).
6. The photon energy E is related to the photon wavelength as E = 1240/λ; the unit for λo is nm
(10 -9 m) and the unit for E is eV (electron-volt) in this equation.

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Procedure
1. Plug in two pin power chord of table lamp to three pin socket provided on the left hand side of
the kit.
2. Keep the intensity control knob in fully anticlockwise position.
3. Now plug in the two pin power chord of the kit to main supply of 230V, 50Hz
4. Put the switch on, Focus the lamp over the photocell.
5. Adjust the intensity to 100℅ now adjust the position of the lamp so that the digital voltmeter
reads 1.9V D.C.
6. Now vary the intensity control knob and tabular your result.
7. Plot a graph between intensity and output voltage of solar cell.
8. Now again keep the intensity control to 100% and adjust the position of the lamp so that the
digital volt meter reads 1.9volt d.c.
9. Now connect Rl1into circuit by using the patch chord measure the voltage and current as
indicated by digital volt meter and ammeter.

Observations :-
1. Short circuit current Isc = _____. 2. Open circuit voltage Voc = _____.

Observation table :-

A]

Output Voltage of Solar Cell

Obs. No. Lamp intensity
(in V)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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B]

Voltage Current
Obs.No. Load Resistor
(in V) (in mA)

1 RL4
2 RL 3
3 RL 2
4 RL 1

Plot a graph between output voltage and current of solar cell.

Calculations:-

Conclusion:-
1] V-I characteristics of solar cell is as shown in graph

2] Fill Factor, FF is found to be-------------

Exercise :-
1. What is Solar cell?
2. State different types of solar cell.
3. State definition of solar constant
4. What i the value of solar constant?
5. What are factors on which Efficiency of solar cell depend.
6. State merits and Demerits of solar cell?

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 9 ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim: -
To Determination of absorption coefficient of sound of given material.

Apparatus:-
Portable sound source, Portable decibel-meter, different surfaces (Plaster, thermocole, curtains,
non-perforated panels of wood, pressed wood fibers), and prefabricated half cylindrical panel.

Diagram 1:-
To measure incident sound energy.

Diagram2:-

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Theory:-
Absorption of sound :-
When a sound wave strikes a surface, part of it is transmitted and the remaining part is reflected.
The property of a sound energy is converted in other form of energy is known as absorption.
The coefficient of absorption:- The coefficient of absorption ‘a’ of a material is defined as the
radio of sound energy absorbed by its surface to that of the total energy incident on the surface.
Thus,
a = sound energy absorbed by the surface
total sound energy incident on the surface
The coefficient of absorption is expressed in “open window unit” (O.W.U.) or ‘Sabine/m2’.
Absorbent or Acoustical materials:- Materials having more capacity to absorb the incident
sound are called “absorbent” or “acoustical materials”
Examples:- Porous materials, resonant panels, cavity resonators, composite types.

Procedure:-
1. Measure the amount of sound energy received by decibel-meter from source of sound as shown
in diagram 1
2. For this measurement keep the distance between source (S) and receiver (R) 1m.
3. Note down the reading in decibel (dB). Say S
4. Now using prefabricated half cylindrical panel make experimental set-up as shown in diagram 2
5. Mount plaster material (sheet) on the panel.
6. Using sound source (S) and receiver (R) note down sound energy received after reflection from
the surface. Repeat the observation for two more readings. Note down the readings and calculate
the average value. Say S1
7. Now remove plaster material sheet and place thermo cole sheet. Take three readings for this
surface. Calculate the average value. Say S2.
8. Finally replace plaster material sheet by curtain (cotton) by mounting it on panel. Take three
reading in receiver R. calculate the average value says S3.
9. Using the formula calculate coefficient of absorption for Sponge-material, Thermocole and
Wood Material.

Observation:-
1. Reading in decibel meter when sound energy is received directly = S = ---------------dB
2. Table for sound energy received after absorption from different surfaces.

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Observation Table:-

Reading in Decibel-meter
1 2 3
1) Sponge (S) S1= --------------------------dB
2) Thermocole (T) S2=--------------------------dB
3) Wood (w) S3=--------------------------dB

Sample Calculations:-

The absorption coefficient (a) for

(I) Sponge Material:-

= a(S) = S1/S
= -------------------------
= -------------------------O.W.U. Or sabine/m2

(I) Thermocole Material:-

= a(T) = S2/S
= -------------------------
= -------------------------O.W.U. Or sabine/m2

(I) Wood Material:-

= a(W) = S3/S
= -------------------------
= -------------------------O.W.U. Or sabine/m2

Result:-

The calculated values of absorption coefficient are,

For I) Sponge material = ------------------------O.W.U or Sabine/m2

For II) Thermocole material = ------------------------O.W.U or Sabine/m2
For III) Wood material = ------------------------O.W.U or Sabine/m2

SANDIP FOUNDATION
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Questions:-
1. Stae mathematically threshold of audibility?
2. Timbre of quality of sound produced by Lata Mangeshkar is always different than that
of quality of sound produced by Asha Bhosale? Give reason.
3. What is Acoustics?
4. What is transverse & longitudinal wave?

SANDIP FOUNDATION
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 EXPERIMENT NO. 10 REVERBERATION TIME OF HALL
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim: -
To determine reverberation time of Hall

Apparatus: -
Meter scale or Measuring tape
Formula:-
0.161V
t = -------------
A

Where, t - reverberation time

V - Volume of a hall
A - Absorbance = Σ aS
a - absorption coefficient
S - Surface area.
Theory:-
Reverberation time is one of the important parameter to be considered for good acoustics of a
hall. Reverberation time is defined as the time required for the decay of sound intensity to 10-6 th the
value of sound intensity at the time of cutoff of sound source. The optimum value of reverberation
time is 0.75 to 1.25 second for auditorium, lecture hall while it is 1.0 to 1.5 sec. for music concert.
Reverberation time depends on volume of hall and absorption coefficient and total absorbance of
sound. Sabine’s formula can be employed to determine reverberation time.

Procedure:-
1. Measure the volume of a hall
2. Measure the area of different sound absorbing surfaces.

Observations:-
1. Volume of a hall =
2. Total absorbance: -
A = Σ aS =

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Observations Table:-

Absorption Absorbance
Sr. Surface area
Surface coefficient A=aS
No. ‘S’ m2
‘a’ sabines Sabines m2
1 Plastered wall
2 Ceiling
3 Wooden doors
4 Glass
5 Ventilator
6 Students
7
8

Calculations: -
0.161 V
t = ------------
A

Result: -
Reverberation time of the hall is found out to be

Conclusion: -
Reverberation time a hall is more/less than optimum reverberation time.

Precautions:-
1. Identify different absorbing surface.
2. Measure the lengths carefully

Questions:-
1. Define the terms – Echo, reverberation, reverberation time, absorption coefficient
2. What is optimum reverberation time for a hall?
3. Whether the reverberation time is less than or more than reverberation time?
4. What are remedies to optimize the reverberation time?
5. Is there any possibility of sound focusing in the hall?
6. Name few absorbing material?
7. How can we increase the reverberation time of a hall?
8. State the acoustical requirements of good acoustics.
9. What are the different acoustical defects?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 11 BREWSTERS LAW
Performed on : Signature of Teacher :

Submitted on : Remarks :

Aim:-
To measure polarizing angle(Brewster angle) of glass and hence to calculate its refraction
index.

Apparatus:-
Spectrometer consisting of collimator, prism table, telescope and angular scale, monochromatic
source of light (sodium), prism/glass plate, Polarizaer with a provision of attachment and angular
scale, reading lens, reading lamp

Diagram:-

Procedure:-

1. Refer Fig. Place the prism on the prism table and orient it in such a way that one of the reflecting
surface AC faces the light coming from the collimator. Adjust the orination of prism such that
the light is incident on the reflecting surface AC approximately at 450 w.r.t. Normal. As, shown
in the fgi. Let this angle be Ө
2. Note that this experiment can also be performed with a glass plate. In this case also suitably
mount the glass plate on the prism table and orient the prism table such that the light coming
from the collimator is incident on the glass surface approximately at 450 w.r.t. Normal. As noted
in point 1, this angle is Ө
3. Now mount the polarizer/analyzer on the objective of the telescope as shown in the Fig.
4. Adjust the telescope such that the light coming from collimator i.e. the well focussed image of
the slit appears in the field of the view of the telescope.
5. Now rotate the analyzer. The intensity of the light will vary. It may not vary from zero to
maximum on complete rotation of analyzer. It may vary from minimum to maximum

SANDIP FOUNDATION
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6. Now rotate the prism table so that the angle Ө increases. Let the increament be as small as
possible ( say 20 to 50). Now test the light by rotating the polarizer through 3600. The intensity
may still not vary from zero to maximum. Note that our aim is to obtain such an angle at which
on rotating the analyzer, the intensity will vary from zero to maximum.
7. Now each time increase Ө by minimum possible interval by rotating the prism table. Each
time test the light by rotating the polarizer through 3600 . You will notice that the the minimum
intensity will successively become weaker.
8. If you reach the exact polarizing/Brewster angle in the first attempt it self, then at that angle,
on rotating the analyzer the intensity will vary from exactly zero to maximum. (the zero and
maximum intensity conditions will be encountered twice during 3600 rotation). If you are
increasing Ө by larger intervael, then the polarizing angle may be surpassed. In such case you
will notice that on increasing Ө the minimum intensity will become successively stronger. In
such case go back and by trial and error method and get the exact value of Ө at which, on
rotating the analyzer the intensity varies exactly from zero to maximum. Let this angle be Өp.
Өp. Is the required polarizing/Brewster angle.
9. Note down the corresponding anguler position of the telescope. Let this position by X as shown
in the Fig. Record X through one of the windows by using the following procedure. Keep the
selected window same for all the observation in the experiment
10. Now remove the prism table and align the telescope to get the direct image of the slit. In another
language align the telescope parallel to the axis of the collimator. Note the corresponding
position of the telescope. As shown in the Fig. Let this positioned by Y
11. As shown in the fig the difference X-Y give Ө . As this Ө is not arbitrary and as it corresponds
to the polarizing condition, this Ө’ may be denoted by Өp’. The polarizing angle/Brewster angle
Өp is given by Өp. = 900 Ө’p /2
12. Repeat the experiment twice or thrice to get the exact value of Өp.
13. Calculate the average Өp.
14. Calculate the refractive index of the glass by following relation μ = tan Өp.

Observation :-
a. Calculate the least count of the anguar scale by following procedue.
b. L.C.= smallest division on the main or circular scale / number of divisions on varnier scale

Observation Table:-

Angular position Angular position of the Ө1p

Sr. of the telescope when telescope is aligned Ө’p.=XY Averege
Ө1p=900- Deg
No. at polarizing to observe the direct Deg Өp. Deg
condition X, Deg. image of the slit Y Deg. 2

1
2
3

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Results:-
1. The polarizing/Brewster angle of the glass in Өp.= -----------------

2. The refractive index of the glass is μ =------------------

Calculations:-

Questions :
1. What is polarization?
2. What is Brewster’s Law?
3. What is Polorizer?
4. What is analyzer?
5. Show digramatically, how following relation is correct
Ө’p
Өp. = 900 - --------------
2
6. Is the device used for polorizer and analyzer same?
7. Every polorizer has an optic axis. what is it?

SANDIP FOUNDATION
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SANDIP FOUNDATION
36
 SANDIP FOUNDATION’S,
SANDIP INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH CENTRE

SANDIP INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

SANDIP POLYTECHNIC

SANDIP INSTITUTE OF POLYTECHNIC

SANDIP INSTITUTE OF
PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCE

SANDIP FOUNDATION
33