Handbook - Mechanical

B.Tech.
Mechanical Engineering
HAND BOOK
2020
Department of
Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering
Table of Contents
Course Code Course Name Page No.
MAT 2151 Engineering Mathematics - III 1
MME 2151 Kinematics of Machinery 13
MME 2152 Manufacturing Technology 21
MME 2153 Material Science and Metallurgy 26
MME 2154 Strength of Materials 28
MME 2155 Thermodynamics -1 40
MAT 2260 Engineering Mathematics - IV 45
MME 2251 Dynamics of machinery 55
MME 2252 Fluid Mechanics 68
MME 2253 Metrology and Measurements 83
MME 2254 Thermodynamics - 2 93
MME 3151 CAD - CAM 100
MME 3152 Finite Element Methods 111
MME 3154 Turbo Machines 129
HUM 3151 Engineering Economics and Financial Management 140
MME 3251 Heat Transfer 144
This book is for internal circulation only

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics - III
VECTOR CALCULUS
Vector Differentiation
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
1) The differential operator ∇ is defined as ∇= 𝜕𝑥 𝒊 + 𝜕𝑦 𝒋 + 𝜕𝑧 𝒌
2) Let ∅ = ∅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is the scalar field, the gradient of ∅ at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑∅ = ∇∅ = 𝜕𝑥 𝒊 + 𝜕𝑦 𝒋 + 𝜕𝑧 𝒌 = ∑ 𝜕𝑥 𝒊
3) Let 𝑓⃗ = 𝑓1 𝒊 + 𝑓2 𝒋 + 𝑓3 𝒌 is the vector field, the divergence of 𝑓⃗ at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is,
𝜕𝒇 𝜕𝒇 𝜕𝒇 𝜕𝒇
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑓⃗ = ∇. ⃗⃗
𝒇 = 𝜕𝑥𝟏 + 𝜕𝑦𝟐 + 𝜕𝑧𝟑 = ∑ 𝜕𝑥𝟏
4) If 𝜙1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝜙2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are the two surfaces, then the angle between their surfaces at
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) is
∇𝜙 .∇𝜙
cos 𝜃 = |∇𝜙 1||∇𝜙2 |.
1 2
5) If 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a scalar function and 𝑑⃗ is the given direction vector, then the directional derivative
𝑑⃗
of 𝜙 along 𝑛̂ is ∇𝜙. 𝑛̂, where 𝑛
̂ = |𝑑⃗|.
6) If 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐 be the equation of a surface and 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) is a point on it then

a) equation of tangent plane at 𝑃 is 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) = 0.
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
b) Equation of normal line at 𝑃 is = = ,
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
where 𝐴 = ( 𝜕𝑥 ) , 𝐵 = ( 𝜕𝑦 ) , 𝐶 = ( 𝜕𝑧 ) .
(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 ) (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 ) (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ,𝑧1 )
7) The directional derivative of a scalar function 𝜙 at any point is maximum along ∇𝜙.
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
8) The Laplacian operator ∇2 is defined as ∇2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅ 𝜕2 ∅
9) The Laplacian of a scalar function ∅ as, ∇2 ∅ = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2
10) Let 𝑓⃗ = 𝑓1 𝒊 + 𝑓2 𝒋 + 𝑓3 𝒌 is the vector field, the curl of 𝑓⃗ at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑓⃗ = ∇ × 𝑓⃗ = | |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3
11) If ∇ × 𝑓⃗ = 𝟎, then the vector field 𝑓⃗ is irrotational
12) If ∇. 𝑓⃗ = 𝟎, then the vector field 𝑓⃗ is solenoidal
13) 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑓⃗ × 𝑔⃗) = 𝑔⃗. 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑓⃗ − 𝑓⃗. 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑔⃗
MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 1

14) 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝛁∅ = 𝟎 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑓⃗)
15) 𝑑𝑖𝑣(∇𝜙) = ∇2 𝜙.
16) ∇ × (∇ × 𝑓⃗) = ∇(∇. 𝑓⃗) − ∇2 𝑓⃗.
17) ∇. (𝜙𝑓⃗) = 𝜙(∇. 𝑓⃗) + (∇𝜙). 𝑓⃗
18) ∇ × (𝜙𝑓⃗) = 𝜙(∇ × 𝑓⃗) + ∇𝜙 × 𝑓⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
19) ∇(𝑓 𝑓2 ) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑓2 . (∇ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑓1 ) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑓1 . (∇ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑓2 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

20) ∇ × (𝑓 𝑓2 ) = (∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑓2 )𝑓1 − (∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑓1 )𝑓⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + (𝑓
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 . ∇)𝑓
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 − (𝑓
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 . ∇)𝑓
⃗⃗⃗⃗2
Vector Integration
1) Suppose r(u) = x(u)𝐢 + y(u)𝐣 + z(u)𝐤 is the position vector of points P(x,y,z) and suppose
r(u) defines a curve C joining points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 where 𝑢 = 𝑢1 and 𝑢 = 𝑢2 respectively. Let
𝐀(x, y, z) = A1 𝐢 + A2 𝐣 + A3 𝐤 be a vector function of position defined and continuous along C.
P2
Then the line integral is defined by  A  dr   A  dr   A dx  A dy  A dz .

P1 C C
1 2 3
2) If A is the force F on a particle moving along C, then the line integral represents the work done
by the force Work done=  F .dr
C
3) If C is a closed curve, the integral around C is often denoted by
 A  dr   A dx  A dy  A dz
1 2 3
4) In Aerodynamics and fluid dynamics, this line integral is called the circulation of A about C, where
A represents the velocity of a fluid.
5) Let S be a two- sided surface. A unit normal n to any point of the positive side of S is called a
positive or outward drawn unit normal. Associate with the differential of surface area dS a vector
dS and whose direction is that of n. Then dS = n dS. The integral  A.  dS   A  ndS is
S S
called surface integral or the flux of A over S.
dxdy
6) Suppose that the surface S has projection R on the xy-plane, then  A  dS   A  n n  k
S R
7) Consider a closed surface in space enclosing a volume V. Then  AdV

V
and dV
V
are
called volume integrals or space integrals. Here  is a scalar function.

8) Divergence Theorem of Gauss: Suppose V is the volume bounded by a closed surface S and A
is a vector function of position with continuous derivatives. Then
  AdV   A.  ndS   A  dS

V S S
Where n is the positive (outward drawn) normal to S.

9) Stoke’s theorem: Suppose S is an open, two- sided surface bounded by a closed, non-
intersecting curve C (simple closed curve), and suppose A is a vector function of position with
continuous derivatives. Then
 A  dr   (  A)  ndS   (  A)  dS
C S S
where C is traversed in the positive direction.
10) Green’s Theorem in the plane: Suppose R is a closed region in the xy-plane bounded by a
simple closed curve C, and suppose M and N are continuous functions of x and y having
 N M 
continuous derivatives in R. Then  Mdx  Ndy    x
C R

y
dxdy where C is traversed in

the positive (counterclockwise) direction.
FOURIER SERIES
A function 𝑓(𝑡) is said to be periodic if there exists a real number T such that 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑡) for all t.
Smallest such number is called period of the function.
Note: If 𝑓(𝑡) is periodic with period 𝑇, then 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑡) for all integers n.
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a periodic function with period 2l and is known in the interval 𝛼 < 𝑥 < 𝛼 + 2𝑙 , then the Fourier
series expansion of f(x) in terms of an infinite sum of sines and cosines is given by
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin
𝑙 𝑙
where
1 𝛼+2𝑙 1 𝛼+2𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 𝛼+2𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎0 = 2𝑙 ∫𝛼 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫𝛼 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫𝛼 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
These values of 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 are known as Euler’s formulae.
Note: The graph of an even function is symmetric about 𝑦 −axis, whereas the graph of an odd function is
symmetric about the origin.
HALF RANGE SERIES

While solving various physical and engineering problems, there is a practical need for expanding functions
defined over a finite range. Such an expansion is possible if functions under consideration can be extended
to a periodic function which is either even or odd.
Consider a piecewise continuous function 𝑓(𝑥), defined in a finite interval (0, 𝑙). Then it is possible to extend
𝑓(𝑥) to a periodic function, which is even or odd.
Consider the function 𝑔(𝑥) defined as follows:
𝑓(𝑥), 0<𝑥<𝑙
𝑔(𝑥) = { ; 𝑔(𝑥 + 2𝑙) = 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑓(−𝑥), −𝑙 < 𝑥 < 0
Then 𝑔(𝑥) is called an even periodic extension of 𝑓(𝑥).
The function 𝑔(𝑥) can be expanded as Fourier cosine series

𝑛𝜋
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑥
𝑙

1 𝑙 2 𝑙 𝑛𝜋
Where 𝑎0 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑙
Such an expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) is called the half range Fourier Cosine series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑓(𝑥), 0≤𝑥≤𝑙
Also, if 𝑔(𝑥) = { ; 𝑔(𝑥 + 2𝑙) = 𝑔(𝑥).
−𝑓(−𝑥), −𝑙 < 𝑥 < 0
Then 𝑔(𝑥) is called an odd periodic extension of 𝑓(𝑥).
The function 𝑔(𝑥) can be expanded as Fourier Sine series
𝑛𝜋
𝑔(𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑥
𝑙
2 𝑙 𝑛𝜋
where 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑙
FOURIER INTEGRAL REPRESENTATION

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a piecewise continuous and absolutely integrable function of 𝑥. Then 𝑓(𝑥) can be represented
1 ∞
by an integral as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋 ∫0 (𝐴(𝑠) cos 𝑠𝑥 + 𝐵(𝑠) sin 𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝑠 … (1)
∞ ∞
Where 𝐴(𝑠) = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑡) cos 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡, 𝐵(𝑠) = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑡) sin 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
Such an integral representation is called the Fourier integral representation of f(x).
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
Consider the Fourier integral representation of the function 𝑓(𝑥) given by
1 ∞ ∞ 1 ∞ 1 ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 𝑖𝑠(𝑥−𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
√2𝜋 −∞ −∞
𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑥 [√2𝜋 ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡] 𝑑𝑠
√2𝜋 −∞
1 ∞
Let 𝐹(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
√2𝜋 −∞
…………………………………………………………………(1)
1 ∞
Then 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 −𝑖𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠…………………………………………………………………(2)
√2𝜋 −∞
The integral defined by (1) is called the Fourier transform of the function 𝑓(𝑥) and is denoted by 𝐹{𝑓(𝑥)} .
Given 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝐹{𝑓(𝑥)} , the formula (2) defined 𝑓(𝑥), which is called the inverse Fourier transform of
𝐹(𝑠)and is denoted by 𝐹 −1 {(𝐹(𝑠)}.
Note: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be self-reciprocal under Fourier transforms if 𝐹{𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑓(𝑠).
Properties of the Fourier transforms:
If 𝐹{𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝐹(𝑠), then
1. 𝐹{𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎).
2. 𝐹{𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑎 𝐹(𝑠).
1 𝑠
3. 𝐹{𝑓(𝑎𝑥)} = 𝑎 𝐹 (𝑎) , 𝑎 > 0.

4. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅} = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐹{𝑓(−𝑥) 𝐹(𝑠).
5. 𝐹{ 𝑓(−𝑥)} = 𝐹(−𝑠).
6. ̅̅̅̅̅̅} = 𝐹(−𝑠)
𝐹{𝑓(𝑥) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅.
𝑑𝑛
7. 𝐹{ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑖 𝑛 𝑑𝑠𝑛 𝐹(𝑠).
8. 𝐹{ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥)} = (𝑖𝑠)𝑛 𝐹(𝑓(𝑥)).

1
9. 𝐹{ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥} = 2 (𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎) + 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎)).
𝑖
10. 𝐹{ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥} = 2 (𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎) − 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎))
Convolution:
For functions 𝑓(𝑥) & 𝑔(𝑥) , we define the convolution of 𝑓(𝑥) & 𝑔(𝑥) denoted
1 ∞
by (𝑓 ∗ 𝑔)(𝑥) as (𝑓 ∗ 𝑔)(𝑥) = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑔(𝑥 − 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ;provided the integral exists.
√2𝜋
Note that 𝑓 ∗ 𝑔 = 𝑔 ∗ 𝑓.
Convolution Theorem:
𝐹{ ( 𝑓 ∗ 𝑔)(𝑥)} = 𝐹{ 𝑓(𝑥)}𝐹{ 𝑔(𝑥)}.
Parseval’s Identity:
∞ ∞
If 𝐹{𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝐹(𝑠), then ∫−∞| 𝑓(𝑥)|2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫−∞|𝐹(𝑠)|2 𝑑𝑠 .
Fourier Cosine and Sine transforms
Consider the Fourier cosine integral representation of a function 𝑓(𝑥)

2 ∞ ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋 ∫0 ∫0 𝑓(𝑡) cos 𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑠, 𝑥≥0
2 2 ∞
= √𝜋 [√𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑡) cos 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡] cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠
2 ∞
Let 𝐹𝑐 { 𝑓(𝑥)} = √𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑡) cos 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐 (𝑠)……………………………………………..(A)
2 ∞
Then 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝜋 ∫0 𝐹𝑐 { 𝑓(𝑥)} cos 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠 ……………………………………………………(B)
The transform 𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)} defined by (A) is called the Fourier cosine transform of f(x).The formula (B) is
called the inverse Fourier cosine transform of 𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝐹𝑐 (𝑠) and is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹𝑐−1 {𝐹𝑐 (𝑠)}.

Similarly, using the Fourier sine integral representation of 𝑓(𝑥) given by 𝑓(𝑥) =
2 ∞ ∞
∫ ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) sin 𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑠𝑥
𝜋 0 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 , we can define the Fourier sine transform of 𝑓(𝑥) denoted by
2 ∞
𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥)} as 𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥)} = √𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑡) sin 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠).
Then the inverse Fourier sine transform of 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠) is defined as
2 ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹𝑠−1 {𝐹𝑠 (𝑠)} = √𝜋 ∫0 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠) sin 𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑠.
Definition: A function f(x) is said to be self-reciprocal under Fourier cosine (sine) transform if
𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑓(𝑠) (𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑓(𝑠)).

Properties of Fourier cosine/ sine transforms:
(1) Both Fourier cosine and sine transforms are linear.

𝐹𝑐 {𝑐1 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐2 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝑐1 𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)} + 𝑐2 𝐹𝑐 {𝑔(𝑥)}
𝐹𝑠 {𝑐1 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐2 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝑐1 𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥)} + 𝑐2 𝐹𝑠 {𝑔(𝑥)} where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are constants.
1
(2) 𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥} = 2 (𝐹𝑐 (𝑠 + 𝑎) + 𝐹𝑐 (𝑠 − 𝑎))
1
𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥} = 2 (𝐹𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑎) + 𝐹𝑠 (𝑎 − 𝑠))
1
(3) 𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥} = 2 (𝐹𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑎) + 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠 − 𝑎))
1
𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥} = 2 (𝐹𝑐 (𝑠 − 𝑎) − 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑎))
1 𝑠
(4) 𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑎𝑥)} = 𝑎 𝐹𝑐 (𝑎)
1 𝑠
𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑎𝑥)} = 𝑎 𝐹𝑠 (𝑎)
(5) If 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 as 𝑥 → ∞, then
2
𝐹𝑐 {𝑓 ′ (𝑥)} = −√𝜋 𝑓(0) + 𝑠𝐹𝑠 (𝑠) and 𝐹𝑠 {𝑓 ′ (𝑥)} = −𝑠𝐹𝑐 (𝑠)
2 2
(6) 𝐹𝑐 {𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)} = −√𝜋 𝑓 ′ (0) − 𝑠 2 𝐹𝑐 (𝑠) and 𝐹𝑠 {𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)} = √𝜋 𝑠𝑓 (0) − 𝑠 2 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠) provided 𝑓(𝑥)
and 𝑓′(𝑥) → 0 as 𝑥 → ∞.
𝑑𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝐹𝑐
(7) 𝐹𝑐 {𝑥𝑓(𝑥)} = and 𝐹𝑠 {𝑥𝑓(𝑥)} =− .
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
(8) If 𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝐹𝑐 (𝑠), 𝐹𝑐 {𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠), 𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠) and 𝐹𝑠 {𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐺𝑠 (𝑠) exist, then
∞ ∞ ∞
∫0 𝐹𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠)𝐺𝑠 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and
∞ ∞ ∞
∫0 |𝐹𝑐 (𝑠)|2 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 |𝐹𝑠 (𝑠)|2 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 |𝑓(𝑥)|2 𝑑𝑥 which is called Perceval’s Identity.

Partial Differential Equations
Partial differential equation is an equation involving partial derivatives of an unknown functions of two or
more independent variables.
The order of the highest derivative is called order of the equation.
The degree of the Partial differential equation is the degree of highest derivative after clearing the
fractional power.
Partial differential equation is linear if it is of the first degree in the dependent variable and its partial
derivatives.
 2u 2  u
2 One dimensional Homogeneous wave equation
 c
t 2 x 2
u  2u One dimensional Homogeneous heat equation
 c2 2
t x
 2u  2u Two dimensional Homogeneous Laplace equation
 0
x 2 y 2
 2u  2u Two dimensional non Homogeneous with (f≠ 0) Poisson equation
  f ( x, y )
x 2 y 2
 2u  2u  2u Three dimensional Laplace equation
  0
x 2 y 2 z 2
Method of separation of variables

It involves a solution which breaks up into a product of functions each of which contain only one of the
variable.
Then, the solution for the p.d.e in is in the form 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑥) . 𝑇(𝑡) where X and T are the function of x
and t respectively.
Substitute the partial derivatives involved in the equation and separate the variables, and equate to a
common constant 𝑐 2 .
That is, 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑐 2 .

Solving the differential equations 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑐 2 , we get, 𝑋(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇(𝑡). The required
solution is, 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑥) . 𝑇(𝑡)
D’Alembert’s solution for wave equation:

D’Alembert’s solution for wave equation 𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 in the general form is
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜙(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) + ѱ(𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)

𝜕𝑢 (𝑥, 0)
When 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓(𝑥), = 0, D’Alembert’s solution for wave equation 𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 is
𝜕𝑡
1
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 [𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑡) + 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)]
2 y 2 y T
1. One-dimensional Wave equation:  c2 where c2 
t 2 x 2 m
T-tension of the string, m-mass per unit length of the string.
2. Solution of the One-dimensional Wave equation:
y  (C1 cos px  C2 sin px)(C3 cos cpt  C4 sin cpt ) .
u  2u k
3. One-dimensional heat-flow equation:  c2 2 where c
2
 .
t x s
 -density, s-the specific heat, k-thermal conductivity.
4. Solution of one-dimensional heat-flow equation:
u  (C1 cos px  C2 sin px)ec p t .

2 2
Numerical Methods
Numerical Solution of Boundary Value Problems:
Boundary value problems are of great importance in science in engineering. In this section, we have
elaborated Numerical methods based on finite difference scheme for the solution of following problems:
1. Boundary value problems in second order ordinary differential equations
2. Boundary value problems governed by linear second order partial differential equations:
Laplace equation and Poisson equation.
3. Initial boundary value problems governed by linear second order partial differential
equations: One dimensional Heat and Wave equation
Boundary value problems governed by second order ordinary differential

equations:
For our discussion, we shall consider only the linear second order ordinary differential equations
y  p(x) y(x)  q(x) y  r(x) , x [a, b] (1)
Since the ordinary differential equation is second order, we need to prescribe two conditions to obtain a
unique solution of the problem. If the conditions are prescribed at the end points x = a and x = b, then it is
called a two point boundary value problem. The two conditions required to solve (1), can be prescribed in
one of the following three boundary conditions:
Boundary conditions of the first kind : y(a) = A, y(b) = B (2)

Boundary conditions of the second kind : y(a)  A, y(b)  B (3)
Boundary conditions of the third (or mixed kind) :
a 0 y(a) - a 1 y(a)  A, b 0 y(b)  b1 y(b)  B, (4)

Where a0, b0, a1, b1, A and B are constants such that
a 0 a 1  0, a 0  a 1  0 ; b 0 b1  0, b 0  b1  0 and a 0  b 0  0
Finite Difference Methods for Ordinary Differential Equation:

These are the explicit or implicit relations between the derivatives and function values at the adjacent nodal
points. The nodal points on an interval may be defined by
xi = x0 + i h , i = 0, 1, …., n, where a = x0 , b = xn and h = (b-a)/n
a = x0 x1 x2 xi-1 xi xi+1 xn-1 xn =b
Finite Difference Approximations to derivatives are given below:
Approximations to y(x i ) at x  x i :
(i) Forward difference approximation of first order or O(h) approximation:
y(x i ) 
1
y(x i1 ) - y(x i )  , or yi 
1
yi1 - yi  (5)
h h
(ii) Backward difference approximation of first order or O(h) approximation:
y(x i ) 
1
y(x i ) - y(x i-1 )  , or yi 
1
yi - yi-1  (6)
h h
(iii) Central difference approximation of second order or O(h2) approximation:
y(x i ) 
1
y(x i1 ) - y(x i-1 )  , or yi 
1
yi1 - yi-1  (7)
2h 2h
Approximations to y(x i ) at x  x i :
Central difference approximation of second order or O(h2) approximation:

1 1
𝑦′′(𝑥𝑖 ) = ℎ2 (𝑦(𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 2𝑦(𝑥𝑖 ) + 𝑦(𝑥𝑖−1 )) or 𝑦𝑖′′ = ℎ2 (𝑦𝑖+1 − 2𝑦𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖−1 ) (8)
The finite difference solution of a boundary value problem (1) is obtained by replacing the differential
equation at each nodal point by a difference equation ((5) – (8)) along with given boundary conditions ((2)
– (4))
Boundary value problems governed by linear second order partial differential equations:
Over a two dimensional Cartesian domain, let 𝑢 be the dependent variable. Then a general second order
partial differential equation may be written as,
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝐴 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝐵 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 + 𝐶 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢, 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 ) + 𝐺 = 0 ----------------------(1)
where 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are functions of (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝐹 may be non-linear function, then equation (1) is called a quasi-
linear partial differential equation. If 𝐹 is also a linear function then equation (1) is called a linear partial
differential equation. If 𝐺 = 0 then equation (1) is homogeneous otherwise non-homogeneous.

Classification of PDE:
Equation (1) is said to be elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic depending on 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 < 0, 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 = 0
and 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 >, 0 at a point or in a domain.
Finite Difference Methods for Partial

Differential Equation:
Consider a rectangular region 𝑅 in the 𝑋𝑌 −plane. Divide the
region into rectangular network of sides Δ𝑥 = ℎ and Δ𝑦 = 𝑘.
Writing 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑖ℎ, 𝑗𝑘) as simply 𝑢𝑖,𝑗 , the finite
difference approximations for the first order partial derivatives
are as follows:
𝜕𝑢 1
Forward: ( ) = ℎ (𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 − 𝑢𝑖,𝑗 ) + 𝑂(ℎ)
𝜕𝑥 𝑖,𝑗
𝜕𝑢 1
Backward: ( ) = (𝑢𝑖,𝑗 − 𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 ) + 𝑂(ℎ)
𝜕𝑥 𝑖,𝑗 ℎ
𝜕𝑢 1
Central: ( ) = (𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 − 𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 ) + 𝑂(ℎ2 )
𝜕𝑥 𝑖,𝑗 2ℎ
Similarly,
𝜕𝑢 1
Forward: ( ) = 𝑘 (𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 − 𝑢𝑖,𝑗 ) + 𝑂(𝑘)
𝜕𝑦 𝑖,𝑗
𝜕𝑢 1
Backward: ( ) = (𝑢𝑖,𝑗 − 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 ) + 𝑂(𝑘)
𝜕𝑦 𝑖,𝑗 𝑘
𝜕𝑢 1
Central: ( ) = (𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 − 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 ) + 𝑂(𝑘 2 )
𝜕𝑦 𝑖,𝑗 2𝑘
The finite difference approximations for the second order partial derivatives are as follows.
𝜕 2𝑢 1
( 2 ) = 2 (𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 ) + 𝑂(ℎ2 )
𝜕𝑥 𝑖,𝑗 ℎ
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
Similar expressions can be written for ( ) , (𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦).
𝜕𝑦 2
Elliptic partial differential equation (Laplace equation & Poisson equation) :

Most relevant examples of elliptic PDE are Laplace equation and Poisson equation.
The Poisson equation in Cartesian coordinate system is
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
+ 𝜕𝑦 2 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) or ∇2 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑
𝜕𝑥 2
subject to boundary condition: u(x, y) = g(x, y) (Dirichlet boundary condition).
The Laplace equation is a special case of Poisson equation with 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0.

Solution for Laplace Equation (for uniform mesh size h =k):
Standard 5-point formula:
1
𝑢𝑖,𝑗 = (𝑢 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 )
4 𝑖−1,𝑗
Diagonal 5-point formula:
1
𝑢𝑖,𝑗 = (𝑢 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗−1 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗+1 + 𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗−1 )
4 𝑖−1,𝑗+1
Solution to Poisson equation:
𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 − 4𝑢𝑖,𝑗 = ℎ2 𝑓(𝑖ℎ, 𝑗ℎ)
Parabolic Partial Differential Equation (One – dimensional heat conduction

equation):
∂u ∂ 2u
= c2 0xl , t0
∂t ∂x2
In order that the solution of the problem exists and is unique, we need to prescribe the following
conditions:
(i) Initial conditions : u(x, 0) = f(x) , 0  x  l

(ii) Boundary Conditions : u(0, t) = g(t), u(l,t) = h(t), t >0
(in this study we restricted to simple boundary condition, i.e., temperature at the ends of
the bar is prescribed)
where 𝑐 2 is the diffusivity of the substance, 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) is a temperature function which is defined for values of
𝑥 from 0 to 𝑙(length of the bar)and for values of time 𝑡 from 0 to ∞.
Solution of one dimensional Heat equation:

Explicit method:
Schmidt method:
kc2 1
ui,j+1 = λui−1,j + (1 − 2λ)ui,j + λui+1,j where λ = ;0<λ≤2
h2
Where λ is called the mesh ratio parameter, h mesh length along x-axis and k mesh length
along t-axis
Bender – Schmidt Method (particular case when 𝜆 = 1/2) :
1
ui,j+1 = (u + ui+1,j )
2 i−1,j
1
Note : For λ = 6, the error in Schmidt’s formula is least

Implicit Method : Crank – Nicolson’s method :
−λui−1,j+1 + 2(1 + λ)ui,j+1 − λui+1,j+1 = λui−1,j + 2(1 − λ)ui,j + λui+1,j

kc2
where λ = h2
For λ = 1: −ui−1,j+1 + 4ui,j+1 − ui+1,j+1 = ui−1,j + ui+1,j (particular case)
Hyperbolic Partial Differential Equation (One – Dimensional wave equation)

All vibration problems arising in science and engineering are governed by wave equation.
Consider the problem of vibrations of an elastic string governed by the one dimensional wave equation:
𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
= 𝑐 2
, 0xl , t0
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2
Subject to the initial and boundary conditions:
(i) Initial conditions : u(x, 0) = f(x) , 0  x  l (initial displacement)

𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑡
(𝑥, 0) = 𝑔(𝑥) , 0  x  l (initial velocity)
(ii) Boundary Conditions : u(0, t) = 0, u(l,t) = 0, t >0
(we consider the case when the ends of the string are fixed)
Where c2 is a constant and depends on the material properties of the elastic string.
Solution of one dimensional Wave equation:

Explicit method:
𝑐 2𝑘2
𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 = [𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 ]
ℎ2
= 𝑟2 [𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 ]

kc
Where r= is called mesh ratio parameter , h mesh length along x-axis and k mesh length
h
along t-axis.
The above method is stable when r ≤ 1, Higher order method uses the value of r = 1
Therefore, we have 𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 = [𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 − 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 ], is the explicit finite difference
method for wave equation at higher level.
1
To get the value at first level, we have 𝑢𝑖,1 = [𝑢𝑖−1,0 + 𝑢𝑖+1,0 ] + k𝑔𝑖 .
2
𝜕𝑢
If the initial condition is prescribed as (𝑥, 0) = 0, that is g(x) = 0, then above formula simplifies
𝜕𝑡
to
1
𝑢𝑖,1 = [𝑢𝑖−1,0 + 𝑢𝑖+1,0 ] , gives the value of ‘u’ at first level.
2

MME 2151: Kinematics of Machinery
1. Basic Concepts
1.1 Relation between the number of links and the number of joints for a kinematic chain having
constrained motion
3𝑛 2𝑛2 + 3𝑛3 + 4𝑛4

j=( ) -2 j (number of joints) = ( )
2 2
n (number of links) = 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 + 𝑛4
𝑛2 , 𝑛3 and 𝑛4 = number of binary, ternary and
quaternary links respectively
1.2 Grubler’s equation
F = 3 (n-1) - 2j1 - j2 F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom

n = Number of Links including frame
j1 = Joints with one degree of freedom
j2 = Joints with two degrees of freedom
1.3 Fundamental equation for correct steering
𝑤 ϕ = angle made by the outer stub axle (degrees)

cot ϕ – cot θ =
𝑙 θ = angle made by the inner stub axle (degrees)
w = distance between the pivot of the front axle (mm)
𝑙 = wheel base (mm)
2. Velocity Analysis
2.1. Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
𝑣𝑏𝑜 = 𝑣𝑏𝑎 + 𝑣𝑎𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑜 = Velocity of A relative to O (m/s)

𝑣𝑏𝑎 = Velocity of B relative to A (m/s)
𝑣𝑏𝑜 = Velocity of B relative to O (m/s)
𝑣𝑏𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏𝑜 − 𝑣𝑎𝑜
MME 2151: Kinematics of Machinery 13

2.2. Motion of a link
𝑣𝑎𝑜 = 𝑟𝜔 𝑣𝑎𝑜 = Velocity of A relative to O (m/s)

r = radius of the link (length AO) (m)
𝜔 = Angular velocity of link (rad/s)
2.3. Velocity of Intermediate Point (m/s)
𝑣𝑒𝑏 𝐵𝐸 𝑣𝑒𝑏 = Velocity of E relative to B (m/s)

=
𝑣𝑐𝑏 𝐵𝐶 𝑣𝑐𝑏 = Velocity of C relative to B (m/s)
BE = length of link BE (m)

BC = length of link BC (m)
2.4. Number of Instantaneous Centres (I-Centres)
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) N = Number of I-Centres

𝑁= n = Number of links
2
3. Acceleration Analysis
3.1. Tangential Acceleration, 𝑓 𝑡 (𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝛼. 𝑟 𝛼 = Angular Acceleration of link (rad/s2)
r = length of link (m)
3.2. Radial/Centripetal Acceleration, 𝑓 𝑐 (𝑚/𝑠 2 )

𝑣2 𝑣 = Velocity of link (m/s)
𝑓𝑐 = = 𝜔2 𝑟 𝜔 = Angular velocity of link (rad/s)
𝑟
r = length of link (m)

4. Toothed Gearing
4.1 Involutometry
𝑅𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅𝐵 RA = radial distance between the centre

and a point A on the involute profile of
the gear (mm)
RB = radial distance between the centre
and a point A on the involute profile of
the gear (mm)
∅𝐴 and ∅𝐵 = involute pressure angles of
points A and B on the involute
profile respectively (degrees)
Inv ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∅ –∅ ∅ = involute pressure angle (radians)
** ∅ in degrees when substituted in tan ∅
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡𝐴 and 𝑡𝐵 = thickness of the tooth at RA and
(2𝑅𝐴 ) + Inv 𝜙𝐴 = (2𝑅𝐵 ) + Inv 𝜙𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 RB respectively (mm)
4.2 Length of path of contact (LPOC), length of path of approach (LPOA) and length of path of
recess (LPOR)
2
LPOA = √𝑅𝑎2 − (𝑅2 cos ∅)2 − (𝑅2 sin ∅) 𝑅𝑎1 and 𝑅𝑎2 = radii of addendum circle on
2 gear 1 and gear 2 respectively (mm)
LPOR = √𝑅𝑎1 − (𝑅1 cos ∅)2 − (𝑅1 sin ∅)
𝑅1 and 𝑅2 = radii of pitch circle on gear 1 and
LPOC = LPOA + LPOR gear 2 (mm)
∅ = pressure angle (degrees)
4.3 Length of arc of contact (LAOC), length of arc of approach (LAOA) and length of arc of recess
(LAOR)
2 − (𝑅 cos ∅)2 − (𝑅 sin ∅)

√𝑅𝑎2
LPOA 2 2
LAOA = =
cos ∅ cos ∅
2 − (𝑅 cos ∅)2 − (𝑅 sin ∅)

√𝑅𝑎1
LPOR 1 1
LAOR = =
cos ∅ cos ∅
LAOC = LAOA + LAOR
4.4 Number of pairs of teeth in contact or Contact ratio (CR)
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑐 = circular pitch (mm)

CR =
𝑝𝑐 m = module (mm)
𝜋D D = pitch circle diameter (mm)
𝑝𝑐 = 𝜋m = T = number of gear teeth
𝑇

4.5 Minimum number of teeth on the gear to avoid interference when meshing with a pinion
𝑇1 = number of teeth on the pinion

2𝑎𝑔 𝑇2 = number of teeth on the gear
𝑇2 ≥ [ ]
1 1 𝑇2
√1+ ( +2) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ −1 G = gear ratio =
𝐺 𝐺
𝑇1
𝑎𝑔 = multiplication factor
Addendum of the gear
=
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒
∅ = pressure angle (degrees)
4.6 Minimum number of teeth on the pinion to avoid interference when meshing with a rack
2𝑎𝑟 𝑇 = number of teeth on the pinion

𝑇 ≥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ ∅ = pressure angle (degrees)
Addendum of the rack
𝑎𝑟 = multiplication factor =
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒
5. Gear Trains
5.1. Train Value
Simple gear train 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
Compound gear train 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
5.2. Speed Ratio
1
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
5.3. Reverted Gear Train
𝑁4 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

=
𝑁1 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
6. Belt and Rope Drives

6.1 Velocity ratio (VR) of the belt drive
𝑁2 𝑑1 𝑁1 = speed of the driving pulley (rpm)

VR = =
𝑁1 𝑑2 𝑁2 = speed of the driven pulley (rpm)
𝑑1 = diameter of the driving pulley (mm)
𝑑2 = diameter of the driven pulley (mm)

6.2 Velocity ratio (VR) of the belt drive considering slip and thickness of the belt
𝑁2 𝑑1 +𝑡 100−𝑆 𝑡 = thickness of the belt (mm)

VR = =( )( )
𝑁1 𝑑2 +𝑡 100 𝑆1 = % slip between the driving pulley and the belt.
𝑆2 = % slip between the driven pulley and the belt.
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
𝑆 = total percentage slip
6.3 Initial tension in the belt (𝑇0 )
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 𝑇1 = tension on the tight side (N)

𝑇0 =
2 𝑇2 = tension on the slack side (N)
6.4 Power transmitted through a belt drive (P)
𝑃 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑣 𝑇1 = tension on the tight side (N)

𝑇2 = tension on the slack side (N)
𝑣 = linear velocity of the belt (m/s)
6.5 Length of the belt in open belt drive (𝐿𝑂 )
(𝑅 − 𝑟)2 r = radius of the smaller pulley (mm)

𝐿𝑂 = 𝜋(𝑅 + 𝑟) + + 2𝐶
𝐶 R = radius of the larger pulley (mm)
C = centre distance between the pulleys (mm)
6.6 Angle of Lap in open belt drive (𝜃𝑂 )
𝜃𝑂 = 𝜋 − 2𝛽 𝜃𝑂 = angle of lap in open belt drive (radians)

𝑅−𝑟 r = radius of the smaller pulley (mm)
𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) R = radius of the larger pulley (mm)
𝐶
6.7 Length of the belt in crossed belt drive ( 𝐿𝐶 )
(𝑅 + 𝑟)2 r = radius of the smaller pulley (mm)

𝐿𝐶 = 𝜋(𝑅 + 𝑟) + + 2𝐶 R = radius of the larger pulley (mm)
𝐶
6.8 Angle of Lap in crossed belt drive ( 𝜃𝐶 )
𝜃𝐶 = 𝜋 + 2𝛽 𝜃𝐶 = angle of lap in crossed belt drive (radians)

𝑅+𝑟 r = radius of the smaller pulley (mm)
𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) R = radius of the larger pulley (mm)
𝐶

6.9 Ratio of belt tensions
6.9.1 In Flat belt drive
𝑇1 𝑇1 = tension on the tight side (N)

= 𝑒 𝜇𝜃
𝑇2 𝑇2 = tension on the slack side (N)
𝜇 = coefficient of friction
𝜃 = angle of lap (radians)
6.9.2 In V-belt and Rope drive
𝜇𝜃 𝑇1 = tension on the tight side (N)

𝑇1 ( )
= 𝑒 sin 𝛼
𝑇2 𝑇2 = tension on the slack side (N)
𝜃 = angle of lap (radians)
2𝛼 = groove angle of the pulley (degrees)
6.10 Centrifugal tension in the belt
𝑇𝐶 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚 = mass per unit length of belt (kg/m)

𝑇𝐶 = centrifugal tension on tight and slack sides
of element (N)
𝑣 = velocity of the belt (m/s)
6.11 Maximum tension in the belt (𝑇 ) for maximum power transmission
𝑇 = 3𝑚𝑣 2 = 3𝑇𝐶 𝑚 = mass per unit length of belt (kg/m)

𝑇𝐶 = centrifugal tension on tight and slack
sides of element (N)
𝑣 = velocity of the belt (m/s)
6.12 Maximum velocity in the belt (𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) for maximum power transmission
𝑇 𝑚 = mass per unit length of belt (kg/m)

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ 𝑇 = maximum tension in the belt (N)
3𝑚
7. Friction
7.1 Frictional torque on a flat pivot bearing
For uniform pressure theory: 𝑇 = Frictional torque (Nm)

2 𝜇 = coefficient of friction
𝑇= 𝜇𝑊𝑅
3 𝑊 = axial load on the bearing (N)
For uniform wear theory: 𝑅 = radius of the shaft (mm)
1
𝑇= 𝜇𝑊𝑅
2

7.2 Power
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 𝑃 = power lost in bearings or power

𝑃=
60000 transmitted by clutch (kW)
𝑁 = speed of the shaft (rpm)
𝑇 = frictional torque (Nm)
7.3 Frictional torque on a flat collar bearing

2 𝑟𝑜 3 − 𝑟𝑖 3
𝑇= 𝜇𝑊 [ ] 𝑊 = axial load on the bearing (N)
3 𝑟𝑜 2 − 𝑟𝑖 2
𝑟𝑜 = outer radius of the collar (mm)
𝑟𝑖 = inner radius of the collar (mm)
For uniform wear theory:
(𝑟𝑜 + 𝑟𝑖 )
𝑇 = 𝜇𝑊
2
7.4 Frictional torque transmitted by a single disc/plate clutch
For uniform pressure theory: 𝑇 = Frictional torque (in Nm)

𝑛 = number of pairs of friction/contact surfaces
2 𝑟𝑜 3 − 𝑟𝑖 3
𝑇= 𝑛𝜇𝑊 [ ] = 2 for single disc/plate clutch
3 𝑟𝑜 2 − 𝑟𝑖 2 𝜇 = coefficient of friction
𝑊 = axial load on the bearing (N)
𝑟𝑜 and 𝑟𝑖 = outer and inner radii of the friction
(𝑟𝑜 + 𝑟𝑖 ) surface (mm)
𝑇 = 𝑛𝜇𝑊
2
7.5 Frictional torque transmitted by a single disc/plate clutch

𝑛 = number of pairs of friction/contact surfaces
2 𝑟𝑜 3 − 𝑟𝑖 3
𝑇= 𝑛𝜇𝑊 [ ] = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 – 1
3 𝑟𝑜 2 − 𝑟𝑖 2
𝑛1 = number of discs on the driving shaft
𝑛2 = number of discs on the driven shaft
(𝑟𝑜 + 𝑟𝑖 ) 𝑊 = axial load on the bearing (N)
𝑇 = 𝑛𝜇𝑊
2 𝑟𝑜 and 𝑟𝑖 = outer and inner radii of the friction
surface (mm)

8. CAMS
ℎ = Maximum follower displacement (mm)

𝑣 = Velocity of the follower (m/s)
𝑓 = Acceleration of the follower (m/s2)
𝜙 = Cam angle for maximum follower displacement (degrees)
Motion Maximum Velocity (m/s) Maximum Acceleration (m/s2)

ℎ𝜋𝜔 ℎ 𝜋𝜔 2
Simple Harmonic Motion 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( )
2∅ 2 ∅
Constant Velocity Motion ℎ𝜔
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
∅
Constant Acceleration and 2ℎ𝜔 2𝜔 2
Deceleration Motion 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ ( )
∅ ∅
Cycloidal Motion 2ℎ𝜔 2ℎ𝜋𝜔2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
∅ ∅2

MME 2152: Manufacturing Technology
1. Foundry
Table 1.1. AFS sieve numbers and their Indian equivalents with sizes
US Series Equivalent Mesh opening IS Sieve no. Multiplying

No. (ASTM) (mm) (µm) factor (M)
6 3.327 3.35 0.03
12 1.651 1.70 0.05
20 0.833 850 0.10
30 0.589 600 0.20
40 0.414 425 0.30
50 0.295 300 0.40
70 0.208 212 0.50
100 0.147 150 0.70
140 0.104 106 1.00
200 0.074 75 1.40
270 0.053 53 2.00
Pan - - 3.00
1.1. Grain Fineness Number (GFN) where, Mi = multiplying factor for the ith sieve
fi = percentage sand retained on the ith sieve
𝐺𝐹𝑁 = ∑ 𝑀𝑖 𝑓𝑖 and the pan
1.2. Permeability Number (Pn) where, V = volume of air = 2000 cm 3

H = height of the specimen = 5.08 cm
𝑉𝐻 P = pressure recorded (g/cm 2)
𝑃𝑛 =
𝑃𝐴𝑇 A = cross-section area of the specimen =
20.268 cm2
T = time taken for the air to pass through the
specimen (min)
2. Lathe operations
2.1 Taper Turning by Swivelling the Compound Rest
Figure 2.1: Schematic of calculating the swivel angle for taper turning
(𝐷 − 𝑑) where α = Half taper angle or taper angle (degrees)

tan 𝛼 =
2𝑙 D = Larger diameter of taper (mm)
d = Smaller diameter of taper (mm)
l = Length of the taper (mm)
MME 2152: Manufacturing Technology 21

2.2. Taper Turning by Tailstock Set-Over Method
Figure 2.2: Schematic of taper turning by tailstock set-over method
𝐿 (𝐷 − 𝑑) where S = Set-over distance (mm)

S=
2𝑙 D = Larger diameter of taper (mm)
d = Smaller diameter of taper (mm)
L = Length of the job (mm)
l = Length of the taper (mm)
2.3. Machining Time Calculation
2.3.1. Cutting Speed where V = Cutting speed (surface) (m/min)
D = Diameter of the workpiece (mm)
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑉= N = Rotational speed of the workpiece (rpm)
1000
2.3.2. Time for a single pass where t = Time required for single pass (min)
L = Length of the job (mm)
𝐿 + 𝐿𝑂 LO = Over travel of the tool beyond the length
𝑡= of the job (mm)
𝑓𝑁
f = Feed rate (mm/rev)
N = Rotational speed of the workpiece (rpm)
2.3.3 Number of roughing passes where Pr = Number of passes for roughing operation
A = Total machining allowance (mm)
𝐴 − 𝐴𝑓 Af = Finish machining allowance (mm)
𝑃𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 dr = Depth of cut in roughing (mm)
2.3.4 Number of finishing passes where Pf = Number of passes for finishing operation
Af = Finish machining allowance (mm)
𝐴𝑓
𝑃𝑓 = df = Depth of cut in finishing (mm)
𝑑𝑓

Table 2.1: Suggested cutting process parameters for turning
High-speed steel tool Carbide tool

Hardness
Work material
(BHN) Speed Feed Speed Feed
(m/min) (mm/rev) (m/min) (mm/rev)
Grey cast iron 150 – 180 30 0.25 140 0.30
Grey cast iron 220 – 260 20 0.25 90 0.30
Malleable iron 160 – 220 33 0.25 50 0.25
Malleable iron 240 – 270 - - 45 0.30
Cast steel 140 – 180 40 0.25 150 0.30
Cast steel 190 – 240 26 0.25 125 0.30
C20 steel 110 – 160 40 0.30 150 0.38
C40 steel 120 – 185 30 0.30 145 0.38
C80 steel 170 – 200 26 0.30 130 0.30
Alloy steel 150 – 240 30 0.25 110 0.38
Alloy steel 240 – 310 20 0.25 100 0.30
Alloy steel 315 – 370 15 0.25 85 0.25
Alloy steel 380 – 440 10 0.20 75 0.25
Alloy steel 450 – 500 8 0.20 55 0.25
Tool steel 150 – 200 18 0.25 70 0.25
Hot work die steel 160 – 220 25 0.25 120 0.25
Stainless steel 160 – 220 30 0.20 120 0.25
Stainless steel 300 – 350 14 0.20 70 0.25
Stainless steel 375 – 440 10 0.20 30 0.25
Aluminium alloys 70 – 105 210 0.30 400 0.38
Copper alloys 120 – 160 200 0.25 300 0.25
Copper alloys 165 – 180 85 0.25 230 0.25
3. Milling operations
3.1 Simple indexing
40 where, N = number of equal divisions to

𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 =
𝑁 be made
3.2 Compound indexing
3.2.1. To check for correctness of selection of hole circles
𝑁×|𝑁1 −𝑁2|
40×𝑁1 ×𝑁2
= 𝑛1 where, N1 and N2 are the hole circles in
the same plate
3.2.2. Total indexing
40 𝑛 𝑛
= ±
𝑁 𝑁1 𝑁2
Table 3.1 Index plates on Brown and Sharpe milling machines
Plate No. Hole circles

1 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 holes
2 21, 23, 27, 29, 31 and 33 holes
3 37, 39, 41, 43, 47 and 49 holes

4. Drilling operations
Table 4.1: Mean cutting process parameter for drilling using HSS Tool
Hardness Cutting Speed Feed

Work Material
(BHN) (m/min) (mm/rev)
Cast Iron 200 30 0.215
Cast steel 280 – 300 13 0.125
AISI 1020 110 – 160 35 0.350
AISI 1040 170 – 200 25 0.215
Manganese Steel 185 – 215 5 0.125
Nickel Steel 200 – 240 18 0.125
Stainless Steel 150 15 0.215
Spring Steel 400 6 0.125
Tool Steel 150 23 0.350
Tool Steel 200 18 0.215
Tool Steel 215 15 0.215
Tool Steel 300 12 0.125
Tool Steel 400 5 0.125
Malleable Iron 110 – 130 26 0.350
Aluminium 95 275 0.515
Aluminium Alloys 170 – 190 18 0.215
Copper 80 – 85 21 0.125
Brass 190 – 200 70 0.350
Bronze 180 – 200 54 0.350
Zinc Alloys 110 – 125 70 0.350
Glass 4 0.125
4.1 Drilling time where V = Cutting speed (surface) (m/min)

4.1.1 Cutting Speed D = Diameter of the drill tool (mm)
𝜋𝐷𝑁 N = Rotational speed of the drill tool (rpm)
𝑉=
1000
4.1.2 Breakthrough distance where, A = breakthrough distance (mm)
𝐷 α = half of lip angle (degrees)
𝐴=
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
4.1.3 Total length of tool travel where, L = Total length of tool travel (mm)
𝐿 = 𝐴+𝑙+2 l = length of the hole (mm)
Figure 4.1 End of twist drill showing the breakthrough distance

4.1.4. Time for drilling where t = Time required for drilling (min)
𝐿 L = Total length of tool travel (mm)
𝑡=
𝑓𝑁 f = Feed rate (mm/rev)
N = Rotational speed of the drill tool (rpm)
5. Taylor’s tool life equation

𝑉𝑇 𝑛 = 𝐶 where, V = cutting speed (m/min)
T = tool life (min)
n and C = constant based on tool, work
material, tool geometry, coolant
type, etc.

MME 2153: Material Science and Metallurgy
Crystal Structure
Volume of Effective number of atoms per unit cell

APF or   100
Volume of the unit cell
N  Volume of a spherical atom
 100
Volume of the unit cell
 4 r 3 
N  
  3  100
V
where, N = Effective number of atoms per unit cell
r = Radius of the spherical atom
V = Volume of the unit cell
Crystal structure Matals

BCC Cr, α-Fe, δ-Fe, Mo, Ve, Na, Li, Ba, W, β-brass, etc.,
FCC Al, Ni, Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, Pt, Ƴ-Fe, α-Sn, δ-brass, etc.,
HCP Mg, Zn, Cd, Co, Graphite, etc.,
Phases in solids
Lever Rule:
Lever rule before the reaction.
S = Solidus line
L = Liquidus line
F = Fulcrum
Ws = Weight percent of solid
Wl = Weight percent of liquid
𝐹𝐿
Ws fomed = 𝑋 100 (Proeutectic Formed)
𝑆𝐿
𝐹𝑆
Wl remaining = 𝑋 100 (Wt. % which will convert into eutectic mixture)
𝑆𝐿
Weight % of eutectic mixture formed: Wt. percent of liquid present at eutectic temperature before
the eutectic reaction begins = 100 - Ws
MME 2153: Material Science and Metallurgy 26

Weight % of pure A in type 1 and α (A rich solid solution) in type II in eutectic mixture= Weight percent
of total A or α in the specimen after the reaction – Weight % of proeutectic A or α.
Weight % of total pure A or α present after solidification.
Lever rule after the reaction.
𝐹𝐷
Weight % of A or α formed = 𝑋 100
𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐹
Weight % of B or β formed = 𝑋 100
𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐹 𝐹𝐷
Weight ratio of two solids after the reaction: A/B= or B/A =
𝐹𝐷 𝐶𝐹
MME 2153: Material Science and Metallurgy 27

MME 2154: Strength of Materials
1. Stress, Strain and Deformation of Solids
1.1 Normal or Axial Stress (MPa) Fnormal = Normal load (N)

Fnormal
 Anormal = Normal Area in (mm2)
Anormal
1.2 Shear Stress (MPa) Fshear = Shear load (N)
Fshear
 Ashear = Shearing Area (mm2)
Ashear
1.3 Strain
1.3.1 Linear strain l = change in length (mm)
l l = Initial length (mm)

l
1.3.2 Lateral strain b = Change in breadth (mm)
b b = Initial breadth in (mm)
 lat 
b
1.3.3 Volumetric strain V = Change in volume in (mm3)
V V = Original Volume in (mm3)
v 
V
1.4 Poisson’s Ratio  lat = Lateral strain
 lat 
 = Linear strain

1.5 Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)  = Stress (MPa)
  = Strain
E

1.6 Modulus of Rigidity (MPa)  = Shear stress (MPa)
  = Shear strain
G

1.7 Bulk Modulus (MPa) P = Identical pressure applied in three
P mutual perpendicular directions (MPa)
K
v  v = Volumetric strain
1.8 Relationship between elastic constants E = Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
E  2G (1   ) G = Modulus of rigidity (MPa)
E  3K (1  2 ) K = Bulk Modulus (MPa)
 = Poisson’s ratio
9 KG
E
3K  G
MME 2154: Strength of Materials 28

1.9 Three dimensional state of strain  x ,  y ,  z = strains in X, Y & Z directions
x y z respectively
x   
E E E
y z x  x ,  y , z = Stresses in X, Y & Z
y    directions respectively (MPa)
E E E
z x y
z   
E E E
v   x   y   z
1.10 Elongation of the bar under uniaxial normal load P = Load (N)
(mm) L = Length of the member (mm)
A = Cross sectional area (mm2)
PL
l  E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
AE
1.11 Elongation of bar with cross sections varying in l1 , l2 , l3 = Elongation of respective
steps (mm): section of the assembly (mm)
l  l1  l2  l3
1.12 Elongation of bar with uniformly varying circular P = Load (N)

cross section (mm): L = Length of the member (mm)
4PL d1 , d 2 = Diameter of the bar at larger
l 
 d1d 2 E and smaller end (mm)
E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
1.13 Elongation of bar with uniformly varying rectangular P = Load (N)

cross section (mm): L = Length of the member (mm)
PL b b1 , b2 = Width of the bar at larger and
l  log( 1 )
tE (b1  b2 ) b2 smaller end (mm)

t = Thickness of the bar (mm)

1.14 Elongation of Compound Bars:
Equilibrium Condition:
Load (N)
P  P1  P2 l1 , l2 = Elongation of respective
material (mm)
Elongation (mm)
l  l1  l1 P1 , P2 = Load of respective material (N)
1.15 Thermal Expansion & Stresses:

1.15.1 Change in length of the bar due to thermal t = Temperature rise (OC)
gradient (mm):  = Linear coefficient of expansion (OC)
l  tL L = Length of the member (mm)
1.15.2 Thermal stress developed when the bar is t = Temperature rise (OC)
fully constrained (MPa):  = Linear coefficient of expansion (OC)
 th  Et E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
1.15.3 Thermal stress developed when the bar is E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
partially constrained (MPa): L = Length of the member (mm)
E t = Temperature rise (OC)
 th  (tL   )  = Linear coefficient of expansion (OC)
L
 = Restricted elongated length of the
member (mm)
1.16 Strain energy

1.16.1 Principal strain energy due to normal  y = Yield Strength (MPa)
load (J):
V = Volume (mm3)
 V2
UP  y
2E

1.16.2 Distortion strain energy due to shear load (J):  y = Yield Shear Strength (MPa)
 V 2
V = Volume (mm3)
US  y
2G G = Modulus of rigidity (MPa)

1.16.3 Distortion strain energy due to normal  y = Yield Strength (MPa)
load (J):
V = Volume (mm3)
 V 2
G = Modulus of rigidity (MPa)
UD  y
6G
2. Shear force and bending moment diagram

Sign convention:
 The shear force F, in the units N
 The bending moment, M in the units Nmm
2.1 Cantilever Beam
2.1.1 Subjected to concentrated load at free end: W = Applied Load (N)

Fmax  W L = Length of the beam (mm)
M max  WL
2.1.2 Subjected to externally applied moment at free M O = Externally applied moment

end: (Nmm)
Fmax  0
M max  M o
2.1.3 Subjected to uniformly distributed load:

w = Distributed load (N/mm)
F  wL L = Length of the beam (mm)
L2
M w
2

2.1.4 Subjected to uniformly varying load: w = Distributed load (N/mm)
wx 2 L = Length of the beam (mm)
F
2L x = Distance of the reference
section from the support (mm)
wx 3
M
6L
2.2 Simply supported beam:
2.2.1 Subjected to concentrated load: W = Applied Load (N)

Wb L = Length of the beam (mm)
F For the portion on the left side
a = Distance of the load from the
L
left support (mm)
Wa
F For the portion on the right side b = Distance of the load from the
L right support (mm)
Wab
M max 
L
2.2.2 Subjected to uniformly distributed load:
wL L = Length of the beam (mm)

Fmax 
2
wL2
M max 
8
2.2.3 Subjected to uniformly varying load:
wL
F For the varying load initiating point L = Length of the beam (mm)
6
wL
F For the varying load commencing point
3
M max  0.06415wL2
2.2.4 Subjected to externally applied moment: M O = Externally applied moment

(Nmm)
Mo
F L = Length of the beam (mm)
L
a = Distance of the load from the
a
M  M o At the moment point from the left side left support (mm)
L
b = Distance of the load from the
b right support (mm)
M  M o At the moment point from the right side
L

3. Stresses in beam
3.1 Bending equation: M = Bending moment (Nmm)
M  E
  I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section (mm4)
I y R  = Bending stress (MPa)
y = Distance of the fibres from the neutral axis (mm)
R = Radius of curvature (mm)
3.2 Section modulus (mm3): I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section (mm4)
I ymax =Distance of extreme fibres
Z
ymax
3.3 Shearing stress (MPa): F = Shear force (N)
F I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section (mm4)
 ay
bI b = Width of reference portion of the cross-section (mm)
a y = Moment of area above the section under
consideration about neutral axis (mm3)
4. Deflection of beams
4.1 Differential equation of the beam: E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
d2y I = Moment of inertia of the
EI M cross-section (mm4)
dx 2
M = Bending moment (Nmm)
4.2 Cantilever beam with moment at free end M O = Externally applied moment
M 0L (Nmm)
Maximum slope (in radians) = At the free end
EI L = Length of the beam (mm)
2
MoL W = Applied Load (N)
Maximum deflection (in mm) = At the free end
2 EI w = Distributed load (N/mm)
4.3 Cantilever beam with point load at free end
WL2
2 EI
WL3
3EI
4.4 Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed load
wL3
6 EI
wL4
8EI

4.5 Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly varying load
wL3
24 EI
wL4
Maximum deflection (in mm)= At the free end
30 EI
4.6 Simply supported beam with point load at mid span
WL2
Maximum slope (in radians) = At the support
16 EI
WL3
Maximum deflection = At the centre
48EI
4.7 Simply supported beam subjected to uniformly

distributed load
wL3
Maximum slope (in radians) = At the support
24 EI
5wL4
Maximum deflection (in mm) = At the centre
384 EI
4.8 Simply supported beam subjected to uniformly varying

load
wL4
Maximum deflection (in mm) = 0.006523
EI
At a distance of 0.5193 L from the end with load
intensity zero.
5. Torsion of shafts
5.1 Torsion equation: T = Torque (Nmm)
T  G J = Polar Moment of inertia (mm4)
 
J r L r = Radius of the shaft (mm)
 = Shear stress corresponding to radius (MPa)
 = Angular twist (radians)
L = Length of the shaft (mm)
5.2 Polar Moment of inertia (mm4):
5.2.1 Solid shaft: d = Diameter of solid shaft (mm)

 d1 = Outer diameter of hollow shaft (mm)
J d4
32

5.2.2 Hollow shaft: d 2 = Inner diameter of hollow shaft (mm)

J (d14  d 24 )
32
5.2 Torsion equation: T = Torque (Nmm)

T  G J = Polar Moment of inertia (mm4)
 
J r L r = Radius of the shaft (mm)
 = Shear stress corresponding to radius (MPa)
 = Angular twist (radians)
L = Length of the shaft (mm)
5.3 Polar Modulus (mm 3): J = Polar Moment of inertia (mm4)
J r = Outer most radius of the shaft (mm)
Zp 
r
5.4 Power transmitted (W): T = Torque (Nmm)
2 NT N = Speed of the shaft (rpm)
P
60
5.5 Shaft in series:  = Total angle of twist (radians)
  1   2 1 = Angle of twist of first shaft (radians)
T1  T2  2 = Angle of twist of second shaft (radians)
5.6 Shaft in parallel: T = Total torque (Nmm)
1   2 T1 = Torque applied at end of first shaft (Nmm)
T  T1  T2 T2 = Torque applied at end of second shaft (Nmm)
6. Columns and Struts

6.1 Elective length of the column (mm)
6.1.1 Both ends hinged: L = Length of the column (mm)
Le  L
6.1.2 Both ends fixed:
L
Le 
2
6.1.3 One end fixed other free:
Le  2 L
6.1.4 One end fixed other hinged:
L
Le 
2

6.2 Radius of gyration (mm): I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section
I (mm4)
k
A A = Cross sectional area of the column (mm2)
6.3 Slenderness ratio: Le = Effective length of the column (mm)
Le
 k = Radius of gyration (mm)
k
6.4 Euler’s crippling/buckling load (N): E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
 EI2
I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section
Pcr  2
L e
(mm4)
Le = Effective length of the column (mm)
6.5 Condition for limiting value of Euler’s  cr = Crippling stress (MPa)

formula:
 c = Crushing stress (MPa)
 cr   c
Le = Effective length of the column (mm)
L   2E
i.e  e   E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
 k lim c
k = Radius of gyration (mm)
6.6 Rankine’s formula: Pcr = Crippling load (N)

1 1 1
  Pc = Crushing load (N)
Pr Pc Pcr
Pr = Rankine’s load (N)
6.7 Rankine’s constant:  c = Crushing stress (MPa)

c
a E = Young’s Modulus (MPa)
 2E
6.8 Rankine’s load (N):  c = Crushing stress (MPa)

c A
Pr  2
A = Cross sectional area of the column (mm2)
L 
1 a  e  Le = Effective length of the column (mm)
 k 
k = Radius of gyration (mm)
a = Rankine’s Constant

6.9 Table of crushing stress and Rankine’s constant for various materials:
Crushing Rankine’s
Material
stress (MPa) constant
Mild steel 320 1/7500
Cast iron 550 1/1600
Wrought iron 250 1/9000
Timber 50 1/750
7. Thick and thin cylinders

7.1 Thin cylinder subjected to internal pressure
7.1.1 Hoop stress (MPa) p = Internal pressure (MPa)
c 
pd d = Change in diameter (mm)
2t d = Initial diameter (mm)
7.1.2 Longitudinal stress (MPa) l = Change in length (mm)
pd
l  l = Initial length (mm)
4t
V = Change in volume (mm3)
7.1.3 Circumferential strain
V = Original Volume (mm3)
d pd
c   (2   ) t = Thickness of the cylinder/sphere (mm)
d 4tE
7.1.4 Longitudinal strain  = Poisson’s ratio
l pd
l   (1  2 )
l 4tE
7.1.5 Volumetric strain
V pd
V   (5  4 )
V 4tE
7.2 Thin sphere subjected to internal pressure p

7.2.1 Hoop stress (MPa)
pd

4t
7.2.2 Circumferential strain
d pd
c   (1   )
d 4tE
7.2.3 Volumetric strain
V 3 pd
V   (1   )
V 4tE

7.3 Lame’s equation for thick cylinders x = Distance of the element under
7.3.1 Radial pressure (MPa) consideration from the centre of the circle
(mm)
b
px  a a & b = arbitrary constants
x2
b
x  a
x2
7.4 Lame’s equation for thick spheres
7.4.1 Radial pressure (MPa)

2b
px  a
x3
b
x  a
x3
8. Compound stresses
General representation of stresses in two dimensional system
8.1 Normal Stress on plane AB (MPa)  x = Direct stress along X direction (MPa)
 x  y    x  y   y = Direct stress along Y direction (MPa)
n     cos 2   sin 2
 2   2 
 = Shear stress (MPa)
8.2 Tangential Stress on plane AB (MPa)
 = angle of reference plane
  x  y 
t    sin 2   cos 2
 2 
8.3 Major & Minor Principal Stresses (MPa)
   y   x  y 
2

1, 2   x    
2
 2   2 

8.4 Resultant Stress on Plane AB (MPa)
R   n2   t2
8.5 Resultant stress inclination
n
tan  
t
8.6 Inclination of major principal plane
2
tan 21 
 x  y
8.7 Inclination of minor principal plane
2  1  90
8.8 Maximum tangential Stress (MPa)
1   2
 max 
2
8.9 Inclination of plane of maximum tangential stress
3  1  45

MME 2255: Thermodynamics-1
1 Heat and work
.
1.1 Work
1.1.1For a closed system

2 𝑁𝑚
𝑤1−2 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 ( )
𝑤1−2 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 𝑘𝑔
1 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔)
1.1.2 For an open system:

2
𝑤1−2 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑝
1
1.1 Work done in different thermodynamic processes in closed system
1.2.1 Constant pressure or isobaric process

2
𝑤1−2 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑝(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
1
1.2.2 Constant volume or isochoric process
2
𝑤1−2 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 0
1
1.2.3 Constant temperature or isothermal process
2
𝑣2
𝑤1−2 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑝1 𝑣1 ln
1 𝑣1
1.2.4 Polytropic process
2 n = Polytropic index
𝑃1 𝑣1 − 𝑃2 𝑣2
𝑤1−2 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 =
1 𝑛−1
1.2.5 Reversible adiabatic process (Isentropic process)
2 𝛾 = 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑃1 𝑣1 − 𝑃2 𝑣2
𝑤1−2 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 =
1 𝛾−1
2 First law of thermodynamics
2.1 First law of thermodynamics applied to a closed system
𝑞1−2 = 𝑤1−2 + 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑞1−2 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

𝑤1−2 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)
MME 2255: Thermodynamics-1 40

2.2 First law of thermodynamics applied to an open system (SFEE)
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2 ℎ1 & ℎ2 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

ℎ1 + + 𝑍1 𝑔 + 𝑞1−2 = ℎ2 + + 𝑍2 𝑔 + 𝑤1−2 𝑉1 & 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 (𝑚/𝑠)
2 2
𝑍1 & 𝑍2 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 and outlet (m)
3 Second law of thermodynamics
3.1 Thermal efficiency of a heat engine
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿 𝑄𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒( 𝐽)

𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = = (1 − ) ≤ (1 − ) 𝑄𝐿 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝐽)
Equality sign holds good for reversible case and
the < sign holds good for irreversible process.
3.2 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿 𝑄𝐿 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟 = =( )≤( ) 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑑 (𝐽)
𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 𝑄𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐽)
Equality sign holds good for reversible case and
3.3 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝

𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻 where 𝑄𝐿 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = =( )≤( )
𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝐽)
𝑄𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜
Equality sign holds good for reversible case and 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝐽)
4 Entropy
.
4.1 General formula for change in entropy
2 𝑑𝑞𝑅 = Heat transfer during process
𝑑𝑞𝑅
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = ∫ T= Temperature (K)
1 𝑇 1 & 2 represents initial and final state
4.2 When two fluids are mixed together change in entropy of the universe
𝑇𝑓 𝑇𝑓 (∆𝑆)𝑈𝑛𝑖 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾)
(∆𝑆)𝑈𝑛𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑐1 ln + 𝑚2 𝑐2 ln 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑐1 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾)
𝑚2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑐2 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾)
𝑇1 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝐾)
𝑇2 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝐾)
𝑇𝑓 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐾)
4.3 Maximum work obtainable from a heat engine
4.3.1 When two finite bodies connected to a heat engine at temperature T1 and T2 with T1>T2
2 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡

𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑃 [√𝑇1 − √𝑇2 ] 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾)

4.3.2. When one finite body initially at temperature T and a thermal energy reservoir at temperature To
connected to a heat engine with T > T o
𝑇 T = equilibrium temperature (K)

𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑃 [(𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) − 𝑇0 ln ] 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑇0 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (J/kg K)
5 Pure substance
5.1 General property relation in the wet region
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑎𝑔 − 𝑎𝑓 ) = 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑎𝑓𝑔 "𝑎" 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑣, ℎ, 𝑢, 𝑠
5.2 Dryness fraction of steam using calorimeter

5.2.1 Initial dryness fraction of steam (x1) in throttling calorimeter
(ℎ2 − ℎ𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑃1 ) ℎ𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑃1 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑃1 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

𝑥1 = ℎ2 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 (kJ/kg)
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑃1
5.2.2 Initial dryness fraction of steam (x1) in separating calorimeter
𝑀 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑀+𝑚 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
5.2.3 Initial dryness fraction between states 1 and 2 using Separating and throttling calorimeter
𝑥2 𝑚2 𝑥2 = 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑥1 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑚2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
6 Ideal Gasses, real gasses and gas mixtures
6.1 Ideal gases
6.1.1 Ideal gases equation
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)

𝑉 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3 )
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐾)
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ( 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾)
𝑅̅ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅= =
𝑀 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑅̅ = 8314𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
6.1.2 Relationship between specific heat and gas constant
𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ( 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾)

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ( 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾)
6.1.3 Relationship between specific heats and adiabatic index (𝛾 )
𝐶𝑝
𝛾=
𝐶𝑣

6.1.4 Enthalpy and internal energy change for any gas and for any process:
∆𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑐𝑉 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 1 & 2 represents initial and final states
∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
6.1.5 Entropy change for any ideal gas and for any process
6.1.5.1 The general equation in terms of

𝑇2 𝑣
𝐶𝑣 , ⁄𝑇 , 2⁄𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅
1
𝑇2 𝑣2 1 & 2 represents initial and final states
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = [𝐶𝑣 ln + 𝑅 ln ] 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑇1 𝑣1
6.1.5.2 The general equation in terms of

𝑇2 𝑃
𝐶𝑝 , ⁄𝑇 , 2⁄𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅
1 1
𝑇2 𝑃2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = [𝐶𝑃 ln − 𝑅 ln ] 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑇1 𝑃1
6.1.6 Heat transfer during Polytropic process
(𝛾 − 𝑛) 𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑞𝑅 = [ 𝑅(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) ] 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
(𝛾 − 1) (𝑛 − 1)
6.2 Real gasses
6.2.1 Compressibility factor (Z)

𝑃𝑣
𝑍=
𝑅𝑇
6.2.2 Vander Waals equation
𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(𝑃 + ) (𝑣 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑏 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
6.2.3 Relationship between different reduced properties, pr, vr and Tr

3 𝑃
(𝑃𝑟 + ) (3 𝑣𝑟 − 1) = 8 𝑇𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑟 ) = ,
𝑣𝑟 2 𝑃𝑐
𝑣
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣𝑟 ) = ,
𝑣𝑐
𝑇
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑟 =
𝑇𝑐
𝑃𝑐 , 𝑣𝑐 , 𝑇𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

6.3 Non-reactive gas mixtures:
6.3.1 Mole fraction (𝑦𝑖 )
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑦𝑖 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑛𝑖
=
𝑛𝑚
6.3.2 Molecular weight of the mixture (Mm)
1.1.1 𝑖=𝑘
𝑀𝑚 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 ∗ 𝑀𝑖
𝑖=1
1.1.26.3.3 Internal energy, enthalpy and specific heats of gas mixture
1.1.3 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 + 𝑚3 𝑢3
𝑢𝑚 = [ ] 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
𝑚1 ℎ1 + 𝑚2 ℎ2 + 𝑚3 ℎ3
ℎ𝑚 = [ ] 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
𝑚1 𝑐𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑐𝑣2 + 𝑚3 𝑐𝑣3

𝐶𝑣𝑚 = [ ] 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
𝑚1 𝑐𝑝1 + 𝑚2 𝑐𝑝2 + 𝑚3 𝑐𝑝3

𝐶𝑝𝑚 = [ ] 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
6.3.4 Change in entropy of a gas mixture of gas mixture
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 i and f refers to initial and final states

𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆𝑖 = − [𝑚1 𝑅1 ln + 𝑚2 𝑅2 ln + 𝑚3 𝑅3 ln ]
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

MAT 2260: Engineering Mathematics - IV
Probability
Addition rule
If A and B are two events of an experiment having sample space S, then

P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B) .
The conditional probability of an event B, given that the event A already taken place is
P( A  B)
P( B / A)  , P( A)  0.
P( A)
Baye’s Theorem
Let B1 , B2 ,...Bk are the partitions of S with P( Bi )  0, i  1, 2,...k and A be any event of S, then
P( A / Bi ) P( Bi ) .
P( Bi / A)  k
 P( A / B ) P( B )
i 1
i i
𝑃(𝐴)𝑃(𝐵|𝐴), 𝑖𝑓 𝑃(𝐴) ≠ 0
The multiplicative rule of probability : 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {
𝑃(𝐵)𝑃(𝐴|𝐵), 𝑖𝑓 𝑃(𝐵) ≠ 0
If 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑃(𝐵), then A and B are independent.
Random Variable: Let S be the sample of space of a random experiment. Suppose with each
element s of S, a unique real number X is associated according to some rule then X is called random
variable. There are two types of random variable, i) Discrete and ii) Continuous.
Discrete Random Variable: A random variable X is said to be discrete, if the number of possible
values of X is finite or countably infinite. The probability distribution function (pdf) is named as
probability mass function (PMF). The Probability mass function is defined as, let X be a random
variable, hence the range space 𝑅𝑋 of consists of atmost a countably infinite number of values. The
probability mass function is defined as
𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) = Pr{𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 }, satisfying the conditions i) 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖
ii) ∑𝑘
𝑖=1 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) = 1.
Continuous Random Variable: A random variable X is said to be continuous if it can take all
possible values between certain limits, here the range space of X is infinite. Therefore the probability
distribution function named for such random variable is Probability density function (PDF), which is
defined as the pdf of X is a function 𝑓(𝑥) satisfying the following properties i) 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0
∞
ii) ∫
−∞
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =1
𝑏
iii) Pr{𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏} = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 for any a, b such that −∞ < 𝑎 < 𝑏 < ∞.
Note:
1. If X is a continuous random variable with pdf f(x), then

𝑏
𝑃(𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝑏) = 𝑃(𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 < 𝑏) = 𝑃(𝑎 < 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) = 𝑃(𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
2. 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑎) = 0, if X is a continuous random variable.
MAT 2260: Engineering Mathematics - IV 45

Cumulative distribution function: Let X be random variable (discrete or continuous), we define F to
be the cumulative distribution function of a random variable X given by 𝐹(𝑥) = Pr{𝑋 ≤ 𝑥}.
Case i) If X is discrete random variable then

𝐹(𝑡) = Pr{𝑋 ≤ 𝑡} = 𝑃(𝑥1 ) + 𝑃(𝑥2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑃(𝑡)
𝑥
Case ii) If x is a continuous random variable then 𝐹(𝑥) = Pr{𝑋 ≤ 𝑥} = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
Two dimensional random variable: Let E be an experiment and S be a sample space associated
with E. Let X=X(s) and Y=Y(s) be two functions each assigning a real number to each outcome s of S.
We call (X, Y) to be two dimensional random variable.
Discrete 2D: If the possible values of (X, Y) are finite or countably infinite then (X, Y) is called discrete
and it is defined as 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 ) satisfying the following condition,
i) 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 ) ≥ 0 and
ii) ∑∞ ∞
𝑗=1 ∑𝑖=1 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 ) = 1. The function 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 ) defined is called as Joint probability
distribution function (Jpdf).
Continuous 2D: If (X, Y) is a continuous random variable assuming all values in some region R of
the Euclidean plane, then the Joint probability density function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a function satisfying the
following conditions
i) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 for all (x, y)𝜖𝑅

ii) ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 1 over the region R.
Marginal Probability distribution: The marginal probability distribution is defined as
Case i) In the discrete (X, Y), it is defined as𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝑃{𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 } = ∑∞

𝑗=1 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 ) is the marginal
∞
probability distribution of X. Similarly 𝑞(𝑦𝑗 ) = 𝑃{𝑌 = 𝑦𝑗 } = ∑𝑖=1 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 ) is the marginal
probability distribution of Y.
Case ii) In the continuous (X, Y), it is defined as the marginal probability function of X is defined as
∞ ∞
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 and the marginal probability function of Y is defined as ℎ(𝑦) = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥.
To calculate the conditional probability:
𝑃(𝑥𝑖 ,𝑦𝑗 )
Case i) Discrete: Probability of 𝑥𝑖 given 𝑦𝑗 is defined as = , 𝑞(𝑦𝑗 ) > 0
𝑞(𝑦𝑗 )
𝑃(𝑥𝑖 ,𝑦𝑗 )
Probability of 𝑦𝑗 given 𝑥𝑖 is defined as = , 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) > 0
𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
Case ii) Continuous: The pdf of X for given Y=y is = , ℎ(𝑦) > 0
ℎ(𝑦)
𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
The pdf off Y for given X=x is = , 𝑔(𝑥) > 0.
𝑔(𝑥)
Independent Random variable: If X and Y are independent random variable then two dimensional
random variable in case of discrete is defined as 𝑃(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑗 ) = 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ). 𝑞(𝑦𝑗 ) for all the values of i and
j. In case of Continuous it is defined as 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑔(𝑥). ℎ(𝑦).
Mathematical Expectation: If X is a discrete random variable with pmf p(x), then the expectation of X
is given by 𝐸(𝑋) = ∑𝑥 𝑥𝑝(𝑥), provided the series is absolutely convergent.

If X is continuous with pdf f(x), then the expectation of X is given by 𝐸(𝑋) = ∫ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, provided
∫ |𝑥|𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 < ∞.
2
Variance of X is given by 𝑉(𝑋) = 𝐸(𝑋 − 𝐸(𝑋))2 = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − (𝐸(𝑋)) .
DISTRIBUTIONS
Distribution PMF/PDF Mean Variance
Binomial P( x)  Ck p (1  p)
n k n k
, k  0,1, 2,..., n E ( x)  np V ( x)  np(1  p)
distribution
X ~ B(n, p)
Poisson’s e k E ( x)    np V ( x)    np
Distribution P( x)  , k  0,1, 2,...,   0
X ~ P( ) k!
Uniform  1 ba (b  a)2
, a xb E ( x)  V ( x) 
f ( x)   b  a
Distribution
2 12
X ~ U (a, b) 
 0, otherwise
Normal
1
1 ( x   )2 E ( x)   V ( x)   2
Distribution f ( x)  e2 2
,    x ,   ,   0
X ~ N ( , 2 )  2
1
Exponential  e  x , x0 E ( x) 
1 𝑉(𝑋) =
Distribution f ( x)   𝜆2
X ~ E ( )  0, otherwise

Gamma  x r 1e x r E ( x) 
r
V ( x) 
r
, x  0,  , r  0
f ( x)   (r )
Distribution
X ~ G (r ,  )  2
 0, elsewhere
Chi-square  n
1 
x E ( x)  n V ( x)  2n
 x e
Distribution 2 2
, x0
X ~  2 ( n) f ( x)   n
 (n / 2)2 2
0,
 elsewhere
Uniform distribution on a two dimensional set: If R is a set in the two-dimensional plane, and R has a
finite area, then we may consider the density function equal to the reciprocal of the area of R inside R,
and equal to 0 otherwise:
1
; 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = {𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑅 .
0 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Chebyshev’s inequality:
Let x be random variable with mean  and variance  2 then for any positive real number k(k>0)
2
p X    k   (Upper bound)
k2
2
p X    k   1  (Lower bound)
k2

Note: some other forms
p X    k   p x    k   1 (Upper bound)
1
1. and
k2
p X     E ( x  c) 2 and p x     1
1
2.
2
Covariance:
Cov( X , Y )  E ( XY )  E ( X ) E (Y )
Correlation coefficient:
E ( XY )  E ( X ) E (Y )
 xy   
V ( X )V (Y )
Properties:
1. 𝐸(𝑐) = 𝑐, where c is a constant.
2. 𝑉(𝑐) = 0, where c is a constant.
3. If E ( XY )  0 then X and Y are orthogonal.
4. V ( AX  B)  A 2V ( X ) when AX+B is linear function of X.

5. If  xy  0 then X and Y are un correlated.
6. V ( AX  BY )  A2V ( X )  B 2V (Y )  2 ABCOV ( X , Y )
Regression:
If the straight line chosen such that the sum of the squares of errors parallel to y axis is minimum then
it is called line of regression of y on x and it gives the best estimate of y for any given value of x. It’s
given by
y y
y y ( x  x) , b yx   is the regression coefficient of Y on X
x x
Therefore y  y  byx ( x  x)
Similarly line of regression of x on y is given by
x x
xx  ( y  y) , bxy   is the regression coefficient of X on Y
y y
Therefore x  x  bxy ( y  y)
Note:
x x
2 2
 2
    E ( x 2 )  ( E ( x)) 2 is the variance of X
x
n  n 
 

Similarly
y y
2 2
 2
    E ( y 2 )  ( E ( y )) 2 is the variance of Y
y
n  n 
 
E ( xy )  E ( x) E ( y )

V ( x)V ( y )
Also,    bxy  b yx . The correlation coefficient is positive if the two regression coefficients are
positive, and negative if the two regression coefficients are negative.
FUNCTIONS OF ONE DIMENSIONAL RANDOM VARIABLES

Let 𝑆 be a sample space associated with a random experiment 𝐸, then it is known that a random variable
𝑋 on 𝑆 is a real valued function, i.e., : 𝑆 → 𝑅 , for each element s  S, there is a real number associated.
Let 𝑋 be a random variable defined on 𝑆. Let 𝑦 = 𝐻(𝑥) is a real valued function of 𝑥. Then 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is
a random variable on 𝑆. i.e., for each element s  S, there is a real number associated, say 𝑦 = 𝐻(𝑋(𝑠)).
Here 𝑌 is called a function of the random variable 𝑋.
Notations:
1. 𝑅𝑋 – the set of all possible values of the function 𝑋, called the range space of the random
variable 𝑋.
2. 𝑅𝑌 – the set of all possible values of the function 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋), called the range space of the
random variable 𝑌.
Equivalent Events: Let C be an event associated with the range space 𝑅𝑌 . Let 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑅𝑋 defined by 𝐵 =
{𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑋 ; 𝐻(𝑥) ∈ 𝐶}, then 𝐵 and 𝐶 are called equivalent events.
Distribution function of functions of random variables:
Case 1: Let 𝑋 be a discrete random variable with p.m.f. 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ) for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … Let 𝑌 =
𝐻(𝑋) then 𝑌 is also a discrete random variable. If 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is a one to one function then the probability
distribution of 𝑌 is as follows:
For the possible values of 𝑦𝑖 = 𝐻(𝑥𝑖 ) for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, …. The p.m.f. of 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is 𝑞(𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑃(𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 ) =
𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, ….
Case 2: Let 𝑋 be a discrete random variable with p.m.f. 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ) for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … Let 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋)
then 𝑌 is also a discrete random variable. Suppose tat for one value of 𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 there corresponds several
values of 𝑋 say 𝑥𝑖1 , 𝑥𝑖2 , … , 𝑥𝑖𝑗 , … then the p.m.f. of of 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is
𝑞(𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑃(𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 1 ) + 𝑝(𝑥𝑖2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑝 (𝑥𝑖𝑗 ) + ⋯
Case 3: Let 𝑋 be a continuous random variable with p.d.f. 𝑓(𝑥). Let 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) be a discrete random
variable. Then if the set {𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 } is equivalent to an event 𝐵 ⊆ 𝑅𝑋 then the p.m.f. of 𝑌 is
𝑞(𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑃(𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝐵
Case 4: Let 𝑋 be a continuous random variable with p.d.f. 𝑓(𝑥). Let 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) be a continuous random
variable. Then the p.d.f. of 𝑌, say 𝑔 is obtained by the following procedure:

Step 1: Obtain the c.d.f. of 𝑌, 𝐺(𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑌 = 𝑦), by finding the event
𝐴 ⊆ 𝑅𝑋 , which is equivalent to the event {𝑌 = 𝑦𝑖 }.
Step 2: Differentiate 𝐺(𝑦) with respect to 𝑦 to get 𝑔(𝑦).
Step 3: Determine those values of 𝑦 in 𝑅𝑌 for which 𝑔(𝑦) > 0.
Theorem: Let 𝑋 be a continuous random variable with p.d.f. 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.
Suppose that 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is strictly monotonic function on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then the p.d.f. of the random variable
𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is given by
𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) | |
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is strictly increasing then 𝑔(𝑦) > 0 for 𝐻(𝑎) < 𝑦 < 𝐻(𝑏).
If 𝑌 = 𝐻(𝑋) is strictly decreasing then 𝑔(𝑦) > 0 for 𝐻(𝑏) < 𝑦 < 𝐻(𝑎).
Theorem: Let 𝑋 be a continuous random variable with p.d.f. 𝑓(𝑥). Let 𝑌 = 𝑋 2 then the p.d.f. of 𝑌 is
1
𝑔(𝑦) = [𝑓(√𝑦) + 𝑓(−√𝑦) ]
2√𝑦
FUNCTIONS OF TWO DIMENSIONAL RANDOM VARIABLES

Let (𝑋, 𝑌) be a two dimensional continuous random variable. Let 𝑍 = 𝐻(𝑋, 𝑌) be a continuous function
of X and Y then 𝑍 = 𝐻(𝑋, 𝑌) is a continuous one dimensional random variable.
To find the p.d.f. of 𝑍, we introduce another suitable random variable say,
𝑊 = 𝐺(𝑋, 𝑌) and obtain the joint p.d.f. of the two dimensional random variable (𝑍, 𝑊), say 𝑘(𝑧, 𝑤). From
this distribution, the p.d.f. of 𝑍 can be obtained by integrating 𝑘 with respect to 𝑤.
Theorem: Suppose (𝑋, 𝑌) is a two dimensional continuous random variable with joint p.d.f. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
defined on a region 𝑅 of the XY-plane. Let 𝑍 = 𝐻1 (𝑋, 𝑌) and 𝑊 = 𝐻2 (𝑋, 𝑌). Suppose that 𝐻1 and 𝐻2
satisfies the following conditions;
(i) 𝑧 = 𝐻1 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑤 = 𝐻2 (𝑥, 𝑦) may be uniquely solved for 𝑥, 𝑦 in terms of 𝑧 & 𝑤 say,
𝑥 = 𝐺1 (𝑧, 𝑤) and 𝑦 = 𝐺2 (𝑧, 𝑤).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
(ii) The partial derivatives , , 𝜕𝑧 , 𝜕𝑤 exist and are continuous
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑤
Then the joint p.d.f. of (𝑍, 𝑊) say 𝑘(𝑧, 𝑤) is given by,
𝑘(𝑧, 𝑤) = 𝑓[𝐺1 (𝑧, 𝑤), 𝐺2 (𝑧, 𝑤)]|𝐽(𝑧, 𝑤)|

𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑤
where 𝐽(𝑧, 𝑤) = | 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
| is called the Jacobian of the transformation
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑤
(𝑥, 𝑦) ↦ (𝑧, 𝑤). Also, 𝑘(𝑧, 𝑤) > 0 for those values of (𝑧, 𝑤) corresponding to the values of (𝑥, 𝑦) for
which 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) > 0.

MOMENT GENERATING FUNCTION (M.G.F.) OF ONE DIMENSIONAL RANDOM
VARIABLES
Let 𝑋 be any one dimensional random variable then the mathematical expectation 𝐸(𝑒 𝑡𝑋 ) if exists then
it is called the moment generating function (m.g.f.) of 𝑋.
i.e., 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = 𝐸(𝑒 𝑡𝑋 )
In particular, if 𝑋 is discrete then, 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = ∑𝑖=∞

𝑖=1 𝑒
𝑡𝑥𝑖
𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ).
∞
If 𝑋 is continuous then, 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = ∫−∞ 𝑒 𝑡𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
Properties of m.g.f.: Let 𝑋 be any one dimensional random variable and 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) be the m.g.f. of 𝑋 then
1. 𝑀𝑋𝑛 (0) = 𝐸(𝑋 𝑛 ) where 𝑀𝑋𝑛 (0) is the nth derivative of 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) at 𝑡 = 0.
i.e.; 𝑀𝑋′ (0) = 𝐸(𝑋)
𝑀𝑋′′ (0) = 𝐸(𝑋 2 )
2
2. 𝑉(𝑋) = 𝑀𝑋′′ (0) − (𝑀𝑋′ (0))
3. Let 𝑋 be any one dimensional random variable and 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) be the m.g.f. of 𝑋. Let 𝑌 = 𝛼𝑋 + 𝛽.
Then the m.g.f. of 𝑌 is
𝑀𝑌 (𝑡) = 𝑒 𝛽𝑡 𝑀𝑋 (𝛼𝑡).
4. Suppose that 𝑋 and 𝑌 are independent random variables. Let 𝑍 = 𝑋 + 𝑌. Let 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡), 𝑀𝑌 (𝑡)
and 𝑀𝑍 (𝑡) be the m.g.f.’s of the random variables 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 respectively. Then
𝑀𝑍 (𝑡) = 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡)𝑀𝑌 (𝑡)
5. Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑛 be 𝑛 independent random variables which follows a normal distribution
𝑁(𝜇𝑖 , 𝜎𝑖2 ) for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . , 𝑛. Let 𝑍 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛 then
𝑍 → 𝑁(𝜇1 + 𝜇2 + ⋯ + 𝜇𝑛 , 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + ⋯ + 𝜎𝑛2 ).
6. Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑛 be 𝑛 independent random variables which follows a Poisson distribution with
parameter 𝛼𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . , 𝑛. Let 𝑍 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛 then 𝑍 has a Poisson distribution with
parameter
𝛼 = 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 .
7. Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑘 be 𝑘 independent random variables which follows a Chi-square distribution with
degrees of freedom 𝑛𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . , 𝑘. Let 𝑍 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑘 then 𝑍 has a Chi-square
distribution with degrees of freedom
𝑛 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑘 .
8. Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑘 be 𝑘 independent random variables, each having distribution 𝑁(0,1). Then 𝑆 =
𝑋12 + 𝑋22 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑘2 has a Chi-square distribution with degrees of freedom 𝑘.
9. Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑟 be 𝑟 independent random variables, each having exponential distribution with
the same parameter 𝛼. Let 𝑍 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑟 then 𝑍 has a Gamma distribution with
parameters 𝛼 and 𝑟.

10. Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑛 , … be a sequence of random variable with c.d.f.’s 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , … , 𝐹𝑛 , … and m.g.f.’s
𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , … , 𝑀𝑛 , … Suppose that lim 𝑀𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑀(𝑡), where 𝑀(0) = 1. Then 𝑀(𝑡) is the m.g.f. of
𝑛→∞
the random variable 𝑋 whose c.d.f is 𝐹 = lim 𝐹𝑛 (𝑡).

𝑛→∞
MGF of some standard distributions:
1. Binomial Distributions: 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = (𝑝𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑞)𝑛

𝑡 −1)
2. Poisson Distributions: 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = 𝑒 ∝(𝑒
𝜎2 𝑡2
𝑡𝜇+
3. Normal Distributions: 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = 𝑒 2
∝
4. Exponential Distributions: 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = ∝−𝑡
∝𝑟
5. Gamma Distributions: 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = (∝−𝑡)𝑟
6. Chi square Distributions: 𝑀𝑋 (𝑡) = (1 − 2𝑡)−𝑛⁄2
Sampling Theory
In statistical investigation, the characteristics of a large group of individuals (called population) is
studied. Sampling is a study of the relationship between a population and samples drawn from it.
The population mean and the population variance are denoted by 𝜇 and 𝜎 2 respectively.
Sample mean and sample variance: Let 𝑋 be the random variable which denotes the population
with mean 𝜇 and variance 𝜎 2 . Let (𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑛 ) be a random sample of size 𝑛 from 𝑋. Then,
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
̅
Sample mean, 𝑋 = and
𝑛
∑𝑛 ̅ 2
𝑖=1(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋)
Sample variance, 𝑠 2 = 𝑛
 If 𝑋 → 𝑁(𝜇, 𝜎 2 ) then 𝑋̅ and 𝑠 2 are independent random variables.

 Let 𝑋 be the random variable with 𝐸(𝑋) = 𝜇 and 𝑉(𝑋) = 𝜎 2 . Let (𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑛 ) be a random
𝜎 2
sample of size 𝑛 from 𝑋. Then, 𝐸(𝑋̅) = 𝜇 and 𝑉(𝑋̅) = .
𝑛
𝜎 2
 Let 𝑋 → 𝑁(𝜇, 𝜎 2 ) then 𝑋̅ → 𝑁(𝜇, ) and 𝑠 2 → 𝜒 2 (𝑛 − 1).
𝑛
Central Limit Theorem: Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑛 be 𝑛 independent random variables all of which have the
same distribution. Let 𝜇 = 𝐸(𝑋𝑖 ) and 𝜎 2 = 𝑉(𝑋𝑖 ) be the common expectation and variance. Let 𝑆 =
𝑆−𝐸(𝑆)
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 then 𝐸(𝑆) = 𝑛𝜇 and 𝑉(𝑆) = 𝑛𝜎 2 then for large values of 𝑛, the random variable 𝑇𝑛 = has
√𝑉(𝑆)
approximately the distribution 𝑁(0,1).
Curve fitting
Let y = f(x) be the curve to be fit with n set of points and Y = F(x) is actual values, then the estimated
error is 𝑒𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑌𝑖 .
i) Fitting a straight line: For a straight line 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, where a, b are the parameters, the normal
equations are to find a and b is given by

∑ 𝑌 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑋 + 𝑛𝑏
∑ 𝑋𝑌 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑋 2 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑋
ii) Fitting a Parabola: For a parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, the normal equations are given by
∑ 𝑌 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑋 2 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑋 + 𝑛𝑐
∑ 𝑋𝑌 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑋 3 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑋 2 + 𝑐 ∑ 𝑋
∑ 𝑋 2𝑌 = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑋 4 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑋 3 + 𝑐 ∑ 𝑋 2
iii) Fitting a curve of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝑥 , the normal equations are given by taking log on both
sides, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝑥 )
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥, Now consider 𝑌 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑦, 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝐵, 𝑋 = 𝑥.
Therefore equation is 𝑌 = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵.
Special functions
𝑥 1
1. Bessel function 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑∞ 𝑟
𝑟=0(−1) (2)
𝑛+2𝑟
𝑟! 𝛾(𝑛+𝑟+1)
2. Recurrence formula for 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)

𝑑
(i) (𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(ii) (𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)) = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
(iii) 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = 2𝑛 { 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)}
1
(iv) 𝐽𝑛 ′ (𝑥) = { 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥) − 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)}
2
′ 𝑛
(v) 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)
2𝑛
(vi) 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥) = 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)
𝑥
3. Orthogonality of Bessel’s function:
 0, 

1
0 xJ n ( x)J n ( x)dx   1 [ J n1 ( )]2    , where  ,  are the roots of J n ( x)  0

 2
4. The Bessel’s function of various orders can be derived as coefficients of different powers of t
1 t 1 
 t
x( ) n
in the expansion e 2 t
n 
J n ( x) , called as generating function of Bessel functions.
d2y dy
5. The differential equation of the form (1  x ) 2  2 x  n(n  1) y  0
2
is the
dx dx
Legendre’s equation whose general solution when n is a positive integer, is polynomial solution
and an infinite series solution. The polynomial solution is called Legendre’s polynomial of order
n and infinite series solution is called Legendre’s function of the second kind.

6. The Legendre’s polynomials are given by the Rodrigues formula as
1 dn 2
Pn ( x)  n n
( x  1)n
n !2 dx

1 
7. Generating function of (1  2 xt  t 2 ) 2
  t n Pn ( x)
n 0
8. Recurrence formulae for Pn ( x) :
(i) (n  1) Pn1 ( x)  (2n  1) xPn ( x)  nPn 1 ( x)
(ii) (n) Pn ( x)  xP 'n ( x)  P 'n1 ( x)

(iii) ( (2n  1) Pn ( x)  P 'n1 ( x)  P 'n1 ( x)
(iv) P 'n ( x)  xP 'n1 ( x)  nPn 1 ( x)

(v) (1  x2 ) P 'n ( x)  (n)[ Pn1 ( x)  xPn ( x)]

MME 2251: Dynamics of Machinery
1. Static Forces
1.1 Static Equilibrium
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 Mathematically, this can be stated as:

∑𝐹 = 0
∑𝑀 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 F = Forces (N)
M = Moments (Nm)
∑𝑀 = 0
2. Inertia Forces
2.1 Gas Force, Fg (N)
πD2 D = Diameter of the piston (m)

Fg = ×p p = Working fluid pressure or Gas pressure (N/m2)
4
2.2 Inertia Force, Fi (N)
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑚𝑟 = Mass of the reciprocating parts (kg)

Fi = 𝑚𝑟 𝜔2 𝑟 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ]
𝑛 ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
r = Radius of the crank in (m)
θ = Angular position of the crank from horizontal
reference (degrees)
n = Ratio of the length of connecting rod to crank
radius
2.3 Net piston effort, P (N)
Fg = Gas force (N)

P = Fg + Fi ± W Fi = Inertia force (N)
W = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)
2.4 Crank effort /Driving Torque, T (Nm)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
T = 𝑃𝑟 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + ] P = Net piston effort in N
2√𝑛2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
r = Radius of the crank (m)
reference (degrees)
radius
MME 2251: Dynamics of Machinery 55

2.5 Coefficient of fluctuation of energy, 𝐾𝑒
Ef 𝐸𝑓 = Max. fluctuation of energy (Nm)

Ke =
E 𝐸 = Work done per cycle (Nm)
2.6 Work done per cycle, E (Nm)
E = Tmean * θ
Tmean = Mean Torque (Nm)
θ = Angular position of the crank (radians)
OR
E = P * 60,000 / N P = Power (kW)

N = Revolutions per minute
2.7 Fluctuation of speed, 𝐾𝑠
𝜔1 −𝜔2
𝜔1 = 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Max. angular speed (rad/s)
𝐾𝑠 = 𝜔2 = 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Min. angular speed (rad/s)
𝜔0
𝜔0 = 𝜔𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = Mean angular speed (rad/s)
2.8 Maximum fluctuation of energy, 𝐸𝑓 (Nm)
1 2 1 I = Moment of Inertia (N-m-s2)

Ef = Iωmax − Iω2min
2 2 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Max. angular speed (rad/s)
𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Min. angular speed (rad/s)
OR
Ef = Iω2mean K s I = Moment of Inertia (N-m-s2)

𝜔𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = Mean angular speed (rad/s)
𝐾𝑆 = Fluctuation of speed (Unit less)
2.9 Mean kinetic energy, 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 (Nm)
1
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2
𝐼𝜔𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 I = Moment of Inertia (N-m-s2)
2
𝜔𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = Mean angular speed (rad/s)
OR
𝐾𝑒 𝐸
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2 𝐾𝑠
E = Work done per cycle (Nm)
K s = Fluctuation of speed (Unit less)
Ke = Coefficient of fluctuation of energy (Unit less)

2.10 Maximum fluctuation of energy for single cylinder I.C. Engine, 𝐸𝑓𝑠 (Nm)
𝐸𝑝𝑠 = Work done during the power stroke (Nm)

𝐸𝑓𝑠 = 𝐸𝑝𝑠 − 14 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Net work done during the cycle (Nm)
PUNCHING PRESS:
2.11 Work required per punching, Wp (Nm)
Wp = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑋
d = Diameter of the punch (cm)
OR t = Thickness of the plate (cm)

X = Work required per cm 2 of sheared area
(Nm/cm2)
1
𝑊𝑝 = ( 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜏𝑢 ) ∗ 𝑡 d = Diameter of the punch (cm)
2
t = Thickness of the plate (cm)
𝜏𝑢 = Ultimate shear strength of the plate (N/cm 2)
OR
𝑊𝑚 = Work supplied by motor (Nm)

𝑊𝑝 = 𝑊𝑚 + 𝑊𝑓 𝑊𝑓 = Work supplied by the fly wheel (Nm)
2.12 Power required for punching, Pw (kW)
Wp ∗ n 𝑊𝑝 = Work required per punching (Nm)

Pw = [ ]
60000 𝑛 = Number of holes punched per minute
2.13 Maximum fluctuation of energy, 𝐸𝑓 (Nm)
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑊𝑝 [1 − { 2
𝜃 − 𝜃1
}] 𝑊𝑝 = Work required per punching (Nm)
2𝜋 𝜃1 = Initial angular position of the crank (radians)
𝜃2 = Final angular position of the crank (radians)
OR

𝑡 𝑊𝑝 = Work required per punching (Nm)
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑊𝑝 [1 − ]
2𝑠
𝑡 = Thickness of the plate (cm)
𝑠 = Stroke length (cm)
3. Governors
3.1 Height of the Watt Governor, ℎ (m)
895
ℎ= h = Height of the governor (m)
𝑁2
N = Speed of fly ball in revolutions per minute
3.2 Speed of the Porter Governor, N (rpm)
895 2𝑚𝑔+(𝑀𝑔±𝑓)(1+𝑘)
𝑁2 = [ ]
ℎ 2𝑚𝑔
h = Height of the governor (m)
M = Mass of the sleeve (kg)
m = Mass of each ball (kg)
f = Force of friction at the sleeve (N)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
k = Ratio of tan β / tan θ
β = Angle of inclination of the lower link to vertical
(degrees)
θ = Angle of inclination of the upper link to vertical
(degrees)
3.3 Speed of the Proell Governor, N (rpm)
895 𝑎 2𝑚𝑔+(𝑀𝑔±𝑓)(1+𝑘)
𝑁2 = [ ]
ℎ 𝑒 2𝑚𝑔
a = Vertical distance of the lower arms (m)

e = Vertical distance from center of the fly balls to
sleeve (m)
m = Mass of each fly ball (kg)
f = Force of friction at the sleeve (N)
(degrees)
(degrees)

3.4 Spring stiffness of the Hartnell Governor, S (N/mm)
𝐹𝑠2 −𝐹𝑠1
𝑠= hL = lift of the sleeve (mm)
ℎ𝐿
Fs2 = spring force on sleeve at maximum radius (N)
OR Fs1= spring force on sleeve at minimum radius (N)
𝑎2 𝐹 −𝐹
𝑠 = 2 [( 2 ) ∗ ( 2 1)]
𝑏 𝑟 −𝑟 2 1
a = Length of the ball arm (mm)

b = Length of the sleeve arm (mm)
F2= Centrifugal force at maximum speed (N)
F1= Centrifugal force at minimum speed (N)
r2= Maximum radius of rotation (mm)
r1= Minimum radius of rotation (mm)
𝐸
3.5 Effort of a Porter Governor, (N)
2
𝐸 𝑐𝑔
2
= (1+𝑘) [2𝑚 + 𝑀(1 + 𝑘)]
c = Fractional increase of speed (Unit less)
m = Mass of each fly ball (kg)
(degrees)
(degrees)
𝐸
3.6 Effort of a Hartnell Governor, (N)
2
𝐸
= 𝑐(𝑀 ∗ 𝑔 + 𝐹𝑠 ) c = Fractional increase of speed (Unit less)
2
Fs = Spring force exerted on sleeve (N)
3.7 Power of a Porter Governor, P (Nm)

4𝑐 2
If 𝑘 = 1; 𝑃 = (𝑚 + 𝑀)𝑔ℎ [1 +2𝑐]

(degrees)
(degrees)
OR
𝑀 4𝑐2
If 𝑘 ≠ 1; 𝑃 = [𝑚 + 2
(1 + 𝑘)]𝑔ℎ [1 +2𝑐
]

k = Ratio of tan β / tan θ (Unit less)
(degrees)
(degrees)
4. Gyroscope
FOR AIRCRAFTS AND SHIPS:
4.1 Gyroscopic couple, C (Nm)
I = Mass moment of inertia (kg.m2)

m = Mass of rotating object (kg)
k = Radius of gyration (m)
C = (I ∗ ω ∗ ωp ) ω = Angular velocity of rotation (rad/s)
ωp = Angular velocity of precession (rad/s)
OR N = Revolutions per minute
V = Velocity of the aircraft/ship (m/s)
2𝜋𝑁 𝑉
C = ( m ∗ 𝑘2 ) ∗ [ ]∗ [𝑅] R = Turn Radius (m)
60

FOR PITCHING OF SHIPS:
4.2 Angular displacement, θ (radians)
𝜃 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 A = Pitch amplitude (radians)

ω0 = Angular velocity of S.H.M. (rad/s)
AND t = Time period of S.H.M. (seconds)
2𝜋
𝜔𝑜 =
𝑡
4.3 Angular velocity of precession, 𝜔𝑝 (rad/s)
𝜔𝑝 = 𝐴 𝜔𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 A = Pitch amplitude (radians)

t = Time period of S.H.M. (seconds)
4.4 Angular acceleration, 𝑎 (rad/s2)
𝑎 = −𝜔2𝑜 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 A = Pitch amplitude (radians)

t = Time period of S.H.M. (seconds)
FOR FOUR WHEELERS:

4.5 Gyroscopic couple, 𝐶𝑔𝑦 (Nm)
𝑉 2 1 lE = Moment of inertia of the engine (kg.m2)

𝐶𝑔𝑦 = (4𝐼𝑊 + 𝐺𝐼𝐸 ) ( ) Iw = Moment of inertia of the wheel (kg.m2)
3.6 𝑟𝑤 × 𝑅
V = Velocity of the vehicle (Km/h)
rw = Wheel radius (m)
R = Radius of the wheel track (m)
G = Engine to back axle gear ratio (Unit less)
4.6 Magnitude of reaction at each wheel due to gyroscopic couple, 𝑃𝑔 (N)
𝐶𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑔𝑦 = Gyroscopic couple (Nm)

Pg =
2𝑎 a = Wheel track width (m)
4.7 Couple due to centrifugal force, 𝐶𝑐𝑓 (Nm)
𝑊 𝑉2 W = Weight of the automobile (N)

𝐶𝑐𝑓 = ∗( )∗ℎ V = Velocity of the vehicle (m/s)
𝑔 𝑅
R = Radius of the wheel track (m)
h = Height of the C.G. of the automobile above
the ground (m)

4.8 Magnitude of reaction at each wheel due to centrifugal couple, 𝑄𝑐 (N)
𝐶𝑐𝑓 𝐶𝑐𝑓 = Couple due to centrifugal force (Nm)

Qc =
2𝑎 a = Wheel track width (m)
4.8 Magnitude of reaction at each inner wheel, 𝑅𝑖 (N)
𝑊 W = Weight of the automobile (N)

𝑅𝑖 = ↑ − 𝑃𝑔 ↓ − 𝑄𝑐 ↓
4 𝑃𝑔 = Reaction at each wheel due to gyroscopic
couple (N)
𝑄𝑐 = Reaction at each wheel due to centrifugal
couple (N)
4.9 Magnitude of reaction at each outer wheel, 𝑅𝑜 (N)

𝑅𝑜 = ↑ + 𝑃𝑔 ↑ + 𝑄𝑐 ↑
couple (N)
couple (N)
4.10 Condition for stability at inner wheels.

> 𝑃𝑔 + 𝑄𝑐
couple (N)
couple (N)
FOR TWO WHEELERS:

4.11 Couple due to centrifugal force, 𝐶𝑐𝑓 (Nm)
𝑊 𝑉2 W = Weight of the vehicle and its rider (N)

𝐶𝑐𝑓 = ∗ ∗ ℎ cos 𝜃 g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
𝑔 𝑅
V = Linear velocity of the vehicle (m/s)
R = Track radius (m)
Also rw = Wheel radius (m)
ωw = Angular velocity of wheels (rad/s)
V = rw * ωw h = Height of C.G. of the vehicle and the rider (m)
θ = Angle of heel OR Inclination of vehicle
to the vertical (degree)

4.12 Gyroscopic couple, 𝐶𝑔𝑦 (Nm)
V = Linear velocity of the vehicle (m/s)

𝑉2 R = Track radius (m)
𝐶𝑔𝑦 = (2𝐼𝑊 + 𝐼𝐸 𝐺) cos 𝜃
𝑅∗ 𝑟𝑤 rw = Wheel radius (m)
ωw = Angular velocity of wheels (rad/s)
Also ωe = Angular velocity of engine rotating parts
(rad/s)
𝜔𝑒 G = Gear ratio (Unit less)
𝐺= = Moment of inertia of the wheel (kg.m2)
𝜔𝑤 IW
IE = Moment of inertia of the engine (kg.m2)
4.13 Condition for stability.

𝐶𝑐𝑓 = Couple due to centrifugal force (Nm)
Ccf + Cgy = W ∗ h ∗ sin θ 𝐶𝑔𝑦 = Gyroscopic couple (Nm)
W = Weight of the automobile (N)
h = Height of C.G. of the vehicle and the rider (m)
5. Balancing
FOR ROTATING MASSES:
5.1 Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane.
𝑚1 = Disturbing mass (kg)

𝑚1 ∗ 𝑟1
𝑚2 = 𝑚2 = Balancing mass (kg)
𝑟2
𝑟1 = Radius of rotation of disturbing mass (m)
𝑟2 = Radius of rotation of balancing mass (m)
5.2 Balancing of several masses rotating in the same plane.

𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 + 𝑚4 𝑟4 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 = 0
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , 𝑚4 = Respective disturbing masses (kg)

𝑚𝑏 = Balancing mass (kg)
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , 𝑟4 = Radius of rotation of respective
disturbing masses (m)
𝑟𝑏 = Radius of rotation of the balancing
mass (m)

FOR RECIPROCATING MASSES:
5.3 Acceleration of the reciprocating parts of an I.C. engine, 𝛼𝑟𝑝 (m/s2)
cos 2𝜃 ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)

𝛼𝑟𝑝 = 𝜔2 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + )
𝑛 r = Radius of the crank in (m)
reference (degree)
radius (Unit less)
5.4 Force required to accelerate the parts, 𝐹𝑟𝑝 (N)
R = Weight of the reciprocating parts (N)

𝑅 2 𝑅 cos 2𝜃 ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
𝐹𝑟𝑝 = 𝜔 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝜔2 𝑟 r = Radius of the crank in (m)
𝑔 𝑔 𝑛
reference (degree)
radius (Unit less)
5.5 Un-balanced force along the line of stroke, 𝐹𝑎𝑙 (N)
𝑅 R = Weight of the reciprocating parts (N)

𝐹𝑎𝑙 = (1 − 𝑐) 𝜔2 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
𝑔
reference (degree)
c = Fraction of reciprocating masses balanced
(Unit less)
5.6 Un-balanced force perpendicular to the line of stroke, 𝐹𝑝𝑝 (N)
𝑅 R = Weight of the reciprocating parts (N)

𝐹𝑝𝑝 = (𝑐) 𝜔2 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
𝑔
reference (degree)
(Unit less)

5.7 Condition for overall balancing.
R = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)

𝐵∗ 𝑏 =W𝑟+𝑐𝑅𝑟 W = Weight of the revolving mass (N)
B = Weight of the balancing mass (N)
OR r = Radius of the crank in (m)
𝐵 ∗ 𝑏 = (W + 𝑐 𝑅) 𝑟 (Unit less)
b = Radius of rotation of the balancing mass (m)
FOR RECIPROCATING MASSES IN V-ENGINES:

5.8 Vertical component of primary disturbing force, 𝐹𝑝𝑣 (N)
2𝑅 2 R = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)

𝐹𝑝𝑣 = 𝜔 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 r = Radius of the crank in (m)
𝑔
ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
θ = Inclination of the crank from vertical
reference (degree)
𝛼 = Inclination of the line of stroke of the piston
with vertical reference (degree)
5.9 Horizontal component of primary disturbing force, 𝐹𝑝ℎ (N)
2𝑅 2 R = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)

𝐹𝑝ℎ = 𝜔 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 r = Radius of the crank in (m)
𝑔
reference (degree)
5.10 Overall primary force, 𝐹𝑝𝑜 (N)
2 + 𝐹2
𝐹𝑝𝑣 = Vertical component of primary disturbing
𝐹𝑝𝑜 = √𝐹𝑝𝑣 𝑝ℎ force (N)
𝐹𝑝ℎ = Horizontal component of primary disturbing
force (N)

5.11 Vertical component of secondary disturbing force, 𝐹𝑠𝑣 (N)
2𝑅 2 𝑟 R = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)

𝐹𝑠𝑣 = 𝜔 cos 2 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 r = Radius of the crank in (m)
𝑔 𝑛
reference (degree)
radius (Unit less)
5.12 Horizontal component of secondary disturbing force, 𝐹𝑠ℎ (N)
2𝑅 2 𝑟 R = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)

𝐹𝑠ℎ = 𝜔 sin 2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 r = Radius of the crank in (m)
𝑔 𝑛
reference (degree)
radius (Unit less)
5.13 Overall secondary force, 𝐹𝑠𝑜 (N)
𝐹𝑠𝑣 = Vertical component of secondary disturbing

2 + 𝐹2
𝐹𝑠𝑜 = √𝐹𝑠𝑣 𝑠ℎ force (N)
𝐹𝑠ℎ = Horizontal component of secondary disturbing
force (N)
FOR DIRECT AND REVERSE CRANK METHOD OF BALANCING:
5.14 Primary force due to each direct (or reverse) crank, 𝐹𝑝−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑝−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 ) (N)
𝑅 R = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)

𝐹𝑝−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = [2𝑔] 𝜔2 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Also ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
𝑅
𝐹𝑝−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = [2𝑔] 𝜔2 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 reference (degree)

5.15 Secondary force due to each direct (or reverse) crank, 𝐹𝑠−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑠−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 ) (N)
𝑅 𝑟 R = Weight of the reciprocating mass (N)

𝐹𝑠−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = [ ] 𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝑔 𝑛 r = Radius of the crank in (m)
Also ω = Angular velocity (rad/s)
𝑅 𝑟
𝐹𝑠−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = [2𝑔] 𝜔2 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 reference (degree)
radius (Unit less)
5.16 Maximum primary (or secondary) force, 𝐹𝑝−𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑠−𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) (N)
𝐹𝑝−𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹𝑝−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 + 𝐹𝑝−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑝−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = Primary force due to each direct crank (N)
𝐹𝑝−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = Primary force due to each reverse crank (N)
Also 𝐹𝑠−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = Secondary force due to each direct crank (N)
𝐹𝑠−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = Secondary force due to each reverse crank (N)
𝐹𝑠−𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹𝑠−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 + 𝐹𝑠−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
5.17 Minimum primary (or secondary) force, 𝐹𝑝−𝑚𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑠−𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) (N)
𝐹𝑝−𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐹𝑝−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 − 𝐹𝑝−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑝−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = Primary force due to each direct crank (N)
𝐹𝑝−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = Primary force due to each reverse crank (N)
Also 𝐹𝑠−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 = Secondary force due to each direct crank (N)
𝐹𝑠−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = Secondary force due to each reverse crank (N)
𝐹𝑠−𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐹𝑠−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 − 𝐹𝑠−𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒

MME 2252: Fluid Mechanics
1. Properties of Fluids
1.1 Mass density or Specific mass (kg/m 3)
𝑀 M = Mass (kg)
𝜌= 𝑉 V = Volume (m3)
For water at 4oC, ρ = 1000 kg/m 3
For air at 15oC at sea level, ρ = 1.22 kg/m3
1.2 3
Specific weight or Weight density (N/m )
𝑊 W = Weight (N)
𝛾= = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉 𝑉 = Volume (m3)
 = Density (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
1.3 Specific gravity or Relative density
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ρstandard fluid = ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
𝑆=𝜌
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 S = 1 (for water at 4oC)
S = 13.6 (for mercury)
1.4 Specific volume (m 3/ kg)
𝑉 M = Mass (kg)
𝑣=𝑀
𝑉 = Volume (m3)
1.5 Newton’s law of viscosity

𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢  = Shear stress (N/m 2)
𝜇 = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
𝑑𝑢
= Rate of shear strain or velocity gradient (/s)
𝑑𝑦
1.6 Ostwald-De Waele model
𝑑𝑢 𝑛  = Shear stress (N/m 2)
𝜏 = 𝑚 (𝑑𝑦 )
𝑚 = Flow behavior index
n = Flow consistency index
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
1.7 Ideal plastic fluid

𝑑𝑢 𝜏 = Shear stress (N/m2)
𝜏=𝜇 + 𝜏0
𝑑𝑦 𝜏0 = Initial yield stress value (N/m 2)
𝜇 = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m 2)
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
1.8 Effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids

1 o = Viscosity of liquid at 0oC = 1.79×10-3 P
𝜇(𝑡) = 𝜇0 ( )
1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2 𝛼 = 0.03368, 𝛽 = 0.000221
𝑡 = Temperature (oC)
1.9 Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases

𝜇(𝑡) = 𝜇0 + 𝛼𝑡 − 𝛽𝑡 2 o = Viscosity of liquid at 0oC = 0.000017 P
α = 56×10-9, β = 0.1189×10-9
𝑡 = Temperature (oC)
MME 2252: Fluid Mechanics 68

1.10 Kinematic viscosity (m 2/s)
𝜇  = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
𝜈=
𝜌  = Mass density (kg/m3)
1.11 Relationship between pressure and surface tension

For a liquid jet pi = Inside pressure (N/m 2)
2𝜎 𝑝𝑜 = Outside pressure (N/m2)
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜 ) =
𝐷 𝐷 = Diameter of droplet / jet / bubble (m)
𝜎 = Surface tension (N/m)
For a liquid droplet
4𝜎
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜 ) =
𝐷
For a hollow bubble

8𝜎
(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜 ) =
𝐷
1.12 Expression for capillary rise or depression
4𝜎 cos 𝜃 h = Capillary raise or depression
ℎ= 𝜎 = Surface tension (N/m)
𝜌𝑔𝑑
θ = Angle of contact (o)
ρ = Mass density (kg/m 3)
d = Diameter of capillary tube (m)
1.13 Bulk modulus (N/m 2) and Compressibility (m2/N)
∆𝑃 𝐾 = Bulk modulus (N/m2)
𝐾 = −( )𝑉 ∆𝑃 = Change in pressure (N/m2)
∆𝑉
∆𝑉
1 = Volumetric strain
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉
𝐾 𝑉 = Volume (m3)
Kwater = 2×106 kN/m2
Kair = 101 kN/m2 (at STP)
1.14 Thermodynamic properties of fluids
The equation of state for perfect gas

𝑝 R = Gas constant for air = 287 J/kgK
= 𝑅𝑇
𝜌 p = Absolute pressure (N/m 2)
ρ = Mass density (kg/m 3)
For isothermal process T = Absolute temperature (oK)
𝑝 K = Bulk modulus (N/m2)
= constant
𝜌 𝑘= Ratio of specific heat of gas at constant pressure to
p=K that at constant volume
For adiabatic process

𝑝
= constant
𝜌𝑘
𝑝𝑘 = 𝐾

2. Fluid Statics
2.1 Pascal’s law
x = y = z = - p x , y and z = Normal stresses in the x, y and z direction

respectively
p = hydrostatic pressure or thermodynamic pressure
2.2 Hydrostatic law
Differential form p = Absolute pressure (N/m 2)
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 po = Atmospheric pressure (N/m2)
= 0, = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = −𝜌𝑔  = Density (kg/m3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
h = Depth of the point of interest below the free surface of
Integral form liquid (m)
 = Specific weight (N/m3)
p – po =  g h =  h
2.3 Relationship between absolute and gauge/vacuum pressure
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = Absolute pressure (N/m2)
𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = Gauge pressure (N/m2)
𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = Atmospheric pressure (N/m2)
𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐 = Vacuum pressure (N/m2)
3. Hydrostatic Pressure Forces on Submerged Surfaces

3.1 Force exerted by fluid on an immersed plane surface (N)
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ 𝜌 = Density of fluid (kg/m 3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)
𝐴 = Area of plane surface (m2)
ℎ̅ = Vertical depth of the centroid of the surface below the free surface of
fluid (m)
3.2 Depth of center of pressure of an immersed inclined surface below free surface of fluid (m)
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 ℎ∗ = Depth of the center of pressure below the free surface of fluid (m)
ℎ∗ = + ℎ̅ ̅ = Depth of the centroid of the surface below the free surface of fluid (m)
𝐴ℎ̅ ℎ
A = Area of the plane surface (m 2)
 = Inclination of the plane surface with the free surface of fluid ( o )
IG = Area moment of inertia of the plane surface about an axis parallel to
free surface of fluid, and passing through the centroid (m 4)
3.3 Total hydrostatic pressure force acting on the curved surface
Fx =  g h Ax Fx = Total pressure force acting on a projected area Ax of the curved
Fy =  g V surface on a vertical plane, normal to the x axis (N)
Fy = Total weight of the fluid column supported vertically above the
𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 curved surface, till the free surface of fluid (N)
 = Density of the fluid (kg/m3)
𝐹𝑦 h = Depth of the centroid of the projected area Ax below the free surface
tan ∅ =
𝐹𝑥 of fluid (m)
V = Volume of the liquid column supported above the curved surface till
the free surface of fluid (m3)
F = Resultant hydrostatic pressure force acting on curved surface (N)
 = Inclination of the resultant hydrostatic force with the x axis ( o )
4. Buoyancy, Floatation and its Stability
4.1 Buoyant force (N)
FB =  g V FB = Buoyant force (N)
 = Density of the fluid (kg/m3)
V = Volume of the fluid displaced by partially or fully immersed body (m3)
4.1 Net weight of body submerged in fluid (N)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝐴 − 𝐹𝐵 Wnet = Net weight of the partially or fully immersed body (N)
WA = Weight of the body when in air (N)
FB = Buoyant force (N)
4.2 Meta centric height (m)

GM = BM - BG GM = Meta centric height (m)
BM = Meta centric radius (m)
BG = Distance between Center of buoyancy and Center of gravity (m)
4.3 Metacentric height (Analytical method)

𝐼𝑦𝑦 GM = Meta centric height (m)
𝐺𝑀 = − 𝐵𝐺 Iyy = Area moment of inertia of plane of floatation about rolling axis (m 4)
𝑉
V = Volume of fluid displaced by the partially submerged body (m 3)
BG = Distance between Center of buoyancy and Center of gravity (m)
4.4 Metacentric height (Experimental method)

𝑤1 𝑥  = Angle of heel / tilt ( o )
𝐺𝑀 = ( ) [ ]
𝑊 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃) GM = Meta centric height (m)
𝑤1 = Weight of small mass moved on the deck of the ship (N)
𝑊 = Weight of the ship alone (kg)
x = Distance of movement of w1 (m)
4.5 Time period of oscillation of floating body
T = Time period of oscillation (s)
𝑟𝑔2 rg = Radius of gyration (m)
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐺𝑀 . 𝑔 GM = Meta centric height (m)
5. Fluid Kinematics
5.1 Velocity field
V = fv (x, y, z, t) V = Resultant velocity (m/s)

Vector representation: u, v and w = Fv (x, y, z, t) = Scalar components of velocity
in x, y and z directions respectively (m/s)
⃗ = 𝑢𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑗̂ + 𝑤𝑘̂
𝑉 x, y, z = Space coordinates (m)
Magnitude of velocity: t = Time (s)
|𝑉| = √(𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 ) 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ = Unit vectors along x, y and z axes
respectively

5.2 Acceleration field
A = fA (x, y, z, t) A = Resultant acceleration (m/s2)

Vector representation: ax, ay and az = FA (x, y, z, t) = Scalar components of
acceleration in x, y and z directions respectively (m/s2)
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂
x, y, z = Space coordinates (m)
Magnitude of acceleration: t = Time (s)
|𝐴| = √(𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 + 𝑎𝑧2 ) 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ = Unit vectors along x, y and z axes
respectively
5.3 Total acceleration or substantial acceleration or material acceleration:
𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 u, v and w = Scalar components of velocity in x, y and z

𝑎𝑥 = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 directions respectively (m/s)
𝐷𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 t = Time (s)
𝑎𝑦 = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑧 = Total acceleration along x, y, z directions
𝐷𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 (m/s2)
𝑎𝑧 = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
5.4 Continuity equation
Differential form: u, v and w = Scalar components of velocity in x, y and z

𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤) directions respectively (m/s)
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧  = Density of fluid (kg/m3)
𝜌1 , 𝜌2 = Density at section 1 and section 2 (kg/m 3)
Integral form (for 1-D flow): 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 = Area at section 1 and section 2 (m 2)
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 = Average velocity at section 1 and section 2 (m/s)
5.5 Equation of streamline
⃗ × 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑉 ⃗ = Velocity vector (m/s)
𝑉
For 2D flow: 𝑑𝑠 = vector element along stream line (m)
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑢, 𝑣 = Scalar components of velocity along x and y
= directions respectively (m/s)
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
5.6 Linear strain in the fluid element
𝜕𝑢 𝜖𝑥̇ , 𝜖𝑦̇ and 𝜖𝑧̇ = Linear strain rates of fluid element along
𝜖𝑥̇ =
𝜕𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions respectively
𝜕𝑣 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 = Scalar components of velocity in x, y and
𝜖𝑦̇ =
𝜕𝑦 z directions respectively (m/s)
𝜕𝑤
𝜖𝑧̇ =
𝜕𝑧

5.7 Angular deformation in the fluid element
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝛾𝑥𝑦̇ , 𝛾𝑦𝑧̇ and 𝛾𝑧𝑥̇ = Angular deformation of fluid element

𝛾𝑥𝑦̇ ≈ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 about the 𝑧, 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes respectively.
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 = Scalar components of velocity in 𝑥, 𝑦 and
𝛾𝑦𝑧̇ ≈ +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 directions respectively (m/s)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝛾𝑧𝑥̇ ≈ +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
5.8 Rotation of fluid element
1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 x, y and z = Rotation components of fluid element

𝜔𝑥 = ( − )
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 about 𝑥 , 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes respectively
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 = Scalar components of velocity in in 𝑥, 𝑦
𝜔𝑦 = ( − )
2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 and 𝑧 directions respectively (m/s)
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = ( − )
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
5.9 Stream function
𝜕 𝜕 𝑢 and 𝑣 = Scalar components of velocity in 𝑥 and 𝑦

𝑢 = 𝜕𝑦 and 𝑣 = −
𝜕𝑥 directions respectively (m/s)
 = f (𝑥 , 𝑦, t) = Stream function
OR
𝜕 𝜕
𝑢 = − 𝜕𝑦 and 𝑣 = 𝜕𝑥
5.10 Velocity potential function

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 = Scalar components of velocity in 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑢 = − 𝜕𝑥 , 𝑣 = − 𝜕𝑦 , 𝑤 = − 𝜕𝑧
and 𝑧 directions respectively (m/s)
OR  = f (𝑥 , 𝑦, 𝑧, t) = Velocity potential function
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢= 𝜕𝑥
, 𝑣 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝑤 = 𝜕𝑧
6. Fluid Dynamics
6.1 Euler’s equation of motion
𝑑𝑝 𝜌 = Density of the fluid (kg/m3)

+ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
𝜌
𝑉 = Velocity of the flow (m/s)
𝑝 = Pressure (N/m2)
𝑧 = Vertical height from a reference datum (m)

6.2 Bernoulli’s equation
𝑝
𝑝 𝑉2 = Pressure head (m)
+ + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜌𝑔
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑉2
= Kinetic head (m)
2𝑔
𝑧 = Datum or potential head (m)
6.3 Impulse momentum equation
𝐹. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑(𝑚𝑉) 𝐹 = Impulsive force acting on the fluid element (N)

dt = Impulse duration (s)
𝑚 = Mass of the fluid element (kg)
V = Velocity of the fluid element (m/s)
6.4 Principle of conservation of linear momentum
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚̇(𝑑𝑉) ∑ 𝐹= Net force acting on fluid (N)

dV = Change in velocity (m/s)
𝑚̇ = Q = mass flow rate (kg/s)
where,  = Density of fluid (kg/m 3) and
Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)
7. Fluid Flow Measurement

7.1 Flow rate through Venturimeter
𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 𝑎2 √2𝑔ℎ Qact = Actual flow rate (m 3/s)

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄𝑡ℎ = Qth = Theoretical flow rate (m 3/s)
√𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 2 Cd = Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter
𝑎1 and 𝑎2 = Cross sectional areas at the inlet and
throat of the Venturimeter (m 2)
h = Static pressure head (for horizontal Venturimeter)
or Piezometric head (for inclined Venturimeter) (m)
7.2 Rate of flow through Orifice meter
𝐶𝑑 𝑎1 𝑎𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ Qact = Actual flow rate (m 3/s)

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = Cd = Coefficient of discharge for the Orificemeter.
√𝑎1 2 − 𝑎𝑜 2
𝑎1 2 − 𝑎𝑜 2
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 √ 2
𝑎1 2 − 𝐶𝑐2 𝑎𝑜
𝑎𝑜 = Area of cross section of orifice (m 2)
𝑎1 = Area of cross section of inlet (m 2)
𝐶𝑐 = Coefficient of contraction

7.3 Stagnation pressure
𝜌𝑉12 p1 = Static pressure (N/m2)

𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 2 p2 = Stagnation pressure (N/m 2)
 = Density of fluid (kg/m3)
V1 = Velocity of fluid flow (m/s)
7.4 Velocity of flow through a Pitot tube
2(𝑝2 −𝑝1 ) Vth = Theoretical velocity of fluid flow (m/s)

𝑉𝑡ℎ = √ 𝜌
= √2𝑔ℎ Vact = Actual velocity of fluid flow (m/s)
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑡ℎ Cv = Coefficient of pitot tube
p1 = Static pressure (N/m2)
p2 = Stagnation pressure (N/m 2)
 = Density of fluid (kg/m3)
h = Differential pressure head between static and
stagnation points (m)
7.5 Discharge through rectangular notch or weir

2 3 H = Head of water over the crest (m)
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐿𝐻 2 √2𝑔
3 L = Length of the notch or weir (m)
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge of rectangular notch or
weir
7.6 Discharge through V - notch or weir

5
8 𝜃 Cd = Co-efficient of discharge of V- notch or weir
𝑄= 𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝐻 2 √2𝑔
15 𝑑 2 𝜃 = Angle of notch or weir ( o )
H = Head of water above the V - notch or weir
8. Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

8.1 Reynolds number
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐷 V = Characteristic velocity (m/s)
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜇  = Density of the fluid (kg/m 3)
D = Characteristic diameter (m)
 = Surface tension (N/m)
L = Characteristic length (m)
p = Pressure (N/m2)
C = Speed of sound (m/s)
𝜇 = Viscosity of fluid (Ns/m 2)
8.2 Froude number
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑉
𝐹𝑒 = √ =
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 √𝐿𝑔

8.3 Euler Number
𝐸𝑢 = √ =
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
√𝑝⁄𝜌
8.4 Weber number
𝑊𝑒 = √ =
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
√𝜎⁄𝜌𝐿
8.5 Mach number
𝑀=√ =
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐶
9. Viscous Flow
9.1 Flow of viscous fluid through a circular pipe:
9.1.1 Shear stress distribution

 p  r 
 = Shear stress (N/m2)
       max = Maximum shear stress (N/m2)
 x  2 
r = Radial distance which can vary from 0
to radius of pipe R (m)
9.1.2 Velocity distribution D = Diameter of the pipe (m)
L = Length of the pipe (m)
 1   p 
u       R2  r 2  Q = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)
 4   x  p1 and p2 = Pressure intensities at sections
1 and 2
9.1.3 Volume flow rate p = Pressure drop (N/m 2)
𝜋 𝜕𝑝 p
= Pressure gradient (N/m 3)
𝑄= (− ) 𝑅 4 x
8𝜇 𝜕𝑥
 = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
9.1.4 Drop of pressure over a given length of pipe hf = Drop of pressure head or head lost
(Hagen-Poiseuille formula) due to friction (m)
ρ = Density of fluid (kg/m 3)
32uL 128QL g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81
p   p2  p1    m/s2
D2  D4
u = Velocity at radial distance r (m/s)
p 32 uL 128QL
hf    u = Average velocity (m/s)
 g  gD 2  g D 4 FD = Total drag force (N)
9.1.5 The total drag force on the pipe of length L

FD   max  2 RL 

9.2 Flow of viscous fluid between two fixed parallel plates:
9.2.1 Shear stress distribution:
 1  p 
 = Shear stress (N/m2)
       t  2 y   max = Maximum shear stress (N/m2)
 2  x 
t = Gap between the plates
9.2.2 Velocity distribution:
y = Normal distance from one of the fixed
 1   p 
   ty  y 
plate
u   2
 2   x  (0 ≤ y ≤ t)
p
9.2.3 Volume flow rate per unit width = Pressure gradient (N/m 3)
x
1 𝜕𝑝 3 u = Velocity at distance y (m/s)
𝑄=− ( )𝑡
12𝜇 𝜕𝑥 u = Average velocity (m/s)
9.2.4 Drop in pressure for a length L of plates (Couette p = Pressure drop (N/m 2)
flow) p1 and p2 = Pressure intensities at sections
1 and 2
12uL
p   p1  p2  
L = Length of the plates (m)
t2  = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m 2)
hf = Drop of pressure head or head lost
p 12uL 12 LQ
hf    due to friction (m)
 g  gt 2  gbt 3 b = Width of the plates (m)
ρ = Density of fluid (kg/m 3)
9.2.5 The total drag force on the plates of length L per g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81
unit width m/s2
FD   max  2L 
9.3 Power required to maintain a laminar flow between two sections 1 and 2
P   p2  p1  Q P = Power (W)
p1 and p2 = Pressure intensities at sections
1 and 2 (N/m2)
Q = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)
10. Flow Through Pipes

10.1 Reynolds number (for flow through circular pipe)
𝜌𝑉𝐷  = Density of fluid (kg/m3)
𝑅𝑒 = V = Average velocity of flow (m/s)
𝜇
D = Diameter of pipe (m)
 = Dynamic viscosity of fluid (Ns/m 2)
10.2 Major pressure loss in flow through pipes:
10.2.1 Fanning friction factor or Skin friction Cf = Fanning friction factor or Skin friction
coefficient coefficient
1⁄ (𝐷ℎ ) ∆𝑝∗ hf = Head lost due to friction (m)
𝜏𝑤 4 𝐿
𝐶𝑓 = = w = Wall shear stress resistance to flow (N/m 2)
1 2 1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑉 Dh =
4𝐴
= Hydraulic diameter (m)
1 ℎ𝑓 𝑆
=( ) where, A = Area of cross section of flow (m 2)
4 𝐿 𝑉2
( )( ) S = Wetted perimeter (m)
𝐷ℎ 2𝑔
For circular pipe, Dh = D = pipe diameter (m)
10.2.2 Head lost due to friction  = Density of fluid (kg/m3)
V = Average velocity of flow (m/s)
∆𝑝∗ 4𝐶𝑓 𝐿𝑉 2 L = Length of pipe (m)
ℎ𝑓 = =
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔𝐷ℎ p* = Piezo metric pressure drop over length L
(N/m2)
10.2.3 Darcy-Weisbach equation (if pipe is horizontal, p* = static pressure drop,
p)
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷ℎ f = Friction factor
10.2.4 Relationship between f and Cf
ℎ𝑓
𝑓 = 4𝐶𝑓 =
𝐿 𝑉2
( )( )
𝐷ℎ 2𝑔
10.3 Friction factor

10.3.1 For laminar flow (for Re < 2000) f = Friction factor
Re = Reynold’s number
64  = Roughness factor
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
10.3.2 For turbulent flow (Re > 2000)
𝑓 = 𝜑(𝑅𝑒, 𝜀)
10.4 Fig. 10.1 gives the Moody’s chart which is a plot of curves between friction factor f and relative
roughness  / D. It is used for finding the friction factor for circular pipes with smooth and rough
walls.
10.4 Minor pressure losses in flow through pipes:
10.4.1 Head lost due to sudden enlargement V = Average velocity of flow (m/s)
(V1  V2 ) 2 V1 and V2 = Velocity of flow immediately before
he  and after the enlargement/contraction of pipe
2g (m/s)
Vo = Exit velocity (m/s)
10.4.2 Head lost due to sudden contraction
kb = Coefficient of bend
kV2 2
ho  kob = Coefficient of obstruction
2g kfit = Coefficient of pipe fittings
 1 
2 g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
where, k    1
 Cc 
Area at vena contracta
Cc 
Area after contraction
If Cc is not known, take k = 0.5
10.4.3 Head lost due to entrance at a pipe

0.5V2 2
hi 
2g

10.4.4 Head lost due to exit from the pipe
Vo 2
ho 
2g
10.4.5 Head lost due to bend in the pipe

kbV 2
hb 
2g
10.4.6 Head lost due to a pipe fitting

k fitV 2
h fit  2
2g  A  a
where, kob    1 and Cc  c
 c
C ( A  a )  ( A  a)
10.4.7 Head lost due to an obstruction in the A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m ) 2
pipe a = Maximum area of obstruction (m2)
kobV 2 ac = Cross sectional area at vena contracta (m2)
hob 
2g
10.5 Power lost due to frictional losses (kW)

𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎ𝑓 ρ = Fluid density (kg/m 3)
𝑃= g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
1000
Q = Discharge through pipe (m 3)
ℎ𝑓 = Head loss due to friction (m)
Fig 10.1 The Moody chart for pipe friction with smooth and rough walls
(Source: Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young and Teodore H. Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley)

11. Boundary Layer Theory
11.1 Reynold’s number (for a flat plate)
Ux Rex = Reynold’s number at a distance x from the

Rex  leading edge

 = Density of the fluid (kg/m 3)
Critical Reynold’s number (for a flat U = Free stream velocity of fluid (m/s)
plate) x = Distance from the leading edge of the plate (m)
ReCr = 5 × 105  = Absolute viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m 2)
ReCr = Critical Reynold’s number
11.2 Shear stress on solid surface
 u  o = Shear stress at solid surface (N/m 2)

o      = Absolute viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m 2)
 y  y 0  u 
  = Velocity gradient at solid surface ( /s)
 y  y  0
11.3 Compensation boundary layer thicknesses

Displacement thickness * = Displacement thickness (m)

 u  = Momentum thickness (m)
 *   1  dy ** = Energy thickness (m)
0 U
 = Boundary layer thickness (m)
Momentum thickness u = Velocity of a fluid layer at a distance y from solid
 surface (m/s)
u  u 
    1  dy U = Free stream velocity of fluid (m/s)
0 U  U 
Energy thickness
u 
  u 2 
 **    1    dy
0U   U  
11.4 Von Karman momentum integral equation
o  o = Shear stress at solid surface (N/m 2)


U 2 x  = Density of the fluid (kg/m 3)
U = Free stream velocity of fluid (m/s)
 = Momentum thickness (m)
11.5 Total drag force

L FD = Total drag force on a plate on one side (N)
FD    o b dx o = Shear stress at solid surface (N/m 2)
0
L = Length of the plate along the direction of flow (m)
b = Width of the flat plate (m)

11.6 Local coefficient of drag
o CDx = Local coefficient of drag at distance x from the

CD x 
2 U
1 2 leading edge of the flat plate
o = Shear stress at solid surface (N/m 2)
11.7 Average coefficient of drag
FD CDL = Average coefficient of drag over the entire

CD L 
2 U A
1 2
length L of the flat plate
FD = Total drag force on one side of the plate (N)
A = Area of the flat plate (m2)
11.8 Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer
4.91 x  = Boundary layer thickness (m)

 x = Distance from leading edge (m)
Rex
Rex = Reynold’s number at a distance x from the
1.328
CDL  leading edge
ReL CDL = Average coefficient of drag over the entire
ReL = Reynold’s number for x = L, where L = length
of the flat plate
11.9 Blasius solution for turbulent boundary layer

A general velocity profile considered is u = Velocity of a fluid layer at a distance y from solid
1 surface (m/s)
u  y 7
  U = Free stream velocity of fluid (m/s)
U    = Boundary layer thickness (m)
When x = Distance from leading edge (m)
5×105 < Re < 107 Re = Reynold’s number
Rex = Reynold’s number at a distance x from the
0.37 x leading edge

 Rex  CDL = Average coefficient of drag over the entire
1
5

0.072 ReL = Reynold’s number for x = L
CDL 
 ReL 
1
5
L = Length of the flat plate (m)
o = Shear stress at solid surface (N/m 2)
1
  4
 o  0.0225U  
2  = Absolute viscosity of the fluid (N/m 2)
  U 
If 107 < Re < 109, the Schlichting’s

empirical relationship for CDL is used
0.455
CDL 
 log10 ReL 
2.58

11.10 Condition for boundary layer separation
When p
= Pressure gradient (N/m 3)
p  u  x
= 0 and    0 ,
x  y  y 0  u 
  = Velocity gradient at solid surface ( /s)
the boundary layer on the verge of  y  y  0
separation
12. Flow Past / Around Immersed Bodies

12.1 Total drag force
FD   p cos  dA   o sin dA FD = Total drag force acting on the solid body (N)
FL = Total lift force acting on the solid body (N)
U 2 FR = Resultant force exerted by fluid on body (N)
FD  CD A
2 p = Pressure exerted by fluid on the solid body, normal
to its surface (N/m2)
o = Shear stress exerted by fluid on the solid body,
Total lift force tangential to its surface (N/m 2)
FL   p sin dA   o cos  dA  = Inclination of pressure force on a differential area
dA of solid body surface (degree)
U 2
FL  CL A CD = Coefficient of drag
2
CL = Coefficient of lift
Resultant force U = Free stream velocity of fluid (m/s)
A = Projected area of the solid body perpendicular to
FR  FD2  FL2
the fluid flow OR largest projected area of immersed
body (m2)
12.2 Drag force on a sphere for Reynolds

number less than 0.2
FD  3 DU  = Absolute viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m 2)
D = Diameter of the sphere (m)
U = Velocity of fluid flow over the sphere (m/s)
2
 FD  2 DU
Skin friction drag = 
3
1
Pressure drag =   FD   DU
3
12.3 Coefficient of drag for sphere

For Re < 0.2 is Re = Reynold’s number
24  24 CD = Coefficient of drag for sphere
CD   (Stoke’s law)  = Absolute viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m 2)
UD Re
For 0.2 < Re < 5 (Oseen equation) D = Diameter of the sphere (m)
U = Velocity of fluid flow over the sphere (m/s)
24  3 
CD  1

Re  16 Re 
For 5 < Re < 1000, CD = 0.4

For 1000 < Re < 105, CD = 0.5
For Re > 105, CD = 0.2

MME 2253: Metrology and Measurements
1. Static Performance Characteristics of Instruments

1.1 Accuracy:
The accuracy may be specified in terms of limit of error
Measured value − True value

% of true value = ∗ 100
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Measured value − True value

% of full scale deflection = ∗ 100
Maximum scale value
1.2 Sensitivity:
Change of output signal
Static Sensitivity, K =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
1.3 Span:
Span of the instrument = Upper scale range – Lower scale range
1.4 Linearity:
Maximum deviation of output from idealized straight line

Non linearity = ∗ 100
Full scale deflection
1.5 Error:
Error = Measured value – True value
2. Pressure Measurement
2.1 The following are the units and conversion factors that are normally used:
 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 1 atmosphere = 760 mm of Hg
 1 mm of Hg = 1 Torr
 1 Torr = 1.316 x 10-3 atmosphere = 133.3 Pa
 1 bar = 105 Pa
2.3 The displacement of the bellow due to pressure P is given by,
X = 0.453 ∗ P ∗ b ∗ n ∗ D2 √(1 − μ2 ) * Et 3
Where P = Pressure (N/m2)
b = radius of each corrugation (m)
n = number of semi-circular corrugations
t = thickness of wall (m)
D= mean diameter (m)
E = modulus of elasticity (N/m2)
µ = Poisson`s ratio
MME 2253: Metrology and Measurements 83

2.4 The displacement of the diaphragm due to pressure P is given by,
3 P
Ymax = ∗ 3 ∗ R4 (1 − μ2 )
16 Et
Where P = Pressure N/m2, R = radius of diaphragm (m), t = diaphragm thickness (m)

E = Young`s modulus of diaphragm materials; N/m 2, µ = Poisson`s ratio
2.5 For a McLeod gauge, Unknown Pressure,
a∗h2
P1 =
V1
Where, a = Area of cross section of the measuring capillary
h = Height of compressed gas in the measuring capillary
V1 = Bulb volume including the volume of measuring capillary
= V + (a * hc)
hc = Height of measuring capillary tube
2.6 For a Bridgman gauge, Unknown pressure,

dR
R
P= 2
E
Where, R = Resistance of the wire of diameter D and length L

ρL ρL
= =
𝐴 𝐶𝐷2
ρ = the specific resistance of the material
C = proportionality constant
E = Young’s modulus of wire material
dR
R 2
2.6.1 Sensitivity = = =α
𝑃 𝐸
α = Pressure coefficient of resistance of wire material
Bridgeman gauge using manganin element has a pressure coefficient of resistance of 2.3 x 10 -11 m2/N
3. Temperature Measurement
3.1 For an Electric resistance thermometer:
Over a limited temperature range around 0 0 C (273 K), the following linear relationship can be applied:
Rt = Ro (1 + α t)
Where, α = the temperature coefficient of resistance of material in (Ω/Ω)/ 0C,
Ro = resistance at 0 0C,
t = temperature relative to 0 0C.
Rt = resistance at t 0C,
If a change in temperature from t1 to t2 is considered, the above equation becomes:

R2 = R1 + Ro α (t2 – t1)
Rearranging gives: t2 = t1 + [(R2 – R1) / α R0]
Some typical values of α for most commonly used materials are:
Copper = 0.0043 0C-1, Nickel = 0.0068 0C-1, Platinum = 0.0039 0C-1

3.2 For Bimetallic thermometer:
1
𝑡 [ 3(1 + 𝑚)2 + (1 + 𝑚𝑛) ∗ (𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑛)]
𝑅=
6(𝛼𝑎 − 𝛼𝑏 )(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )(1 + 𝑚)2
Where R = Radius of curvature at temperature T 2

t = Total thickness of bimetallic strip = (t1 + t2)
m = Thickness of lower expansion metal / Thickness of higher expansion metal
= t1 / t2
n = Modulus of elasticity of lower expansion metal / Modulus of elasticity of higher
expansion metal
αH = Coefficient of expansion of higher expansion metal
αL = Coefficient of expansion of lower expansion metal
T1 = Initial température
T2 = Température of the source
4. Strain Measurement
4.1 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges:

ΔR
Gauge factor, Gf = R = 1 + 2𝜇
ΔL
𝐿
ρL
Resistance of unstrained gauge = R = =
𝐴
Where, L = Length of the electrical conductor, A = Cross sectional area of the conductor
ΔD
D
Poisson’s ratio = μ = Lateral strain/Longitudinal strain = - ΔL
𝐿
Where, ΔR = change in resistance

ΔL = change in length
ΔD = change in diameter
Grid material Gauge Factor

Nichrome + 2.0
Nickel - 12.0
Platinum + 4.8
Manganin + 0.47
Isoelastic + 3.6
Constantan + 2.1
Soft iron + 4.2
Carbon + 20
Doped Crystals 100 - 5000

4.2 Resistance Strain Gauge Bridge:
Ei
The value of unbalanced current IG can be calculated for any change in strain gauge resistance R 1.
Taking a special case when R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 and if R1 changes to R1 + ∆R1,
IG = (- Ei Gf Є1)/ [4 (R1 + RG)] where Є1 is the strain which causes ∆R1, and Є1 = ∆R1/ R1 Gf
If all the four arms have strain gauge whose resistances change due to strains, it can be shown that
IG = {(- Ei)/ [4 (R1 + R4)]} [∆R1/R1 - ∆R2/R2 + ∆R3/R3 - ∆R4/R4]
4.3 The measuring instrument has an infinitely high internal resistance (for an infinite impedance at
output), the change in output-voltage due to applied strain is given by,
E0= (- Ei Gf Є1)/ (4) x Signal enhancement factor
4.4 Calibration of strain gauges:

When the gauge factor and gauge resistance are known, the shunting method is used to calibrate strain
gauge.
1 𝑅𝑔
Equivalent strain Єe = (G ) ∗ [(𝑅 ]
f 𝑔 +𝑅𝑠ℎ )
Where Rg = Strain gauge resistance and Rsh = Shunt resistance
Suppose there are `n` active gauges in the Wheatstone bridge,

𝑅𝑔
[ ]
1 (𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅𝑠ℎ )
Equivalent strain Єe = ( ) ∗
Gf 𝑛
5. Measurement of Force Torque and Power
5.1 Measurement of Force:
5.1.1 Proving Ring:

π 4
{[(2) − (π)] ∗ d3 ∗ Force}
x=
16 E I
x = The deflection of the ring
d = diameter of the ring
E = modulus of elasticity of ring material
I = moment of inertia

5.1.2 Load Cell:
A tensile compressive load cell uses four strain gauges each mounted at 900 to each other on a steel
cylinder.
The change in resistance of the strain gauges are measured by the output voltage of the wheat stone
bridge is given by,
[2(1 + μ) ∗ Gauge factor ∗ Є ∗ E]
Eo =
4
5.2 Measurement of Torque and Power:
5.2.1 Torque Meter:

In a solid shaft of diameter d, rotating with rpm N, subjected to torque T,
2πNT
Power =
60
3
𝑓𝑠 π𝑑
Also, Torque, T= where fs = Shear stress induced in the shaft
16
Shear strain = Shear stress induced in the shaft / Shear modulus

Longitudinal strain in the shaft at 45º to the axis of the shaft, Є45 = Shear strain / 2
Є45 may be measured by resistance strain gauge.
5.2.2 Cradled Dynamometer:
If F is the force at the support, the torque T transmitted by the dynamometer is given by T= F * L.
Thus by measuring the force F, the transmitted torque is measured.
The power transmitted can be calculated from the torque, using the equation
P=ω*T
Where P is the power (W), T the torque (N-m) and ω the angular speed (rad /s)
5.2.3 Rope Brake Dynamometer:
One end of the rope is connected to a mass while the other end is connected to a spring balance
is wound on a pulley with radius r.
If s is the force in the spring balance, torque T = (W – S) * r
r being the pulley radius, W = m * g
2πN(W – S) ∗ r
The power is, P= where N is the speed in rpm
60

6. Flow Measurement
6.1 Orifice meter:
Flow rate is given by,
𝐴2 2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × ×√
2 𝜌
√1−(𝐴2 )
𝐴1
Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge, ρ = density of the flowing fluid,

P1 and P2 refer to the pressure values at the normal flow and vena contracta positions, respectively;
A1 = Cross section area of the pipe, A2 = Cross section area of the orifice plate
6.2 Pitot tube:
Flow velocity is given by,
2
𝑣 = √𝜌 × (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
Where, ρ = density of the flowing fluid

P2 = stagnation or total pressure of the free stream given by the stagnation tube
P1 = Free stream static pressure given by static tube
6.3 Rotameter:
Flow rate is given by,
𝐴𝑡 (𝐴𝑡 −𝐴𝑓 ) 𝑃 −𝑃𝑢

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 [ ] ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ √𝜌 𝑑
2 𝑓𝑓 ∗𝑔
√ (𝐴𝑡 )2 − (𝐴𝑡 −𝐴𝑓 )
Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge

ρf and ρff are the densities of the float and floating fluid, respectively
Vf is the volume of the float
Pd and Pu are the pressure at the downward and upward faces of the float, respectively
(𝐴𝑡 − 𝐴𝑓 ) 𝑉𝑓 𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌𝑓𝑓
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔 ∗ √ ∗√
2 𝐴𝑓 𝜌𝑓𝑓
√1 − (𝐴𝑡 − 𝐴𝑓 )
[ (𝐴𝑡 )2 ]
Where, At is the area of the tube at the float level,

(At – Af) is the minimum annular area between tube and the float

7. Limits, Fits and Tolerances
7.1 Standard Tolerance Unit (i ) in Micron:
3
𝑖 = 0.45 √𝐷 + 0.001𝐷
where, D – Diameter in mm: D = √𝐷𝑖 × 𝐷𝑓
Di – Initial value of Standard Diameter range in mm
Df – Final value of Standard Diameter range in mm
The various standard diameter main ranges specified by I.S.I, are: 1—3, 3—6, 6—10, 10—18, 18—30,
30—50, 50—80, 80—120, 120—180, 180—250, 250—315, 315-400, 400—500, 500—630, 630—800,
800—1000, 1000—1250, 1250—1600, 1600—2000, 2000—2500, 2500—3150 mm
Table 7.1: International Tolerance Grades
Tolerance
IT5 IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 IT12 IT13 IT14 IT15 IT16
Grade
Magnitude 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i
Figure 7.1: Fundamental deviation chart and Formula

7.2 Fits:
 Clearance fit:
Maximum clearance = UL of hole – LL of shaft
Minimum clearance = LL of hole – UL of shaft
 Interference fit:
Maximum interference = LL of hole – UL of shaft
Minimum interference = UL of hole – LL of shaft
 Transition fit:
Maximum clearance = UL of hole – LL of shaft
Maximum interference = LL of hole – UL of shaft
Here, UL is the Upper limit size & LL is the Lower limit size
Table 7.2: Formulae for deviation for shafts and holes
8. Gauges
Gauge Makers Tolerance (GMT):
1
GMT = X Work Tolerence
10
1
Wear Allowance = X GMT
10
Table 8.1: Slip gauges – M112 Set
Range (mm) Step (mm) No. of Pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 09
1.010 to 1.490 0.010 49
0.50 to 24.50 0.500 49
25, 50, 55, 100 25 04
1.0005 - 01
Total 112

9. Measurement of Form Errors
Table 9.1: Determination of straightness using an autocollimator
2π
1 minute of arc = radians
360×60
10. Surface Texture Measurement
10.1 Center Line Average Height (Ra)

1
𝑅𝑎 = (ℎ + ℎ2 + ℎ3 … … … … … … +ℎ𝑛 )
𝑛 1
where, h1, h2, h3,…….. hn are the heights measured at various points.
n = number of points
10.2 Root Mean Square Value (RMS)
(ℎ12 + ℎ22 + ℎ32 … … … … … … . . ℎ𝑛2 )

𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √
𝑛
where, h1, h2, h3,…….. hn are the heights measured at various points.
n = number of points.

10.3 Ten-point Height Average Value (Rz)
(ℎ1 + ℎ3 + ℎ5 + ℎ7 + ℎ9 ) − (ℎ2 + ℎ4 + ℎ6 + ℎ8 + ℎ10 )
𝑅𝑧 =
5
where, h1, h3, h5, h7 & h9 are the five highest peaks.
h2, h4, h6, h8 & h10 are the five deepest valleys
10.4 CLA (if area is given), then Ra is
Sum of areas(mm 2 ) 1000 1

 
Sampling length (mm) Vertical magnification Horizontal magnification
11. Measurement of Screw Threads
11.1 Two Wire Method:

Effective diameter, E = T + P
T = Dimension under the wires (mm)
P = Correction factor
T = M - 2d
d = Diameter of the best-size wire (mm)
M = Dimension over the wires (mm)
p θ θ
P = [ Cot ] − d[Cosec − 1]
2 2 2
p = Pitch of thread (mm)
θ = Angle of thread
11.2 Three-wire method:

Effective Diameter
θ p θ
E = M − d [1 + Cosec ] + [ Cot ]
2 2 2
M = Dimension over the wires (mm)
11.3 Diameter of Best-size wire:
p
db = 2 [ ] Sec θ
4


MME 2254: Thermodynamics-2
1. Air Standard Cycle
1.1 Air Standard Efficiency
1.1.1 Carnot cycle

𝑇𝐿 TH = Heat addition temperature (K)
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − TL = Heat rejection temperature (K)
𝑇𝐻
1.1.2 Otto cycle
1 𝑟𝑣 = compression ratio
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑟𝑣 𝛾−1
1.1.3 Diesel cycle
1 𝛼𝛾 − 1 𝑟𝑣 = compression ratio
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1
[ ] 𝛼 = cut-off ratio
𝑟𝑣 𝛾(𝛼 − 1)
1.1.4 Dual cycle
1 𝛽𝛼 𝛾 − 1 𝑟𝑣 = compression ratio
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1
[ ] 𝛼 = cut-off ratio
𝑟𝑣 (𝛽 − 1) + 𝛾𝛽(𝛼 − 1)
𝛽= explosion ratio
1.2 Mean Effective Pressure (𝑃𝑚 )
1.2.1 Otto cycle
1 𝑟𝑣 = compression ratio
𝑃𝑚 = (𝛾−1)(𝑟 −1) × 𝑝1 × 𝑟𝑣 (𝛽 − 1)(𝑟𝑣 𝛾−1 − 1)
𝑣 𝛽 = explosion ratio
𝑝1 = Initial Pressure (Pa)
1.2.2 Diesel cycle
𝑝 ×𝑟 𝛾 𝑟𝑣 = compression ratio
1 𝑣
𝑃𝑚 = (𝛾−1)(𝑟 [𝑟 1−𝛾 (1 − 𝛼 𝛾 ) + 𝛾(𝛼 − 1)]
−1) 𝑣
𝑣 𝛼 = cut-off ratio
1.2.3 Dual cycle
𝑝 ×𝑟 𝛾 𝑟𝑣 = compression ratio
1 𝑣
𝑃𝑚 = (𝛾−1)(𝑟 [(𝛽 − 1) + 𝛾𝛽(𝛼 − 1) − 𝑟𝑣 1−𝛾 (𝛽𝛼 𝛾 −
−1)
𝑣 𝛼 = cut-off ratio
1)] 𝛽= explosion ratio
2. Gas Turbine Cycle
2.1 Thermal efficiency of ideal Brayton cycle
1 𝑟𝑝 = Pressure ratio
𝜂 = 1− 𝛾−1
(𝑟𝑝 ) 𝛾

2.2 Isentropic efficiency of compressor
ℎ1 = specific enthalpy at inlet of the

compressor (J/kg)
ℎ2 = specific enthalpy at exit of the
compressor (J/kg)
Suffixes‘s’ and ‘a’ stands for ideal and
actual compressors respectively.
All temperatures are in K
ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑠 𝑇1 −𝑇2𝑠
𝜂𝑐 = =
ℎ1 −ℎ2𝑎 𝑇1 −𝑇2𝑎
2.3 Isentropic efficiency of turbine
ℎ3 = specific enthalpy at inlet of the

turbine (J/kg)
ℎ4 = specific enthalpy at exit of the
turbine (J/kg)
Suffixes ‘s’ and ‘a’ stands for ideal and

actual turbines respectively
All temperatures are in K
ℎ3𝑎 −ℎ4𝑎 𝑇3𝑎 −𝑇4𝑎

𝜂𝑇 = =
ℎ3𝑠 −ℎ4𝑠 𝑇3𝑠 −𝑇4𝑠
2.4 Effectiveness of the regenerator

𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙,𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛 = Heat transfer in actual
𝑞𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙,𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛 regenerator
𝜖=
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛 = Maximum heat transfer
in ideal regenerator

3. Reciprocating Air Compressor
3.1 Single Stage Compression

3.1.1 Work input/kg of air without clearance volume
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
n= Polytropic index of compression.
𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(𝑃 ) − 1] = 𝑛−1 𝑅[𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] J/kg P2=Discharge pressure (Pa)
1
P1=Suction pressure in (Pa)
V1=Suction volume in (m3/kg)
R= Characteristic gas constant of air
=287 J/kgK
T1= Temperature of air before
compression (K)
T2= Temperature of air after
compression (K)
1.1.1 3.1.2 Work input of air with clearance volume
𝑛−1
1.1.2 𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑉𝑒𝑠 =Effective Swept volume in (m3/kg)
𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉𝑒𝑠 [(𝑃 ) − 1] = 𝑛−1 𝑅[𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] J
1
1.1.3
3.2 Two-stage Compression
3.2.1 Work input of air without clearance volume
3.2.1.1 Without intercooling

P2=Intermediate pressure (Pa)
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 P3=Discharge pressure (Pa)
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(𝑃 ) − 1] + 𝑛−1 𝑃2 𝑉2 [(𝑃 ) − 1] J V2= Suction volume of second stage in
1 2
(m3)
V1=Suction volume (m3)
(NOTE: Use effective swept volume ‘Ves’ in the presence of clearance
volume for V1 and V2)
3.2.1.2 With imperfect intercooling and condition

of minimum work not achieved.
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃 𝑛 𝑛 𝑃 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(𝑃2 ) − 1] + 𝑛−1 𝑃2 𝑉2′ [(𝑃3 ) − 1] J P3=Discharge pressure (Pa)
1 2
V1= Suction volume of first stage (m3)
V2′ = Suction volume of second stage (m3)
3.2.1.3 Condition for minimum work of

compression with Imperfect Intercooling.
𝑛 T2′ = Temperature of air after intercooling

𝑇2′ 𝑛−1 (K)
𝑃2 = √( ) 𝑃1 𝑃3 T1= Temperature of air before
𝑇1
compression (K)
P3=Discharge pressure (Pa)
P1=Suction pressure (Pa)

3.2.1.4 With perfect intercooling and condition of
minimum work not achieved.
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛 𝑃3 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(𝑃 ) + (𝑃 ) − 2] J
1 2
3.2.1.5 Condition for minimum work of

compression with perfect Intercooling.
𝑃2 𝑃3
= = 𝑍 =Pressure ratio per stage
𝑃1 𝑃2
Or, 𝑃2 = √𝑃1 𝑃3
Also, for ‘x’ stages of compressor, the pressure ratio per stage
is given by,
1
𝑃𝑥+1 𝑥
𝑍=( )
𝑃1

minimum work achieved.
𝑛−1
2𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(𝑃 ) − 1] J, for 2-stages. P3=Discharge pressure (Pa)
1
P1=Suction pressure (Pa)
Or P2=Intermediate pressure (Pa)
V1=Suction volume (m3)
𝑛−1
2𝑛 𝑃 2𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(𝑃3 ) − 1] J, for 2-stages.
1

minimum work achieved for any x-stages of
compression.
𝑛−1
𝑥𝑛 𝑃𝑥+1 𝑥𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [( ) − 1] J
𝑃1
3.2.2 Volumetric efficiency referred to suction conditions when

suction and ambient conditions are same.
1 K= Clearance ratio
𝑃 𝑛
𝜂𝑣 = 1 + 𝐾 − 𝐾 (𝑃2 ) = (Clearance volume/Stroke volume)
1
3.2.3 Volumetric efficiency referred to ambient conditions

when suction and ambient conditions are different. Ta= Ambient temperature (K)
1 T1= Suction temperature (K)
𝑃1 𝑇𝑎 𝑃2 𝑛 Pa= Ambient pressure (Pa)
𝜂𝑣 = [1 + K– K ( ) ]
𝑇1 𝑃𝑎 𝑃1 P1= Suction pressure (Pa)

3.2.4 Adiabatic efficiency
𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑊𝑎𝑑

𝜂𝑎𝑑 = = T2= Temperature after compression (K)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑊
T1= Temperature after compression (K)
Where,
γ−1
γ 𝑃2 γ γ
𝑊𝑎𝑑 = γ−1 𝑃1 𝑉1 [(𝑃 ) − 1] = γ−1 𝑅[𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] J/kg
1
3.2.5 Isothermal efficiency
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜 P2=Discharge pressure (Pa)

𝜂𝑎𝑑 = = P1=Suction pressure (Pa)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑊
V1= Suction volume (m3)
𝑃
Where, 𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln 𝑃2
1
4. Performance Testing of IC Engines

4.1 Indicated Power (IP)
i= number of cylinders
i𝑃𝑚 LAN𝑒 Pm=mean effective pressure (kPa)
𝐼𝑃 = kW
L= stroke length (m)
60
Ne=N/2 for 4-stroke
a×S = N for 2-stroke
Where, 𝑃𝑚 = (
L ) N=engine speed (rpm)
S=Spring constant (kPa/m)
L=Length of indicator diagram (m)
a=area of indicator diagram (m2)
4.2 Brake Power (BP)
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 N = Engine speed (rpm)

𝐵𝑃 = kW T = Brake torque (Nm)
60000
W= Brake load (N)
Where, T= (W-S) Re S = Spring balance reading (N)
Re= Effective brake drum radius (m)
4.3 Mechanical Efficiency
𝐵𝑃
𝜂𝑚 = ( 𝐼𝑃 )100 %
4.4 Indicated Thermal Efficiency
𝐼𝑃 IP = Indicated power (kW)

𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ = ( ) 100 %
𝑄𝑠 mf = mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s)
CV=calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg)
Where, 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉 kW

4.5 Brake Thermal Efficiency
𝐵𝑃 BP = Brake power (kW)

𝜂𝑖𝑡ℎ = ( ) 100 % TFC=Total fuel consumption, kg/h
𝑄𝑠
mf = mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s)
mf =TFC/3600
Where, 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑉 kW
CV=calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg)
4.6 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) BP = Brake power (kW)

TFC = Total fuel consumption (kg/h)
𝑇𝐹𝐶
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = kg/kWh
𝐵𝑃
4.7 Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC)

IP = Indicated power (kW)
𝑇𝐹𝐶
𝐼𝑆𝐹𝐶 = kg/kWh
𝐼𝑃
4.8 Heat carried away by exhaust gas

mg= flow rate of exhaust gas (kg/s)
𝑄𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 𝐶𝑝𝑔 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎 ) kW Tg = exhaust gas temperature (K)
Ta = ambient temperature (K)
Cpg=specific heat of gas (kJ/kgK)
4.9 Heat carried away by cooling water

mw = flow rate of cooling water (kg/s)
𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑝𝑤 (𝑇𝑤2 − 𝑇𝑤1 ) kW Tw1 = inlet water temperature (K)
Tw2 = exit water temperature (K)
CpW =specific heat of water (kJ/kgK)
5. Refrigeration
Bell-Coleman cycle
𝛾 = Specific heat ratio.
1 P2 = Pressure after compression (Pa)
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = 𝛾−1 P1 = Pressure before compression (Pa)
𝑃2 𝛾
[( ) ]−1
𝑃1
6. Nozzle and Diffuser

6.1 Velocity of sound 𝛾 = Specific heat ratio.
T = Static temperature (K)
C   RT m/s R = Characteristic gas constant (J/kgK)

6.2 Stagnation Properties
6.2.1 Stagnation temperature M = Mach number

V2 To  1 2 T0 = Stagnation temperature (K)
T0  T  Or 1  M T = Static temperature (K)
2 Cp T 2
𝜌𝑜 = Stagnation density (kg/m3)
𝜌 = Static density (kg/m3)
6.2.2 Stagnation pressure 𝑃𝑜 = Stagnation pressure (Pa)
𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 P = Static pressure (Pa)
= [1 + 𝑀 ] 𝛾 = Specific heat ratio.
𝑃 2
6.2.3 Stagnation density

1
𝜌 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= [1 + 𝑀 ]
𝜌𝑜 2
6.3 Critical properties
𝑇𝑐 2
= Tc = Critical temperature (K)
𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1
ρc = Critical density (kg/m3)
1
Pc = Critical pressure (Pa)
𝜌𝑐 2 𝛾−1
=[ ]
𝜌𝑜 𝛾+1
𝛾
𝑃𝑐 2 𝛾−1
=[ ]
𝑃𝑜 𝛾+1
6.4 Nozzle efficiency
Actual increase in kinetic energy

nozzle 
Kinetic energy increase with isentropic flow
V 2 actual
 2
V ideal
6.5 Velocity Coefficient
Actual increase in velocity V

CV   actual
Increase in velocity with isentropic flow Videal
6.6 Mass flow rate
𝑚 1 𝑃0 𝑀 𝛾 m = mass flow rate (kg/s)

= 𝛾+1 √ A = flow cross sectional area (m2)
𝐴 √𝑇0 𝑅
𝛾−1 2(𝛾−1)
[1 + 2 𝑀2 ]
{ }

MME 3151: CAD - CAM
1. Geometric transformations of 2D objects

1.1 Transformation Matrix for Translation
𝑇𝑥 𝑇𝑦 Tx = Translation along X axis and
[T] = [ ]
𝑇𝑥 𝑇𝑦 Ty = Translation along Y axis
1.2 Transformation Matrix for Rotation(counterclockwise direction)

𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑛  = Angle of rotation
[R] = [ ]
−𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠
1.3 Transformation Matrix for Rotation(clockwise direction)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 −𝑆𝑖𝑛  = Angle of rotation
[R] = [ ]
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠
1.4 Transformation Matrix for Scaling
𝑆𝑥 0 Sx& Sy = scale factor along X and Y axis
[S] = [ ]
0 𝑆𝑦 respectively
1.5 Transformation Matrix for Reflection (Reflection about X axis or line Y=0)
1 0
[R] = [ ]
0 −1
1.6 Transformation Matrix for Reflection (Reflection about Y axis or line X=0)
−1 0
[R] = [ ]
0 1
1.7 Transformation Matrix for Reflection (Reflection about line X=Y or  = 45°)
1 0
[R] = [ ]
0 1
1.8 Transformation operations to reflect an object about a given line = [T] [R] [R’] [R-1] [T-1]
1.9 Homogenous Matrix for Translation
1 0 0
[TH] = | 0 1 0|
𝑇𝑥 𝑇𝑦 1
1.10 Homogenous Matrix for Rotation(counterclockwise direction)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0  = Angle of rotation
[RH] = |−𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0|
0 0 1
1.11 Homogenous Matrix for Rotation(clockwise direction)
𝐶𝑜𝑠 −𝑆𝑖𝑛 0  = Angle of rotation
[RH] = | 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0|
0 0 1
1.12 Homogenous Matrix for Scaling
𝑆𝑥 0 0 Sx and Sy are the scale factor along X and Y axis
[SH] = | 0 𝑆𝑦 0| respectively.
0 0 1
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 100

1.13 Transformation Matrix for Reflection (Reflection about X axis or line Y=0)
1 0 0
[R] = [0 −1 0]
0 0 1
1.14 Transformation Matrix for Reflection (Reflection about Y axis or line X=0)
−1 0 0
[R] = [ 0 1 0]
0 0 1
1.15 Transformation Matrix for Reflection (Reflection about line X=Y or  = 45°)
1 0 0
[R] = [0 1 0]
0 0 1
2. Parametric representation of analytical curves

2.1 Line:
2.1.1 Position vector of a point on a Line
P(u) =(1- u)P1 + uP2 where 0 ≤ u ≤ 1; P1 and P2 are the end
points of the line
In the scalar form x1, y1, z1 and x2, y2 and z2 are the x, y, z
coordinates of the start and end point of
x(u) = (1-u) x1 + u(x2)
the line
y(u) = (1-u)y1 + u(y2)
z(u) = (1-u)z1 + u(z2)
2.1.2 Tangent vector of a point on a Line
P’(u) = (P2 - P1) where 0 ≤ u ≤ 1; P1 and P2 are the end
points of the line
In the scalar form
x’(u) =( x2-x1) x1, y1, z1 and x2, y2 and z2 are the x, y, z
coordinates of the start and end point of
y’(u) =( y2-y1)
the line
z’(u) = (z2-z1)
2.2 Circle:
2.2.1 Parametric equation of a circle
Xn = Xc + R * Cos u where 0 ≤ u ≤ 2 and Xn, Yn, and Zn are
the coordinates of any point Pn on the
Yn = Yc + R * Sin u
circumference of circle with radius = R;
Zn = Zc
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 101

2.2.2 Recursive equation of a circle
Xn+1 = Xc + (Xn – Xc) Cos u – (Yn – Yc) Sin u u = incremental angle subtended at the
center of the circle;
Yn+1 = Yc + (Yn – Yc) Cos u + (Xn – Xc) Sin u
Xn, Yn, and Zn = the coordinates of any
Zn+1 = Zc,
point Pn on the circumference of circle
with radius = R;
Xc,Yc and Zc = centre point coordinates
of the circle.
2.3 Ellipse:
2.3.1 Parametric equation of an Ellipse
Xn = Xc + A * Cos u where 0 ≤ u ≤ 2
Yn = Yc + B * Sin u Xn, Yn, and Zn = the coordinates of any
point Pn on the circumference of the
Zn = Zc
ellipse.
A = half of the length of the major axis
and
B = half of the length of the minor axis;
2.3.2 Recursive equation of an Ellipse
Xn+1 = Xc + (Xn – Xc) Cos u – A/B (Yn – Yc) Sin u where 0 ≤ u ≤ 2and u= incremental
angle
Yn+1 = Yc + (Yn – Yc) Cos u + B/A (Xn – Xc) Sin u
Xn, Yn, and Zn = the coordinates of any
Zn+1 = Zc,
point Pn on the circumference of ellipse.
A = half of the length of the major axis
and
B = half of the length of the minor axis;
u = the angle made by any point P on
the circumference with reference to x-
axis
Xc,Yc and Zc = the center point
coordinates of the ellipse;
2.3.3 If the major axis of the ellipse is inclined at an angle α relative to the X axis, then the
parametric relationship changes to
Xn = Xc + A Cos u Cos  - B Sin u Sin  where 0 ≤ u ≤ 2
Yn = Yc + A Cos u Sin  + B Sin u Cos  A = half of the length of the major axis
and
Zn = Zc B = half of the length of the minor axis;
u = the angle made by any point P on
axis
 = angle made by the ellipse with
reference to X axis
coordinates of the ellipse
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 102

2.3.4 If the major axis of the ellipse is inclined at an angle α relative to the X axis, then the
Recursive relationship could be
Xn = Xc + A Cos (un + u) Cos  - B Sin (un + u) where 0 ≤ un ≤ 2 and u= incremental
Sin  angle
Yn = Yc + A Cos (un + u) Sin  + B Sin (un + u) A = half of the length of the major axis
Cos  and
Zn = Zc B = half of the length of the minor axis;

un = the angle made by any point P on
axis
 = angle made by the ellipse with
reference to X axis
coordinates of the ellipse;
2.4 Parabola:
2.4.1 The parametric equation of a parabola which is symmetric about X axis is
X = Xv + Au2 XV, YV and ZV = Coordinates of the
vertex of the parabola
Y = Yv + 2Au
0≤ u ≤ ∞
Z = Zv
2.4.2 Recursive relationship is
Xn+1 = Xn + (Yn – Yv) u + A (u)2 XV, YV and ZV = Coordinates of the

Yn+1 = Yn + 2 A u
Xn, Yn and Zn = Coordinates of the
Zn+1 = Zn
previous point on the parabola
If the range of the Y coordinate is limited to YHW
u = (UH – UL) / (n-1), where n=number
and YLW, then the corresponding u values become
of points to be displayed
𝑌𝐻𝑊 𝑌𝐿𝑊
UH = UL = 0≤u≤∞
2𝐴 2𝐴
If the range of the X coordinate is limited to XHW
and XLW, then the corresponding u values become
UH = √𝑋𝐻𝑊 /𝐴 UL = √𝑋𝐿𝑊 /𝐴
2.4.3 The parametric equation of a parabola which is symmetric about Y- axis

X = Xv + 2Au XV, YV and ZV = Coordinates of the
Y = Yv + Au2
0≤u≤∞
Z = Zv
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 103

2.4.4 Recursive relationship is
Xn+1 = Xn + 2 A u XV, YV and ZV = Coordinates of the

Xn+1 = Yn + (Xn – Xv) u + A (u)2
Xn, Yn and Zn = Coordinates of the
Zn+1 = Zn
previous point on the parabola
If the range of the Y coordinate is limited to YHW
and YLW , then the corresponding u values become
UH = √𝑌𝐻𝑊 /𝐴 UL = √𝑌𝐿𝑊 /𝐴 0≤u≤∞
If the range of the X coordinate is limited to XHW
and XLW, then the corresponding u values become
𝑋𝐻𝑊 𝑋𝐿𝑊
UH = UL =
2𝐴 2𝐴
2.4.5 Parabola with axis of symmetry inclined at an angle α to Global X - axis

The parametric equations are XV, YV and ZV = Coordinates of the
X = Xv + Au2 Cos  - 2Au Sin 
0≤u≤∞
Y = Yv + Au2 Sin  + 2Au cos 
α = Angle made by axis of symmetry of
Z = Zv
the parabola with reference to the global
X- axis
Recursive relationship reduces to XV, YV and ZV = Coordinates of the
vertex Xn, Yn and Zn = Coordinates of the
Xn+1 = Xn Cos  + (1 – Cos ) Xv + (u Cos  - Sin
previous point
) (Yn – Yv) + A u(u Cos - 2 Sin )
Yn+1 = (Cos  + u Sin ) Yn + (1- Cos  - u Sin
) Yv + (Xn – Xv) Sin  + A u (u Sin  + 2 Cos
) ∞≤ u ≤ ∞
Zn+1 = Zn α = Angle made by axis of symmetry of

the parabola with reference to the global
X- axis
3. Parametric representation of synthetic curves

3.1 HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE CURVE
3.1.1 Position vector of any point on the Hermite Cubic Spline curve
P(u) = ∑3𝑖=0 Ci Ui Ci= polynomial coefficients
P(u) = C3U3 + C2U2 + C1U1 + C0U0 0≤u≤1
P(u) = (2u3 – 3u2 +1) P0 + (-2u3 + 3u2) P1 + (u3 – 2u2 + u) P0& P1 = position vector at the
P0 + (u3-u2) P1 end points of the curve
P0’ & P1’ = tangent vector at the
end points of the curve
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 104

3.1.2 Tangent vector of any point on the Hermite Cubic Spline curve
P(u) = (6u2 – 6u) P0 + (-6u2 + 6u) P1 + (3u2 – 4u +1) P0 + 0≤u≤1

(3u2 – 2u) P1 P0& P1 = position vector at the
P0’ & P1’ = tangent vector at the
3.2 BEZIER CURVE

3.2.1 Position vector of any point on the Bezier curve 0≤u≤1
P(u) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 Pi Bi,n (u) n (degree of the curve) =
number of points defining the
Bi,n (u) = C(n,i) ui (1-u)n-i
curve – 1
𝑛!
C(n,i) = Pi = position vector at ith point
(𝑛−𝑖)! 𝑖!
on the curve
P(u) = P0(1-u)n + P1 C(n,1) u (1-u)n-1 + P2 C(n,2) u2 (1-u)n-2
+ ….+ Bi,n (u) = Bernstein polynomial
Pn-1 C(n,n-1)u n-1 (1-u) + Pn un C(n,i) = Binomial coefficient
3.2.2 The tangent vectors at the first and last endpoints are: P1& P0 = position vector at the
first two points on the curve
P0 = n(P1 – P0)
Pn – Pn-1 = position vector at the
P1 = n(Pn – Pn-1)
last two points on the curve
n (degree of the curve) =
number of points defining the
curve – 1
3.3 B-spline curve:
3.3.1 Position vector of any point on the B- Spline curve is given Pi = position vector at ith point
by on the curve
P(u) = ∑𝑛
𝑖=0 Pi Ni,k (u) Ni,k (u) = Bspline coefficient
0≤u≤1
4. Parametric representation of analytical surfaces

4.1 Plane surface:
4.1.1 The position vector of any point P on the plane surface P0, P1 and P2 = points on the
surface that are non collinear
P(u,v) = P0 + u(P1 – P0) + v(P2 – P0)
0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0≤v≤1
4.1.2 The tangent vectors at point P on the plane surface P0, P1 and P2 = points on the
surface that are non collinear
Pu(u,v) = (P1 – P0)
0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0≤v≤1
Pv(u,v) = (P2 – P1)
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 105

4.2 Ruled surface:
4.2.1 The position vector of any point P on the Ruled surface 0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0≤v≤1
defined by the curves G(u) and Q(u) is
G(u) and Q(u) are the curves
P(u,v) = (1-v) G(u) + v Q(u) defining the ruled surface
4.3 Tabulated surface:
4.3.1 The position vector of any point P on the tabulated surface 0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0≤v≤1
defined by the curve G(u) and unit vector nv is
G(u) = the desired curve that
P(u,v) = G(u) + v nv forms the surface or cylinder.
The unit vector nv represents
the cylinder axis direction and
v = the cylinder length.
4.4 Revolved surface:
4.4.1 Parametric Equation for the creation of surface of u = parameter on the curve and
revolution when the designed curve is rotated about X -
0 ≤ u ≤ umax,
axis is given by
 = rotation angle and 0 ≤  ≤
P(u,) = [ X(u) Y(u) cos Y(u) sin 
2
]
revolution when the designed curve is rotated about Y- axis
0 ≤ u ≤ umax,
is given by
P(u,) = [ X(u) cos Y(u) X(u) sin 
2
]
revolution when the designed curve is rotated about Z- axis
0 ≤ u ≤ umax,
is given by
P(u,) = [ X(u) cos Y(u) sin 
2
Z(u) ]
5. Parametric representation of synthetic surfaces

5.1 Hermite bicubic surface:
5.1.1 The parametric equation of the Hermite Bicubic Surface is Pi = position vector at ith point
P(u,v) = ∑3𝑖=0 ∑3𝑗=0 Pi Ci,j (uivj) Ci,j = polynomial coefficients

0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0≤v≤1
5.2 Bezier surface:
5.2.1 The parametric equation of the Bezier Surface is Bi,n(u) and Bi,n(u) = Bernstein
polynomial in u and v diirections.
P(u,v) = ∑𝑚
𝑖=0 ∑𝑛𝑗=0 Pij Bi,n(u)Bj,m(v)
Bi,n(u)= C(n,i)ui (1-u)n-i
Bj,m(v) = C(m,j)uj (1-u)m-j
0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0≤v≤1
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 106

6. CNC PART PROGRAMMING
6.1 List of ‘G’ codes and their function in CNC turning operation
G CODES FUNCTION G CODES FUNCTION
G00 Positioning rapid traverse G01 Linear interpolation (feed)
G02 Circular interpolation CW G03 Circular interpolation CCW
G04 Dwell G20 Inch unit
G21 Metric unit G28 Automatic zero return
G30 2nd reference point return G40 Tool nose radius compensation
cancel
G41 Tool nose radius compensation left G42 Tool nose radius compensation right
G43 Tool length compensation G52 Local coordinate system
G54 Work coordinate system 1 selection G55 Work coordinate system 2 selection
G74 Left hand tapping cycle G76 Fine boring cycle
G80 Canned cycle cancel G81 Drilling cycle
G82 Drilling cycle with dwell G83 Peck drilling cycle / deep drill
G84 Tapping cycle G85 Boring / Reaming cycle
G86 Boring cycle G87 Back boring cycle
G90 Absolute command G91 Incremental command
G94 Feed per minute G95 Feed per revolution
G98 Return to initial point in canned G99 Return to R point in canned cycle
cycle
6.2 List of ‘M’ codes and their function in CNC turning operation
M CODES FUNCTION M CODES FUNCTION
M00 Optional program stop automatic M01 Optional program stop request
M02 Program end M03 Spindle ON clock wise (CW)
M04 Spindle ON counter clock wise M05 Spindle stop
(CCW)
M06 Tool change M07 Mist coolant ON (coolant 1 ON)
M08 Flood coolant ON (coolant 2 ON) M09 Coolant OFF
M19 Spindle orientation M30 End of program, Reset to start
M98 Sub program call M99 Sub program end
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 107

7. Syntax of program cycle (CNC turning operation)
7.1 Step facing cycle (G94 cycle)
Its syntax is: X is the diameter to which the tool
movement is being made
G94 X… (U…) Z… (W…) F…
Z is the Z axis coordinate to which the tool
F is the feed rate.
7.2 Step turning operation using the box turning cycle (G90 cycle)
The syntax is: X is the diameter to which the tool
G90 X… Z… F…
F is the feed rate
7.3 Taper turning cycle (G90 cycle)
The syntax is: X is the diameter to which the tool
movement is being made.
G90 X… Z… R… F…
movement is being made.
F is the feed rate being used.
R is the amount of taper =
(Tool diameter at the entry – Tool diameter
at the exit)/ 2
7.4 Circular interpolation (G02 / G03 cycle)

Its syntax is, X, Z (or U, W) are the end point coordinates
of the arc expressed as absolute values (or
G02 X… (U…) Z… (W…) R…F… (CW Arc)
incremental values).
G03 X… (U…) Z… (W…) R…F… (CCW Arc) R is the radius of the arc.
F is the feed rate being used.
7.5 Multiple turning cycle (G71 cycle)

Syntax is: U is the depth of cut
R is the relief or retract amount
G71 U…..R,,,,,
P is the block number of the start of the final
G71 P….Q…..U…..W…..F….. profile
Q is the block number of the end of the final
profile
U is the finishing allowance for the X axis
W is the finishing allowance for the Z axis
F is the feed rate
7.6 FINISHING CYCLE (G70 CYCLE)

Syntax is: P is the block number of the start of the final
profile
G70 P….Q…..F….
Q is the block number of the end of the final
profile
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 108

7.7 SUBPROGRAM (M98 CYCLE)
M99 – Subprogram end
7.8 External grooving (multiple grooving cycle (G75 cycle)

Syntax is: R is the retract amount
X is the diameter upto which the grooving
G75 R…..
must be done
G75 X…..Z…..P…..Q…..F….. Z is the axis coordinate specifying the width
of the groove
P is the pecking increment along X axis
(microns)
Q is the stepping distance along Z axis
(microns)
F is the feed rate
8. Syntax of program cycle (CNC milling operation)

8.1 List of ‘G’ codes and their function in CNC milling operation
G CODES FUNCTION G CODES FUNCTION
G00 Rapid traverse of the tool G01 Linear Interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation CW G03 Circular Interpolation CCW
G17 XY plane selection G18 XZ plane selection
G19 YZ plane selection G20 Inches programming
G21 Metric programming G28 Return to reference or home position
G40 Cutter radius compensation CANCEL G41 Cutter radius compensation (LEFT)
G42 Cutter radius compensation (RIGHT) G43 Tool length compensation (+ve
direction)
G44 Tool length compensation (-ve G49 Tool length compensation (CANCEL)
direction)
G54 to 59 Work piece coordinate system G73 Peck drilling cycle
selection
G74 Counter tapping cycle G80 Canned cycle CANCEL
G81 to 89 Canned cycles G90 Absolute programming
G91 Incremental programming G94 Feed programmed in mm/min
G95 Feed programmed in mm/rev G98 Return to initial point in Canned Cycle
G99 Return to reference point in canned
Cycle
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 109

8.2 List of ‘M’ codes and their function in CNC milling operation
M CODES FUNCTION M CODES FUNCTION
M01 Optional stop M02 Program end
M03 Spindle ON CW M04 Spindle ON CCW
M05 Spindle OFF M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant ON M09 Coolant OFF
M30 Program stop & rewind M70 X Mirror ON
M80 X Mirror OFF M71 Y Mirror ON
M81 Y Mirror OFF M98 Sub program Call
M99 Sub program End
8.3 Square / rectangular pocket milling

Cutter movement ratio = Y/X Y = Breadth of the pocket (along Y direction)
X = Length of the pocket (along X direction)
MME 3151: CAD - CAM 110

MME 3152: Finite Element Methods
1. Finite element formulation by direct stiffness method
1.1 Displacement q at any arbitrary point is given by If q1 and q2 are displacements at

node 1 and 2 for a two noded
𝑞 = 𝑁1 𝑞1 + 𝑁2 𝑞2 spring element (m)
N1 and N2 are Shape functions for
𝑥 𝑥 spring element
𝑁1 = 1 − & 𝑁2 = L = Length of element (m)
𝐿 𝐿 Absolute coordinate x varies from
0 to L in absolute coordinates (m)
1.2 Stiffness matrix for spring element: k = Stiffness coefficient (N/m)

{f} = Element force vector (N)
[𝐾] = 𝑘 [ 1 −1
] {q} = Element displacement vector
−1 1 (m)
Element stiffness equations can be written as
{𝑓} = [𝑘]{𝑞}
f  q 
f   1 &q   1 
 f2  q2 
1.3 Displacement q at any arbitrary point for a horizontal 1D bar Where q1 and q2 are displacements
element is given by at node 1 and 2 for a two noded bar
element (m)
𝑞 = 𝑁1 𝑞1 + 𝑁2 𝑞2 N1 and N2 are Shape functions for
bar element.
1  1   is the natural coordinate
N1  & N2 
2 2
1.4 Stiffness matrix for 1D bar element: A = Cross sectional area of element
(m2)
𝐴𝐸 1 −1 E = Young’s Modulus (Pa or N/m2)
[𝑘] = [ ]
𝑙𝑒 −1 1 le = Length of element (m)
Element stiffness equations can be written as
{𝑓} = [ 𝑘] {𝑞}
MME 3152: Finite Element Methods 111

Where element force vector and element displacement
vector are given by
f  q 
f   1 &q   1 
 f2  q2 
Stress in bar element is given by
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
𝜀 = {𝐵}{𝑞}  = strain in the element

{B} = Strain displacement matrix
−1 1
𝐵= { }
𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒
1.4 Stiffness matrix for truss element: A = Area of cross section of

element (m2)
𝐶2 𝐶𝑆 −𝐶 2 −𝐶𝑆
𝐴 𝐸 𝐶𝑆 E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)
[𝐾] = [ 𝑆2 −𝐶𝑆 −𝑆 2 ]
le = Length of element (m)
𝑙𝑒 −𝐶 2 −𝐶𝑆 𝐶2 𝐶𝑆
C = Represents 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
−𝐶𝑆 −𝑆 2 𝐶𝑆 𝑆 2 S = Represents 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜃 = Angle measured in degrees in
Element equations can be written as
anticlockwise direction starting
positive X Axis as zero for each
{𝑓} = [ 𝑘] {𝑞}
element (based on the node
numbering)
Where element force vector is given by
{f} = Element force vector (N)
{q} = Element displacement vector
 f1x  (m)
f 
 f    
1y
 f2 x 
 f2 y 
 
And element displacement vector is given by:
 q1x 
q 
q   
1y
q2 x 
q2 y 
 

Stress in bar element is given by:
E
 C S C Sq
L
1.5 1D steady state heat transfer due to conduction: A = area of cross section of
Element Conduction stiffness matrix is given by: element (m2)
k = Thermal conductivity of material
Ak  1 1 (W/m.K)
[ kc ]   1 1  L = Length of element (m)
L  
{Qc} = Thermal load vector
Element equations can be written as {T} = Temperature vector (K)
Qc   [kc ]T 
Where
Qc1 
{Qc }    Represents the heat transfer by conduction
Qc 2 
at node 1 and node 2 of element respectively.
and
T 
{T }   1 
T2 
Represents temperature at node 1 and node 2 of element
respectively.
1.6 Steady state heat transfers due to conduction and {fQ} =Heat source force (W/K)
convection {fq} = Heat flux force (W/K)
{fh} = Convection force (W/K)
Element stiffness equations can be written as {fh}end = End convection force (W/K)
f  k T 
e e e
A = area of cross section of
element (m2)
Thermal load vector due to conduction and convection is
L = Length of element (m)
given as:
Q = Heat source (W/m3)
q = Heat flux (W/m2)
 f    fQ    f q    f h    f h end
e
P = Perimeter of element (m)
h = Convective heat transfer
coefficient (W/m2.K)
T = Ambient temperature (K)


 f   QAL
1
Q 
2 1 
1
 fq   qPL 
2 1
hT PL 1
 fh   
2 1
hT A 1 
 f h  end  1   
2 0 
hT A 0 
 f h  end  2   
2 1 
Element stiffness matrix is given as
 k e   kc    kh    kh end
 1 1
Ak
[ kc ]   1 1 

L 
hPL  2 1 
[kh ] 
6 1 2 
1 0 
[kh ]end1  hA  
0 0
0 0 
[kh ]end 2  hA  
0 1 
2 Finite element formulation by Iso-parametric approach
2.1 Beam element (aligned)
The element displacement vector:
𝑣1
𝑞1
𝑞2 (𝑑𝑣⁄𝑑𝑥) q1 & q2 are DOF at node 1 and q3 & q4
1 are DOF at node 2 representing linear
{𝑞} = {𝑞 } = 𝑣2
3 and rotary displacements (or slope)
𝑞4 𝑑𝑣
{( ⁄𝑑𝑥 )2 }
respectively

Hermite cubic polynomials:
1 1
𝐻1 = (2 − 3 + 3 ) = (1 − )2(2 + )
4 4
1 1 H1 & H2 are shape functions at node 1
𝐻2 = (1 −  − 2 + 3 ) = (1 − )2 (1 + ) and H3 & H4 are shape functions at
4 4
1 1 node 2, representing deflection and
𝐻3 = (2 + 3 − 3 ) = (1 + )2 (2 − ) slope respectively
4 4
1 1
𝐻4 = (−1 −  + 2 + 3 ) = (1 + )2 ( − 1)
4 4
Deflection ‘v’ within the element:
𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒 le = Element length (m)

𝑣 = 𝐻1 𝑞1 + 𝐻2 𝑞2 + 𝐻3 𝑞3 + 𝐻𝑞
2 2 4 4
Element stiffness matrix:
 12 6le  12 6le  E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)

 6l 2
 6le 2le 
2 I = Second moment of area of the
EI  e 4le cross section (m4)
[k e ]  3
le  12  6le 12  6le  le = Element length (m)
 2 
 6le
2
 6le 2le 4le 
Consideration of distributed load ‘p’ when constant, i.e., Uniformly distributed load (UDL):
T 
 pl pl
2
pl
2
ple 

f   e  e  e 
e

 2 12 2 12 

Consideration of distributed load ‘p’ when Uniformly varying load (UVL):
7𝑃1 𝑙𝑒 3𝑃2 𝑙𝑒 𝑃1 𝑙𝑒2 𝑃2 𝑙𝑒2 3𝑃1 𝑙𝑒 7𝑃2 𝑙𝑒 𝑃1 𝑙𝑒2 𝑃2 𝑙𝑒2

𝑓𝑒𝑇 = {( + ) ( + ) ( + ) −( + )}
20 20 20 30 20 20 30 20

2.2 Beam Element (arbitrary oriented in plane) or Plane Frame:
Displacement vector: q1, q2, q3 are DOF at node 1

q4, q5, q6 are DOF at node 2
 q1 
q 
 2
q 
q   3
q 4 
q 5 
 
q 6 

Element stiffness matrix 12 I 2
P  AC 2  S
le2
𝑃 𝑄 −𝑇𝑆 −𝑃 −𝑄 −𝑇𝑆
𝑄 𝑅 𝑇𝐶 −𝑄 −𝑅 𝑇𝐶  12 I 
Q   A  2  CS
[𝑘 𝑒 ] =
𝐸 −𝑇𝑆 𝑇𝐶 4𝐼 𝑇𝑆 −𝑇𝐶 2𝐼  le 
𝑙𝑒 −𝑃 −𝑄 𝑇𝑆 𝑃 𝑄 𝑇𝑆 12 I 2
−𝑄 −𝑅 −𝑇𝐶 𝑄 𝑅 𝑇𝐶 R  AS 2  C
[ −𝑇𝑆 𝑇𝐶 2𝐼 𝑇𝑆 𝑇𝐶 4𝐼 ] l2
e
6I
T
le
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃; 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)
I = Second moment of area of the
cross section (m4)
A = Cross sectional area (m2)
le = Element length (m)
2.3 Plane element:
Constitutive matrix for Plane Stress condition:
1 𝜐 0
𝐸 𝜐 1 0 E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)
[𝐷] = ⌊ 1 − 𝜐⌋
2
(1 − 𝜐 )  = Poisson's Ratio
0 0
2
Constitutive matrix for Plane Strain condition:
1−𝜐 𝜐 0
𝐸 𝜐 1−𝜐 0 E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)
[𝐷] = ⌊ 1 − 2𝜐⌋
(1 + 𝜐)(1 − 2𝜐)  = Poisson's Ratio
0 0
2
Stress-Strain relationship:
{} = Stress vector
𝜎𝑥𝑥 {} = Strain vector
{𝜎} = {𝜎𝑦𝑦 } = [𝐷]{𝜀} = [𝐷][𝐵]{𝑞} {q} = Displacement vector
𝜏𝑥𝑦 [B] = Strain-Displacement Interaction
Matrix

2.3.1 Constant Strain Triangular (CST) Element:
Displacement vector: Displacements of nodes 1, 2 & 3 in

the ‘x’ direction are q1, q3 & q5 and in
{𝑞} = {𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞4 𝑞5 𝑞6 }𝑇 ‘y’ direction are q2, q4 & q6
respectively
Shape Functions: N1, N2 & N3 are shape functions for

triangular element at nodes 1, 2 & 3
𝑁1 =  ; 𝑁2 =  ; 𝑁3 = 1 −  − ; respectively
Coordinates of any point P inside CST element: 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 and 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 are

coordinates of the nodes 1, 2, and 3
𝑥 = 𝑁1 𝑥1 + 𝑁2 𝑥2 + 𝑁3 𝑥3 along x & y directions respectively
𝑦 = 𝑁1 𝑦1 + 𝑁2 𝑦2 + 𝑁3 𝑦3
Displacement components:
‘u’ and ‘v’ are displacement
𝑢 = 𝑁1 𝑞1 + 𝑁2 𝑞3 + 𝑁3 𝑞5 components of any arbitrary point
within the triangular element in x and
𝑣 = 𝑁1 𝑞2 + 𝑁2 𝑞4 + 𝑁3 𝑞6 y directions respectively
Strain-Displacement Interaction Matrix [B]: 𝑥13 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥3

𝑥23 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑥12 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑦13 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦3
𝑦23 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦3
𝑦12 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦2

[k ]e66  te Ae [ B]T63[ D]33[ B]36 te = Thickness of the element

Ae = Area of the element
Element Body Force Vector:
e
 b1  bx 
b  b 
  2  y
b3   Aete  bx 
{b}     
e
 
b
 4  3  by 
b5  bx 
   
b6  by 
Element Traction Force Vector:
Element temperature load vector: {o} = Strain due to change in

temperature
{𝜃}𝑒 = 𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑒 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷]{𝜀0 } For plane stress:
T 
o   T 
 0 
 
For plane strain:
T 
o   1    T 
 0 
 
Total force vector:
{𝐹}𝑒 = ∑({𝑏}𝑒 + {𝑇}𝑒 + {𝑃}𝑒 + {𝜃}𝑒 )

2.3.2 Quadrilateral Element:
Displacement vector:
{𝑞} = {𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞4 𝑞5 𝑞6 𝑞7 𝑞8 }𝑇 Displacements of nodes 1, 2, 3 & 4 in

the ‘x’ direction are q1, q3, q5 & q7
and in ‘y’ direction are q2, q4, q6 & q8
respectively
Shape Functions:
(1−𝜁)(1−𝜂) (1+𝜁)(1−𝜂) N1, N2, N3 & N4 are shape functions

𝑁1 = ; 𝑁2 = ;
4 4 for quadrilateral element at nodes 1,
(1+𝜁)(1+𝜂) (1−𝜁)(1+𝜂) 2, 3 & 4 respectively
𝑁3 = ; 𝑁4 = ;
4 4
Coordinates of any point P inside quadrilateral element: 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 and 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 , 𝑦4 are

coordinates of the nodes 1, 2, 3 and 4
𝑥 = 𝑁1 𝑥1 + 𝑁2 𝑥2 + 𝑁3 𝑥3 + 𝑁4 𝑥4 along x & y directions respectively
𝑦 = 𝑁1 𝑦1 + 𝑁2 𝑦2 + 𝑁3 𝑦3 + 𝑁4 𝑦4
‘u’ and ‘v’ are displacement
𝑢 = 𝑁1 𝑞1 + 𝑁2 𝑞3 + 𝑁3 𝑞5 + 𝑁4 𝑞7 components of any arbitrary point
within the quadrilateral element in x
𝑣 = 𝑁1 𝑞2 + 𝑁2 𝑞4 + 𝑁3 𝑞6 + 𝑁4 𝑞8 and y directions respectively

Strain-Displacement Interaction Matrix [B]:
 
[ B]   B1 B2 B3 B4 
 
Where, B1, B2, B3 & B4 are sub-matrices of [B]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑁𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑁𝑖
( − ) 0
𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜂
1 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑁𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑁𝑖
[𝐵𝑖 ] = 0 ( − )
𝐷𝑒𝑡[𝐽] 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜁
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑁𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑁𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑁𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑁𝑖
( − ) ( − )
[ 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜂 ]
Where i = 1, 2, 3, 4 and,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁
[𝐽] =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
[𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂]

+1 +1
[𝑘]𝑒 = 𝑡∫ ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵] 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑡 ∫ ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵] 𝐷𝑒𝑡 [𝐽] 𝑑𝜁. 𝑑𝜂
𝑥 𝑦 −1 −1
Body force vector:

+1 +1
{𝑏}𝑒 = 𝑡 (∫ ∫ [𝑁]𝑇 𝐷𝑒𝑡 [𝐽] 𝑑𝜁 𝑑𝜂) {𝑏}
−1 −1
Traction force vector:

+1
𝑙3−4
{𝑇}𝑒 = 𝑡 (∫ [𝑁]𝑇 𝑑𝜁) {𝑇}
−1 2
Temperature load vector:

+1 +1
{𝜃}𝑒 = [𝑡𝑒 ∫ ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷]{𝜀𝑜 } 𝐷𝑒𝑡[𝐽]𝑑𝜁𝑑𝜂 ]
−1 −1
Total force vector:
{𝐹}𝑒 = ∑({𝑏}𝑒 + {𝑇}𝑒 + {𝑃}𝑒 + {𝜃}𝑒 )

2.4 Volume Elements:
Constitutive matrix:
1−𝜗 𝜗 𝜗 0 0 0
𝜗 1−𝜗 𝜗 0 0 0
𝜗 𝜗 1−𝜗 0 0 0
𝐸 (1 − 2𝜗)
[𝐷] = 0 0 0 0 0
(1 + 𝜗)(1 − 2𝜗) 2
(1 − 2𝜗)
0 0 0 0 0
2
(1 − 2𝜗)
[ 0 0 0 0 0
2 ]
Where, E = Young’s Modulus &  = Poison’s Ratio
Stress-Strain relationship: {} = Stress vector

{} = Strain vector
 xx  {q} = Displacement vector
  [B] = Strain-Displacement Interaction
 yy  Matrix
  [D] = Constitutive matrix
{ }   zz  = [𝐷]{𝜀} = [𝐷][𝐵]{𝑞}
  xy 
  yz 
 
  zx 61

2.4.1 Tetrahedral Elements:
{𝑞} = {𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞4 𝑞5 𝑞6 𝑞7 𝑞8 𝑞9 𝑞10 𝑞11 𝑞12 }𝑇 q3i-2, q3i-1 and q3i are DOF’s at each
node (i = 1, 2, 3, 4)
Shape Functions
𝑁1 = ξ ; 𝑁2 =  ; 𝑁3 =  ; N1, N2, N3 & N4 are shape functions at

nodes 1, 2, 3 & 4 respectively
𝑁4 = 1 − ξ −  − ;
Coordinates of any point P inside the Tetrahedral element:
𝑥 = 𝑁1 𝑥1 + 𝑁2 𝑥2 + 𝑁3 𝑥3 + 𝑁4 𝑥4
𝑦 = 𝑁1 𝑦1 + 𝑁2 𝑦2 + 𝑁3 𝑦3 + 𝑁4 𝑦4
𝑧 = 𝑁1 𝑧1 + 𝑁2 𝑧2 + 𝑁3 𝑧3 + 𝑁4 𝑧4
𝑢 = 𝑁1 𝑞1 + 𝑁2 𝑞4 + 𝑁3 𝑞7 + 𝑁4 𝑞10
Where, ‘u’, ‘v’ and ‘w’ are
𝑣 = 𝑁1 𝑞2 + 𝑁2 𝑞5 + 𝑁3 𝑞8 + 𝑁4 𝑞11 displacement components of any
arbitrary point within the element in x
𝑤 = 𝑁1 𝑞3 + 𝑁2 𝑞6 + 𝑁3 𝑞9 + 𝑁4 𝑞12 and y directions respectively

𝐴11 0 0 𝐴12 0 0 𝐴13 0 0 −𝐴1 0 0

0 𝐴21 0 0 𝐴22 0 0 𝐴23 0 0 −𝐴2 0
0 0 𝐴31 0 0 𝐴32 0 0 𝐴33 0 0 −𝐴3
[𝐵] =
0 𝐴31 𝐴21 0 𝐴32 𝐴22 0 𝐴33 𝐴23 0 −𝐴3 −𝐴2
𝐴31 0 𝐴11 𝐴32 0 𝐴12 𝐴33 0 𝐴13 −𝐴3 0 −𝐴1
[𝐴21 𝐴11 0 𝐴22 𝐴12 0 𝐴23 𝐴13 0 −𝐴2 −𝐴1 0 ]
where 𝐴1 = 𝐴11 + 𝐴12 + 𝐴13 , 𝐴2 = 𝐴21 + 𝐴22 + 𝐴23 , 𝐴3 = 𝐴31 + 𝐴32 + 𝐴33
𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13 𝑦24 𝑧34 − 𝑦34 𝑧24 𝑦34 𝑧14 − 𝑦14 𝑧34 𝑦14 𝑧24 − 𝑦24 𝑧14
1
𝐴
[ 21 𝐴22 𝐴23 ] = [ 𝑧24 𝑥34 − 𝑧34 𝑥24 𝑧34 𝑥14 − 𝑧14 𝑥34 𝑧14 𝑥24 − 𝑧24 𝑥14 ]
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴33 det[𝐽] 𝑥24 𝑦34 − 𝑥34 𝑦24 𝑥34 𝑦14 − 𝑥14 𝑦34 𝑥14 𝑦24 − 𝑥24 𝑦14
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉 𝑥14 𝑦14 𝑧14
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Jacobian [𝐽] = 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂
= [𝑥24 𝑦24 𝑧24 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥34 𝑦34 𝑧34
[𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁 ]
Element stiffness matrix: 𝑉𝑒 is the volume of the element given

1
by det[𝐽]
6
[𝑘𝑒 ] = 𝑉𝑒 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵]
Body force vector:
𝑏𝑥
𝑏𝑦 bx, by, bz are body force component in
x, y & z direction respectively at each
𝑏𝑧
𝑉 node
𝑒 𝑏 𝑥
{𝑏}𝑒 =
4 𝑏𝑦
𝑏𝑧
⋮
{ 𝑏𝑧 }12×1
Traction force vector: Tx, Ty, Tz are body force component in

x, y & z direction respectively at each
node

𝑇𝑥
𝑇𝑦
𝑇𝑧
𝑇𝑥
𝑇𝑦
𝐴𝑒 𝑇𝑧
{𝑇}𝑒 =
3 𝑇𝑥
𝑇𝑦
𝑇𝑧
0
0
{ 0 }12×1
Total force vector:
𝐹 = ∑({𝑏}𝑒 + {𝑇}𝑒 + 𝑃)
𝑒
2.4.2 Hexahedron Element:

{𝑞} = {𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞4 𝑞5 𝑞6 . . . 𝑞23 𝑞24 }𝑇
Shape Functions:
1
𝑁𝑖 = (1 + 𝜉𝜉𝑖 )(1 + 𝜂𝜂𝑖 )(1 + 𝜁𝜁𝑖 )
8
1 where i = 1 to 8 and (ξi, ηi, ζi)
𝑁1 = (1 − 𝜉)(1 − 𝜂)(1 − 𝜁)
8 represents the coordinates of node i
1 of the element in the (ξ, η, ζ) system
𝑁2 = (1 + 𝜉)(1 − 𝜂)(1 − 𝜁)
8
1
𝑁3 = (1 + 𝜉)(1 + 𝜂)(1 − 𝜁)
8
1
𝑁4 = (1 − 𝜉)(1 + 𝜂)(1 − 𝜁)
8
1
𝑁5 = (1 − 𝜉)(1 − 𝜂)(1 + 𝜁)
8
1
𝑁6 = (1 + 𝜉)(1 − 𝜂)(1 + 𝜁)
8
1
𝑁7 = (1 + 𝜉)(1 + 𝜂)(1 + 𝜁)
8
1
𝑁8 = (1 − 𝜉)(1 + 𝜂)(1 + 𝜁)
8
Coordinates of any point P inside hexahedral element:
𝑥 = 𝑁1 𝑥1 + 𝑁2 𝑥2 + 𝑁3 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑁8 𝑥8
𝑦 = 𝑁1 𝑦1 + 𝑁2 𝑦2 + 𝑁3 𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑁8 𝑦8
𝑧 = 𝑁1 𝑧1 + 𝑁2 𝑧2 + 𝑁3 𝑧3 + ⋯ + 𝑁8 𝑧8
𝑢 = 𝑁1 𝑞1 + 𝑁2 𝑞4 + 𝑁3 𝑞7 + ⋯ + 𝑁8 𝑞22
𝑣 = 𝑁1 𝑞2 + 𝑁2 𝑞5 + 𝑁3 𝑞8 + ⋯ + 𝑁8 𝑞23
𝑤 = 𝑁1 𝑞3 + 𝑁2 𝑞6 + 𝑁3 𝑞9 + ⋯ + 𝑁8 𝑞24
[𝐵] = [𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵3 𝐵4 𝐵5 𝐵6 𝐵7 𝐵8 ]
Where, B1 to B8 are sub-matrices of [B]

𝜕𝑁𝑖
0 0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑁𝑖
0 0
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑁𝑖
0 0
𝜕𝑧
[𝐵𝑖 ] =
𝜕𝑁𝑖 𝜕𝑁𝑖
0
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
0
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
0
[ 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 ]
and i = 1 to 8;
Strain Vector:
  u  
 xx     
    x  
    v  
 yy     
    y  
   
    w  
 zz    z  
{ }      
    u  v  
 xy    y x  
   
    v w  
 yz    z  y  
   
   w u  
 zx    
 x z  
Also, {𝜀} = [𝐵]{𝑞}
Jacobian Matrix:
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
[𝐽] =
𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
[𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁 𝜕𝜁]

+1 +1
[𝑘]𝑒 = ∭[𝐵] [𝐷][𝐵]. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧 = ∭[𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵]𝐷𝑒𝑡[𝐽]. 𝑑𝜉. 𝑑𝜂. 𝑑𝜁

𝑇
−1 −1
3. Application of the Finite element method to structural dynamics
3.1 Consistent Mass matrix: 𝜌 = Mass Density (kg/m3)

N = Shape Function
[𝑚]𝑒 = 𝜌 ∫[𝑁]𝑇 [𝑁]. 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉= Elemental Volume
𝑉 A = Area of cross-section (m2)
1D Problem:
𝜌 𝐴 𝑙𝑒 2 1
[𝑚]𝑒 = ⌊ ⌋
6 1 2
Truss Element:
2 0 1 0
𝜌 𝐴 𝑙𝑒 0 2 0 1
[𝑚]𝑒 = [ ]
6 1 0 2 0
0 1 0 2
Beam Element:
156 22𝑙 54 −13𝑙

𝜌 𝐴 𝑙𝑒 22𝑙 4𝑙 2 13𝑙 −3𝑙 2
[𝑚]𝑒 = [ ]
420 54 13𝑙 156 −22𝑙
−13𝑙 −3𝑙 2 −22𝑙 4𝑙 2
Lumped Mass matrix:
1D Problem:
𝜌 𝐴 𝑙𝑒 1 0
[𝑚]𝑒 = ⌊ ⌋
2 0 1
Truss Element:
1 0 0 0
𝜌 𝐴 𝑙𝑒 0 1 0 0
[𝑚]𝑒 = [ ]
2 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Beam Element:
1 0 0 0
𝜌 𝐴 𝑙𝑒 0 0 0 0
[𝑚]𝑒 = [ ]
2 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

MME 3154: Turbo Machines
1. Dimensional Analysis of Turbo Machines

1.1 Dimensional analysis of incompressible flow turbo machines (Hydraulic machines)
Q Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)

Flowcoefficient  N = Rotational speed (RPM)
ND3
D = Diameter of the impeller (m)
H gh H = Energy per unit mass (J/kg) = gh
Head coefficient  2 2
 2 2 h = Head (m)
DN DN
P P = Power (W)
Power coefficient   = Density (kg/m3)
 N 3 D5
VD V = Flow velocity (m/s)
Reynolds number   = Absolute viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms)

1.2 Dimensional analysis of compressible flow turbo machines
N N = Rotational speed (RPM)

Speed parameter  T01 = Stagnation temperature at inlet of turbomachine (K)
T01
 m T01  m  Mass flow rate (kg/s)

Mass parameter    p01 = Stagnation pressure at inlet of turbomachine (K)
 p01 
 
P P = Power (W)
Power coefficient   01
01 N 3 D5 = Stagnation Density at inlet of turbomachine
(kg/m3)
01VD V = Flow velocity (m/s)

Reynolds number   = Absolute viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms)

1.3 Affinity laws
1.3.1 Law of corresponding speed ratio
Q1 N1 Q1 = Volume flow rate corresponding to a running

 speed of N1
Q2 N 2
Q2 = Volume flow rate corresponding to a running
speed of N2
2 H1 = Energy per unit mass corresponding to a
H1  N1 
  running speed of N1
H 2  N2  H2 = Energy per unit mass corresponding to a
running speed of N2
3 P1 = Power corresponding to a running speed of N1
P1  N1 
  P2 = Power corresponding to a running speed of N2
P2  N 2 
MME 3154: Turbo Machines 129

1.3.2 Law of corresponding diameter ratio
3 Q1 = Volume flow rate of a turbomachine having
Q1  D1 
  impeller diameter D1
Q2  D2  Q2 = Volume flow rate of a geometrically similar
turbomachine having impeller diameter D2
2 H1 = Energy per unit mass of a turbomachine having
H1  D1 
  impeller diameter D1
H 2  D2  H2 = Energy per unit mass of a geometrically similar
turbomachine having impeller diameter D2
5 P1 = Power of a turbomachine having impeller
P1  D1 
  diameter D1
P2  D2  P2 = Power of a geometrically similar turbomachine
having impeller diameter D2
1.4 Specific speed
N Q Q = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)

N s ( pump )  3 N = Rotational speed (RPM)
4
h h = Head (m)
Ns(pump)=Dimensional specific speed of a pump (SI
unit standard)
n Q H = Energy per unit mass (J/kg) = gh

ns ( pump )  3 g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
4
H ns(pump)=Non-dimensional specific speed of a pump
2 N n = Rotational speed (rad/s)
where n 
60
P = Power (kW)
N P
N s (turbine )  5 Ns(turbine)=Dimensional specific speed of a turbine (SI
4
h unit standard)
P = Power (W)
n P
ns (turbine )  1 5
 = Density (kg/m3)
 2H 4 ns(turbine)=Non-dimensional specific speed of a turbine
2 N
where n 
60
1.5 Unit quantities
 Q  Qu = Unit discharge
Qu    Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)
 h h = Head (m)
 N  Nu = Unit speed
Nu    N = Rotational speed (RPM)
 h
 P  Pu = Unit power
Pu   3/ 2  P = Power (kW)
h 

1.6 Efficiency
 Qghm  pump = Efficiency of pump

 pump 
Pin  = Density (kg/m3)
hm = Manometric head (m)
Pin = Power input (W)
Pout turbine = Efficiency of turbine
turbine 
Qgh Pout = Power output (W)
h = Head on turbine (m)
1.7 Moody’s formula
 1-1   D2 
n
1 = Efficiency of model
For turbines:    2
 1-2   D1 
= Efficiency of prototype
D1 = Diameter of the model (m)
D2 = Diameter of the prototype (m)
n = Empirical constant
n Re1 = Reynolds number of flow for the model
 1-1   Re2 
For pumps:    Re2 = Reynolds number of flow for the prototype
 1-  2   Re1 
2. Energy Transfer in Turbomachines

2.1 Euler turbine equation
For power generating turbomachines: Pout = Power output (W)
Pout  m& u1C1u  u2 C2u  m&= Mass flow rate (kg/s)

 D1 N
u1  =Rotor speed at inlet (m/s)
H  u1C1u  u2 C2u 60
 D2 N
u1C1u  u2 C2u u2  = Rotor speed at exit (m/s)
h 60
g D1 = Inlet diameter (m)
D2 = Exit diameter (m)
 C 2  C22   u12  u22   w22  w12 
H  1    N = Rotational speed (RPM)
 2   2   2  C1u = Tangential component of fluid velocity at inlet (m/s)
C2u = Tangential component of fluid velocity at outlet (m/s)
For power absorbing turbomachines:
Pin  m& u2 C2u  u1C1u  C1 = Absolute velocity of fluid at inlet (m/s)
C2 = Absolute velocity of fluid at exit (m/s)
H  u2 C2u  u1C1u w1 = Relative velocity at inlet (m/s)
w2 = Relative velocity at exit (m/s)
u2 C2u  u1C1u
h Pin = Power input (W)
g
 C 2  C12   u22  u12   w12  w22 
H  2   
 2   2   2 

2.2 Degree of reaction
R
u 2
1  u22    w22  w12  R = Degree of reaction
C 2
1  C22    u12  u22    w22  w12 
2.3 General analysis of pumps and compressors
Head – Discharge (H - Q) Characteristics of H = Energy per unit mass (J/kg) = gh

centrifugal pumps and compressors:  2 = Exit blade angle (deg)
Q
H  u  u2cot  2
2
2  k1  k2Q A2 = Impeller discharge area at its exit (m 2)
A2 Q = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)
k1  u22 = Shut off head (J/kg)
u2cot  2
k2  = A combined parameter
A2
Axial flow pumps and compressors: C1a = Axial component of absolute velocity of fluid at
inlet (m/s)
 C 2  C12   w12  w22  C2a = Axial component of absolute velocity of fluid at
H  2   exit (m/s)
 2   2 
' = Flow angle at inlet with respect to axial
 
1
H  u C2 a tan  2  C1a tan  1

' '
direction (deg)
 2'
H  u C tan  
= Flow angle at exit with respect to axial
1a tan   C2 a
' '
1 2
direction (deg)
 tanβ1' +tan β 2'  c 1' = Blade angle at inlet with respect to axial
c
R a    a tanβ mean
'
direction (deg)
u  2  u
  2' = Blade angle at exit with respect to axial
direction (deg)
2.4 General analysis of turbines
Utilization factor: H T = Energy output from turbine per unit mass

(J/kg)
 HT   u1C1u  u2C2u  Hav = Available energy per unit mass (J/kg) =
      ghav
 H av   ghav  hav = Head available (m)
 = Utilization factor
 C12 - C22   u12 - u22   w22 - w12  R = Degree of reaction
   
  2   2   2 
ghav
HT
ε=
C22
HT +
2
Relationship between degree of reaction and
utilization factor:
C12  C22

C12  RC22

3. Thermodynamics of Turbomachines
3.1 Stagnation properties:
T0   1  2 T0 = Stagnation (Total) temperature (K)

 1  M T = Static temperature (K)
T  2   = Ratio of specific heats
V2 M = Mach number of flow
h0  h  h0 = Stagnation (Total) enthalpy (J/kg)
2
h = Static enthalpy (J/kg)
 V = Velocity of flow (m/s)
p0  V 2   1 p0 = Stagnation (Total) pressure (Pa)
 1  
p  2c pT  p = Static pressure (Pa)
cp = Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kgK)
3.2 Thermodynamic efficiencies of an expansion process in a turbine:
T02 T02 t t = Total to total efficiency

1 1
T01 T01 T01 = Stagnation (Total) temperature at the inlet
t  t  t  s 
T02 s T2 s of turbine (K)
1 1 T02 = Stagnation (Total) temperature at the exit
T01 T01
of turbine (K)
T01  T02 T01  T02 T02s = Stagnation (Total) temperature at the exit
s s   s t 
T1  T2 s T1  T02 s of turbine for adiabatic (isentropic) process (K)
t  s = Total to static efficiency
T2s = Static temperature at the exit of turbine for
adiabatic (isentropic) process (K)
 s  s = Static to static efficiency
T1 = Static temperature at the inlet of turbine (K)
 s t = Static to total efficiency
ln 
T2  p = Polytropic efficiency
 T1 
p    1 
T1 = Static temperature at the inlet of turbine (K)
 
T2 = Static temperature at the exit of turbine (K)
ln  
p2    p1 = Static pressure at the inlet of turbine (Pa)
 p1  p2 = Static pressure at the exit of turbine (Pa)
p2
rp = Stage pressure ratio =
  1 
p 
p1

T  1     = Ratio of specific heats
1   2  1   
 T1    rp   s = Stage efficiency
s 
T    1 
 
rpov = Overall pressure ratio = (rp)N
1   2s   1    N = Number of stages
 T1  1    ov = Overall efficiency
 rp 
n = Polytropic index

 r 1   r 1 
p   N p  
 1  r  1  r 
1   1  
 rpov   rp 
ov   
  1 
  
  1 
  N 
 1    1  
1  1  
 r  r 
 pov   p
N
   1

   
1  
1  1   s 1    
 
   rp  
 
ov     1 
N 
1  
1  
 rp 
 
Relation between n and  :
 n 1    
p    
 n    1 
3.3 Thermodynamic efficiencies of a compression process in a compressor:
T02 s T2 s t t = Total to total efficiency

1 1
T01 T01 T01 = Stagnation (Total) temperature at the inlet of
t  t  t  s  compressor (K)
T02 T02
1 1 T02 = Stagnation (Total) temperature at the exit of
T01 T01 compressor (K)
T02s = Stagnation (Total) temperature at the exit of
T2 s  T1 T02 s  T1 compressor for adiabatic (isentropic) process (K)
s s   s t  t  s = Total to static efficiency
T02  T01 T02  T01
T2s = Static temperature at the exit of compressor for
adiabatic (isentropic) process (K)
 s  s = Static to static efficiency
T1 = Static temperature at the inlet of compressor (K)
 s t = Static to total efficiency
  1 
  p Polytropic efficiency
 p   
ln  2  T1 = Static temperature at the inlet of compressor (K)
p   1 
p T2 = Static temperature at the exit of compressor (K)
T p1 = Static pressure at the inlet of compressor (Pa)
ln 2 p2 = Static pressure at the exit of compressor (Pa)
T1 p2
rp = Stage pressure ratio =
T2 s p1
 1
1  = Ratio of specific heats
T1 1   rp  
s   1   1   s = Stage efficiency
T
1  2 1   rp  p    rpov = Overall pressure ratio = (rp)N
T1 N = Number of stages
ov = Overall efficiency
n = Polytropic index

  1  N  1
1   rpov  1   rp 
 
  
ov  1   1 
 N   1 
1   rpov  p  1   rp  p 
   
   
  1 
N 
  
1 r
ov  p
N
 1  1

1  1  1  rp   
  s  

 n    1 
p    
 n 1    
3.4 Relationship between stage and overall efficiencies
For turbine: RHF = Reheat factor

 PHF = Preheat factor
RHF  ov
s
For compressor:
ov
PHF 
s
4. Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers and Compressors

4.1 Centrifugal pump
1 H static  Static head developed by the pump (J/kg)

H static   u2  C2m cot 2 u2  C2m cot 2 
2  D1 N
u1  =Impeller speed at inlet (m/s)
v 2 60
hm  hs  hd  h fs  h fd  d
 D2 N
2g u2  = Impeller speed at exit (m/s)
60
p2  p1 v2 D2 = Impeller diameter at exit (m)
hm    hd  hs    h fd  h fs   d D1 = Impeller diameter at inlet (m)
g 2g
N = Rotational speed (RPM)
 Q  u2C2u  u1C1u  C1m = Meridional component of absolute velocity at
mech  inlet (m/s)
Pin C2m = Meridional component of absolute velocity at
exit (m/s)
 Q g hm
mano  2  Blade angle at impeller exit with respect to
Q  u2C2u  u1C1u 
tangential direction (deg)
 Q g hm hm = Manometric head (m)
ov  hs= Actual suction head of the pump and is the
Pin distance between the water level to the centerline of
the pump (m)
ov mano mech hd= Actual delivery head of the pump and is the
distance between the centerline of the pump to the
delivery end (m)

Q  QL hfs = The head loss due to friction in the suction pipe
Vol  (m).
Q
hfd = The head loss due to the friction in the delivery
2 g hm pipe (m).
60
N st 
 D22  D12 
vd = velocity of water in the delivery pipe (m/s)
 g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
p2 = Delivery gauge reading (Pa)
Q  k   D2  B2  c2 m  k   D1  B1  c1m p1 = Suction gauge reading (Pa)
 mech  Mechanical efficiency
C'
  2u  = Density (kg/m3)
C2 u
    sin  2 
C1u = Whirl component of fluid velocity at impeller
  1    inlet (m/s)
 Z  1  2 cot  2  C2u = Whirl component of fluid velocity at impeller
outlet (m/s)
p v2   p  Pin = Power input (W)
NPSH =  atm  hs  h fs  s    vap 
 g 2g    g  mano  Manometric efficiency
ov  Overall efficiency
vol  Volumetric efficiency
QL = Leakage flow rate (m3/s)
Nst = Minimum starting speed (RPM)
k = Blade compensation factor
B1: Impeller width at inlet (m)
B2: Impeller width at exit (m)
C1m = Meridional component of absolute velocity at
impeller inlet (m/s)
  Slip factor
C2u' = Changed whirl component of fluid velocity at
impeller exit due to slip (m/s)
Z = Number of impeller blades
C2 m
2  = Flow coefficient at impeller exit
u2
NPSH = Net positive suction head (m)
patm = Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
vs = Velocity of water in suction pipe (m/s)
pvap = Vapor pressure (Pa)
4.2 Centrifugal fans, blowers and compressors
h2  h1  1  2 cot  2 2  22  R = Degree of reaction

R  1   h2 = Static enthalpy at impeller exit (J/kg)
h02  h01  2 1  2 cot 2   h1 = Static enthalpy at impeller inlet (J/kg)
h02 = Stagnation enthalpy at impeller exit (J/kg)
  1  2 cot  2 h01 = Stagnation enthalpy at impeller inlet (J/kg)
  Blade loading factor
  
p   rpo = Stage stagnation pressure ratio
p02  u22     1 
rpo   1   p02 = Stagnation pressure at impeller exit (Pa)
p01  c pT01  p01 = Stagnation pressure at impeller inlet (Pa)
 = Ratio of specific heats

   d N 2
2 p Polytropic efficiency
4Q
w  c u  
2 2 2
  1 
  1 h 
1 1m
 
1 cp = Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kgK)
 
d 2
d 2
60 
T01 = Stagnation temperature at impeller inlet (K)
w1 = Relative velocity at inlet (m/s)
d1 = Impeller diameter at inlet (m)
dh = Hub diameter (m)
5. Axial Flow Compressors

Ca protor  Static pressure rise across rotor (Pa)
protor  C2u  C1u   tan 1'  tan 2' 
2  = Density (kg/m3)
  Ca  Axial component of fluid velocity (m/s)
pstator  C 2
2  C32   C 2
2u  C12u 
2 2 1' = Blade angle at inlet with respect to axial
pstage   Ca u  tan  2'  tan 1'  direction (deg)

2' = Blade angle at exit with respect to axial
  
p   direction (deg)
 u    1 
rpo  1   C2u  C1u  pstator  Static pressure rise across stator (Pa)
 c pT01  C1 = Absolute velocity of fluid at rotor inlet (m/s)
2u  C1u  C2u C2 = Absolute velocity of fluid at rotor exit (m/s)
R C3 = Absolute velocity of fluid leaving the stator
2u (m/s)

 tan   tan 2' 
C1u = Whirl component of fluid velocity at rotor inlet
R 1
'
(m/s)
2
C2u = Whirl component of fluid velocity at rotor outlet
1 
  tan 2'  tan 1' 
(m/s)
R
2 2 pstage  Total static pressure rise across the stage
H act   u  C2u  C1u  (Pa)
u =Rotor speed (m/s)
    tan  2'  tan 1'     tan 1'  tan  2'  '1
= Flow angle at inlet with respect to axial
direction (deg)
 2' = Flow angle at exit with respect to axial
direction (deg)
 = Ratio of specific heats
p Polytropic efficiency
cp = Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kgK)

R = Degree of reaction
Ca
  Flow coefficient =
u
H act  Actual work in a stage (J/kg)
  Work done factor
  Blade loading factor

6. Hydraulic Turbines
6.1 Pelton turbine
HT  u  C1  u 1  cos  2  H T = Energy output from turbine per unit mass

(J/kg)
   1   1  cos  2  u =Bucket speed (m/s)
C1  Velocity of fluid exiting from nozzle (m/s)
1  cos 2
 max   2 = Exit blade angle (deg)
2
  Utilization factor
H T ( act )  u  C1  u 1  cb cos  2  u
  Blade speed ratio
hyd  2 1   1  cb cos  2  C1
 max  Maximum utilization factor
4Q
d HT ( act )  Actual turbine work (J/kg)
 c j 2 ghav
cb = Bucket surface loss coefficient
60 c j 2 ghav hyd  Hydraulic efficiency

Dm 
N d = Diameter of jet (m)
60 f Q = Volume flow rate (m 3/s)
N sync  cj = Jet loss coefficient
p
hav = Head available (m)
Dm Dm = Mean diameter of the runner (m)
m N = Runner speed (RPM)
d
Nsync = Synchronous speed of alternator (RPM)
z  0.15 m  15 f = Frequency of the AC current (Hz)
p = Number of poles
m = Jet ratio
z = Number of buckets
6.2 Francis turbine
Cm   Flow coefficient
 Cm = Meridional component of absolute velocity
2 ghav
(m/s)
p2 = Static pressure at turbine exit (Pa)
u1C1u  u2C2u
hyd  C3 = Velocity of water at the exit of draft tube
ghav (m/s)
hfdr = Frictional head loss in the draft tube (m)
p2 p  C 2  C32  hs = Distance between turbine exit and water
 atm   2  h fdr   hs level in the tail race (m)
 g  g  2g  C2 = Absolute velocity of fluid at runner exit
(m/s)
C22  C32 C3 = Absolute velocity of fluid at draft tube exit
 h fdr (m/s)
2g
dr  dr  Draft tube efficiency
C22
2g

6.3 Kaplan turbine
Ca   Flow coefficient

2 ghav   Blade speed ratio
D = Diameter of the impeller (m)
u
 dh = Hub diameter (m)
2 ghav

Q
4
D 2
 dh2    2 ghav
u  C1u  C2u 
hyd 
ghav
7. Steam Turbines
7.1 Single stage impulse turbine
 h h  C1 actual   Actual velocity of fluid exiting from nozzle (m/s)

N   0 1 
 h0  h1s   N  Efficiency of nozzle
h0 = Enthalpy at the inlet of nozzle (J/kg)
C1 actual   2 N  h0  h1s  h1s = Isentropic enthalpy at the exit of the nozzle (J/kg)
h1 = Actual enthalpy at the exit of the nozzle (J/kg)
2uw1 1  cb  cos  2   R  Rotor efficiency
R  2
C1 u =Rotor speed (m/s)
w1 = Relative velocity at inlet (m/s)
cb = Blade surface loss coefficient
2 = Exit blade angle (deg)
C1  Velocity of fluid exiting from nozzle (m/s)
7.2 Two stage impulse turbine (Curtis stage)
H tot  4u C1u – 2u  H tot  Total work transfer in two stages (J/kg)

C1u = Whirl component of fluid velocity at rotor inlet (m/s)
4u C1u  2u    Utilization factor
  8  cos 1  2 
2
 C12  u
    Blade speed ratio
 2  C1
1 = Flow angle at inlet (deg)
7.3 Reaction turbine (50 % reaction)
C12  C22  max  Maximum utilization factor


C12  0.5C22 C2  Velocity of fluid at rotor exit (m/s)
2 cos 2 1
 max 
1  cos 2 1

HUM 3151: Engineering Economics and Financial Management
Discrete Compounding Formulas with Discrete Payments:

Single Payment Compound Amount, (F/P, i, n)
Series
𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
Present Worth, (P/F, i, n)
𝑃 = 𝐹(1 + 𝑖)−𝑛
Equal Payment Compound Amount, (F/A, i, n)
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1
Series 𝐹 = 𝐴[ ]
𝑖
Sinking Fund, (A/F, i, n) 𝑖
𝐴 = 𝐹[ ]
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1
Present Worth, (P/A, i, n)
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1
𝑃 = 𝐴[ ]
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
Capital Recovery, (A/P, i, n) 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑛

𝐴 = 𝑃[ ]
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1
Gradient Series Conversion factor, (A/G, i, n) (1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛 − 1
𝐴 =𝐺[ ]
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 𝑖
Nominal and Effective Interest Rates:

Effective interest rate per period m = Number of compounding periods per year
𝑟 r = Interest rate
𝑖=
𝑚
Effective annual interest rate m = Number of compounding periods per year
𝑟 c = Number of compounding period per payment
𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1 + 𝑚 )𝑐 - 1 period
r = Interest rate
Capitalized Cost (CC) A = Annual worth
I = interest rate
𝐴
𝐶𝐶 =
𝐼
I = Purchase price of the machine
Capital Recovery (CR)
S = Salvage value of the machine at the end of
𝐴 machine life
𝐶𝑅 = (𝐼 − 𝑆) × ( , 𝑖, 𝑛) + 𝑆 ∗ 𝑖
𝑃 n = Life of the machine in years, and
i = Interest rate, compounded annually
Economic Life of an Asset Capital Recovery expenses + EUAC of operating
and maintenance expenses
Depreciation
i. Straight Line Depreciation Dn = Annual depreciation amount
𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒−𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 I = Purchase price of the equipment
Annual Depreciation = 𝐷𝑛 = n = Number of Years
𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒
Book Value = 𝐼 − (𝑛 ∗ 𝐷𝑛 )
HUM 3151: Engineering Economics and Financial Management 140

ii. Decline Balance Method (DBM) Depreciation ∝ = Annual rate of Depreciation (%)
The depreciation rate (α) is given by Bn = Book value of the equipment
1
𝐵𝑛 𝑛 I = Purchase price of the equipment
∝=1−( ) n = Number of Years
𝐼
The depreciation charge for any year ‘n’ is given by, Dn = Depreciation charge for any year
“n”.
𝐷𝑛 =∝ 𝐼(1−∝)𝑛−1
The book value is given by,
𝐵𝑛 = 𝐼(1−∝)𝑛
iii. Double Decline Balance Depreciation ∝ = Annual rate of Depreciation (%)

n = Number of Years
Annual rate of depreciation is, ∝ = 2 / years of
2
useful life or ∝ =
𝑛
Ratio Analysis
Types of Financial Ratios
i. Liquidity Ratios:
Current assets
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
Current liabilities
(Current assets – Inventories)

𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜) =
Liabilities
ii. Financial Leverage Ratio:
Structural Ratio
Total debt or long term debt
𝐷𝑒𝑏𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 =
Shareholder’s equity
Debt to total asset

Total debt
𝐷𝑒𝑏𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡 =
Total asset
Coverage ratio
Earnings before Interest & Taxes
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
Interest Expense
iii. Turnover Ratios:
1. Inventory turnover
Cost of goods sold
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
Average inventory

Costs of goods sold = Opening stock + Manufacturing cost including purchases – Closing stock
OR
Cost of goods sold = (100 – % gross profit) * sales
Avg. Inventory = Avg. of monthly inventory for calendar year considered

Opening stock + Closing stock
=
2
Sales
In the absence of data, Inventory turnover =
Closing Inventory
2. Debtor’s turnover ratio

Net Credit sales
Debtors turnover =
Avg. accounts receivable OR Avg. debtors
Opening balance debtors + Closing balance debtors

Average debtors =
2
Closing balance = Current assets – Inventories – Cash
Total sales
In the absence of data, Debtors turnover =
(Debtors + Bills receivable)
Average collection period
Another method of measuring liquidity of firm’s debtors is average collection period.
Avg. accounts receivable Avg. debtor′s

= OR * 360 days
Avg. daily credit sales Credit sales
SIMILARLY, THERE IS CREDITORS TURNOVER RATIO
3. Asset Turnover
Costs of goods sold
Fixed Asset Turnover =
Avg. fixed assets
Costs of goods sold

Total Asset Turnover =
Avg. total assets
iv. Profitability Ratios:
Profit margin ratio
 Indication of relationship between profits and sales.

Two types,
Gross profit
1. Gross profit margin = ∗ 100
Sales
2. Net profit margin

EBIT
a. Net profit margin (before tax) =
Sales
EAT
b. Net profit margin (after tax) =
Sales
Return on Investment
 Profits of firm to its investment
Return on Assets
Net profit after tax

Return on Assets =
Avg. total assets
(EAT + Interest − Tax Advantage on Interest)

=
Assets
Return on equity
Net profit after tax

Return on equity =
Avg. total shareholders’ equity

MME 3251: Heat transfer
1. Introduction
1.1 Heat flow rate (W)
∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = Overall difference in temperature (°C or K)

𝑄=
𝑅
R = Thermal resistance (K/W)
1.1.1 Conduction A = Area (m2)
k = Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
L = Thickness (m)
Tw = Wall temperature
T∞ = Fluid temperature
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
T1, T2 = Temperature at zero and L planes /

Radiating surface temperatures
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant
𝐿 𝑇1 −𝑇𝑥 𝑥 (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4)
𝑅= , = F = Radiation shape factor
𝑘𝐴 𝑇1 −𝑇2 𝐿
𝑇1 +𝑇2 km = Mean thermal conductivity (W/mK)
𝑘𝑚 = 𝑘𝑜 (1 ± 𝛼 )
2
1.1.2 Convection α, ko = Constants defining conductivity variations
1
𝑅=
ℎ𝐴
1.1.3 Radiation
1
𝑅=
𝜎𝐴𝐹(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 2 )(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
2
MME 3251: Heat transfer 144

2. Steady state conduction
2.1 Heat flow rate (W)
∆𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 r1, r2 = Inner and outer radii (m)

𝑄=
𝑅 Ti , T o = Inner and outer surface temperature
2.1.1 Hollow cylinder L = Length of cylinder (m)
Ta, Tb = Fluid temperature outside and inside
L1, L2, L3 = Thickness of layers (m)
k1, k2, k3 = Conductivity of layers 1,2 and 3

ha, hb = Convective coefficient at a and b
1 𝑟 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑟 𝑙𝑛(𝑟 ⁄𝑟1 )

𝑅= 𝑙𝑛 ( 2), =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟 1 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 𝑙𝑛(𝑟2 ⁄𝑟1 )
2.1.2 Hollow sphere
1 1
1 1 1 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑟 ( − )
𝑟1 𝑟
𝑅= ( − 𝑟 ), = 1 1
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 2 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 (𝑟 −𝑟 )
1 2
2.1.3 Composite plane wall with convection on

sides
1 1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 1
𝑅= [ + + + + ]
𝐴 ℎ𝑎 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 ℎ𝑏

2.1.4 Composite cylinder with convection L = Length of cylinder (m)
Ta, Tb = Fluid temperature outside and
inside
ha, hb = Convective coefficient at a and b
k1, k2, k3 = Conductivity of layers 1,2 and 3

To, Ti = Fluid temperature outside and inside
kA, kB…kG = Thermal conductivities of A,B….G
LA, LB…LG = Thickness of the slab A, B….G (m)
AA, AB…AG = Area perpendicular to heat flow of
materials A,B….G
1 1 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1
𝑅= [ + 𝑙𝑛 ( 2) + 𝑙𝑛 ( 3) + 𝑙𝑛 ( 4) + ]
2𝜋𝐿 ℎ𝑎 𝑟1 𝑘1 𝑟 𝑘 1 𝑟 𝑘2 𝑟 ℎ 2 3 3 𝑏 𝑟4
2.1.5 Composite sphere with convection
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑅= [ 2
+ (𝑟 − 𝑟 ) + 𝑘 (𝑟 − 𝑟 ) + ℎ 2
]
4𝜋 ℎ𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝑘1 1 2 2 2 3 𝑜 𝑟3
2.1.6 Series-parallel composite layers
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅𝐷 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐹
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝐴 , 𝑅2 = 𝑅 𝐵+𝑅𝐶 , 𝑅3 = 𝑅 , 𝑅4 = 𝑅𝐺
𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝑅𝐸 +𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐷
𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐺
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑘 ,… 𝑅𝐺 = 𝑘 , 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐴𝐸 + 𝐴𝐹 = 𝐴𝐺
𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐺 𝐴𝐺

2.2 Steady state conduction with heat generation
2.2.1 Plain wall – Symmetric boundary T∞ = Surrounding fluid temperature (°C)

condition
h = Convective coefficient (W/m 2K)
𝑞̇ = Heat generated (W/m 3)
Tx = Temperature at distance x from mid-

plane (°C)
L = Half thickness (m)
To = Temperature at mid-plane or axis (°C)
qx = Heat flow at plane x from centre (W/m2)
Tw1, Tw2 = Surface temperature (°C)
xmax = Location of maximum temperature (m)
Tmax = Maximum temperature (°C)
𝑞̇ 𝑇𝑥 −𝑇𝑜 𝑥 2 𝑞̇
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇𝑤 + 𝐿2 , =( ) , 𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞̇ 𝑥
2𝑘 𝑇𝑤 −𝑇𝑜 𝐿 2𝑘
For outside convection
𝑞̇ 𝐿
𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇∞ +
ℎ
2.2.2 Plain wall – Asymmetric boundary

condition
𝑞̇ 𝑥 1
𝑇𝑥 = 2𝑘 (𝐿2 − 𝑥 2 ) + 2𝐿 (𝑇𝑤 2 − 𝑇𝑤 1 ) + 2 (𝑇𝑤 1 + 𝑇𝑤 2 )
𝑘 𝑞̇ 𝐿2 𝑘 2 1
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑞̇ 𝐿 (𝑇𝑤 2 − 𝑇𝑤 1 ) , 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + 8𝑞̇ 𝐿2 (𝑇𝑤 1 − 𝑇𝑤 2 ) + 2 (𝑇𝑤 1 + 𝑇𝑤 2 )
2𝑘

2.2.3 Solid cylinder 𝑟, 𝑅 = Radii (m)
Tr = Temperature at any radius (°C)
L = Length of cylinder (m)
qr = Heat flow at radius r from centre (W)

rc = Critical radius (m)
Ti = Centre temperature (°C)
To = Surface temperature (°C)
T∞ = Surrounding fluid temperature (°C)
h = Convective coefficient (W/m 2K)
k = Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
𝑞̇ 𝑅 2 𝑇𝑟 −𝑇𝑤 𝑟 2 𝑞̇
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇𝑤 + , = 1 − (𝑅) , 𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇𝑤 + 4𝑘 (𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 ) , 𝑞𝑟 = 𝑞̇ 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿
4𝑘 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑤
𝑘
𝑟𝑐 =
ℎ
𝑞̇ 𝑅
𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇∞ +
2ℎ
2.2.4 Solid sphere
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑞̇ 4 𝑞̇
= (𝑅 ) , 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑜 + 6𝑘 𝑅𝑜 2 , 𝑞𝑟 = 𝑞̇ 3 𝜋𝑟 3 , 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇𝑜 = 6𝑘 (𝑅𝑜 2 − 𝑟 2 )
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 𝑜
𝑞̇ 2𝑘
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖 − 6𝑘 𝑟 2 , 𝑟𝑐 = ℎ
𝑞̇ 𝑅𝑜
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇∞ +
3ℎ

2.3 Fins
T∞ , T𝑎 = Surrounding fluid temperature (°C)

T𝑏 = Fin base temperature (°C)
T = Temperature at distance x from base (°C)
L = Fin length (m)
m = Fin constant (m -1)
Q = Heat transfer from fin (W)
ηfin = Fin efficiency
ε = Fin effectiveness
𝑚 = √(ℎ𝑃 ⁄𝑘𝐴) θ1 = Temperature difference (T1-Ta)
θ2 = Temperature difference (T2-Ta)
2.3.1 Long fin (TL = T∞)
𝑇−𝑇∞ 1
= 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 , 𝑄 = (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ )(ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴)0.5 , 𝜂𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝐿 , 𝜀 = (𝑃𝑘⁄ℎ𝐴)0.5
𝑇𝑏 −𝑇∞
2.3.2 Short fin (adiabatic end)
𝑇−𝑇∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑚[𝐿−𝑥])
= , 𝑄 = (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ )(ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴)0.5 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
𝑇𝑏 −𝑇∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
𝜂𝑓𝑖𝑛 = , 𝜀 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)(𝑃𝑘⁄ℎ𝐴)0.5
𝑚𝐿
2.3.3 Short fin (convective loss from end)
𝑇−𝑇∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑚[𝐿−𝑥])+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘 )𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑚[𝐿−𝑥])

=
𝑇𝑏 −𝑇∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑚𝐿)+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘 )𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘 )
𝑄 = (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇∞ ) (ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴)0.5
1+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘 )𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
1 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘)
𝜂𝑓𝑖𝑛 = [ ], 𝜀 = [1+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘)𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)] (𝑃𝑘⁄ℎ𝐴)0.5
𝑚𝐿 1+(ℎ⁄𝑚𝑘 )𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
2.3.4 Bar connected to two heat sources at different temperatures
𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑚[𝐿−𝑥])+𝜃2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝑥)
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑚𝐿)−1
𝑄 = (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) (ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴)0.5
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)

3. Forced convection: Properties at film temperature (T𝑓 )
3.1 Laminar flow - external
3.1.1 Flat plate: 𝑅𝑒𝑥 < 5 ∗ 105 T𝑓 = (𝑇𝑤 + T∞ )⁄2

Tw = Surface temperature (°C)
−0.5
𝛿ℎ𝑥 = 5𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑥
T∞ = Free stream fluid temperature (°C)
−0.333
𝛿𝑇𝑥 = 𝛿ℎ𝑥 𝑃𝑟 = Reynolds number at a distance x
𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 2𝑁𝑢𝑥 from leading edge
𝛿ℎ𝑥 = Hydrodynamic boundary layer

Constant wall temperature: thickness at a distance x from leading
edge (m)
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332𝑅𝑒𝑥 0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.333
𝛿𝑇𝑥 = Hydrodynamic boundary layer
thickness at a distance x from leading
Constant heat flux: edge (m)
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.453𝑅𝑒𝑥 0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.333 = Nusselt number at location x
𝑁𝑢𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = Average Nusselt number upto length L
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = Reynolds number based on diameter

3.2 Turbulent flow - external Lc = Characteristic length (m)
𝑅𝑒𝐿 = Reynolds number at location L
3.2.1 Flat plate: 5 ∗ 105 > 𝑅𝑒𝑥 < 107
𝛿ℎ𝑥 = 0.381𝑥𝑅𝑒𝑥 −0.2
𝛿ℎ𝑥 = 𝛿𝑇𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 1.25𝑁𝑢𝑥
Constant wall temperature:
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0296𝑅𝑒𝑥 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.33

Constant heat flux:
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 1.04 times 𝑁𝑢𝑥 calculated as per

constant wall temperature
3.3 Laminar – turbulent flow external

3.3.1 Flat plate:
Constant wall temperature:
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = [0.037𝑅𝑒𝐿 0.8 − 871]𝑃𝑟 0.33
3.2.2 Cylinder:
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑚 𝑃𝑟 0.33

𝑹𝒆𝑫 𝑪 m
0.4-4.0 0.989 0.330
4-40 0.911 0.385
40-4000 0.683 0.466
4000-40000 0.193 0.618
40000-400000 0.0266 0.805

Forced convection: Properties to be taken at bulk mean temperature (T𝑚 )
3.3 Laminar flow - internal

3.3.1 Pipe: 𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 2300 T𝑚 = (𝑇𝑚𝑖 + T𝑚𝑜 )⁄2
Tmi = Mean temperature at inlet (°C)
𝑥ℎ ≈ 0.04 𝐷 𝑅𝑒𝐷
Tmo = Mean temperature at outlet (°C)
𝑥𝑇 ≈ 0.04 𝐷 𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟
𝑥ℎ = Hydrodynamic entry length (m)
Hydrodynamic layer developed. Thermal layer
developing: 𝑥𝑇 = Thermal entry length (m)
0.0668(𝐷⁄𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 𝑥, 𝐿 = Flow length (m)
𝑁𝑢 = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04[(𝐷⁄𝐿)𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟]0.67 𝐷ℎ = Hydraulic diameter (m)
Simultaneous development of hydrodynamic and 𝐴 = Flow area (m 2)

thermal layers:
P = Wetted perimeter (m)
0.104(𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟. 𝐷⁄𝑥 )
𝑁𝑢 = 3.66 + θ = Inclination with vertical (degree)
1 + 0.16(𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟. 𝐷⁄𝑥 )0.8
D = Diameter (m)
Fully developed (constant wall temperature):
𝑁𝑢 = 3.66
Fully developed (constant heat flux):
𝑁𝑢 = 4.36
3.4 Turbulent flow - internal

3.4.1 Pipe: 𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 2300
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥ℎ ≈ ≥ 60 , 𝑥𝑇 ≈ ≥ 60
𝐷 𝐷
Fully developed flow:
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝐷 0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛
n =0.4 for heating of fluids
n =0.3 for cooling of fluids
4𝐴
For non-circular sections: 𝐷ℎ = 𝑃

Free convection
3.5 Laminar and turbulent flow - external
3.5.1 Vertical and inclined surface: Plate or cylinder
L = Lc
0.25
Laminar: Gr Pr<109 𝑁𝑢 = 0.59(𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟)
Turbulent: Gr Pr>109 𝑁𝑢 = 0.10(𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟)0.33
Inclined plate: multiply Gr by cosθ
3.5.2 Horizontal surface: Plate or cylinder / Sphere As = Surface area (m2)

P = Perimeter (m)
𝛽 = Volumetric expansion of fluid (K-1)
∆𝑇 = Temperature difference (°C)
𝐴𝑠⁄ L, 𝐿𝑐 = Characteristic length (m)

𝐿𝑐 = 𝑃 U = Fluid velocity (m/s)
𝑮𝒓𝑫 𝑷𝒓 C m
102 to 104 0.85 0.188
104 to 107 0.48 0.250
107 to 1012 0.125 0.333
𝐴𝑠⁄
𝐿𝑐 = 𝑃
𝐿𝑐 = 𝐷
𝐿𝑐 = 𝐷
Plate:
Upper surface heated: 𝑁𝑢 = 0.54(𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟)0.25
Lower surface heated: 𝑁𝑢 = 0.27(𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟)0.25
Cylinder: 𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶(𝐺𝑟𝐷 𝑃𝑟)𝑚
Sphere: 𝑁𝑢 = 0.6(𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟)0.25

3.6 Dimensionless numbers:
Symbol Name Group

Gr Grashof Number 𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿3 𝜌2 ⁄𝜇 2
Nu Nusselt number ℎ𝐿⁄𝑘, ℎ𝐷 ⁄𝑘
Pr Prandtl number 𝜇𝐶𝑝⁄𝑘
Ra Rayleigh number 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿3 𝜌2 𝐶𝑝⁄𝜇𝑘
Re Reynolds number 𝜌𝑈𝐷 ⁄𝜇 , 𝜌𝑈𝐿 ⁄𝜇
Pe Peclet number 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 = 𝜌𝑈𝐿𝐶𝑝⁄𝑘
Gz Graetz number 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟(𝐷⁄𝑥)
4. Heat exchangers: 𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 𝑄 = 𝜀𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 )

4.1 LMTD method
4.1.1 Parallel flow 𝑇1 = Entry temperature of hot fluid (°C)

(𝑇 −𝑡 )−(𝑇2 −𝑡2 )
1 1 𝑇2 = Exit temperature of hot fluid (°C)
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 𝑙𝑛((𝑇
1 1 )⁄(𝑇2 −𝑡2 ))
−𝑡
𝑡1 = Entry temperature of cold fluid (°C)
4.1.2 Counter flow 𝑡2 = Exit temperature of cold fluid (°C)

(𝑇 −𝑡 )−(𝑇2 −𝑡1 )
1 2 𝑄 = Heat transfer rate (W)
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 𝑙𝑛((𝑇
1 2 )⁄(𝑇2 −𝑡1 ))
−𝑡
𝑈 = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m 2K)
4.1.3 Multi pass and cross flow:
𝐴 = Heat transfer area (m 2)
𝑄 = 𝐹𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚𝑐𝑓 ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = Logarithmic mean temperature (°C)

∆𝑇𝑙𝑚𝑐𝑓 = Counter flow LMTD
4.2 NTU method 𝐹 = Correction factor (based on P, R and heat
exchanger type (Refer chart)
4.2.1 Parallel flow: 𝜀 = Effectiveness

1−𝑒𝑥𝑝[−𝑁(1+𝐶)] 𝐶
𝜀= , 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶 = Ratio of fluid capacity rate
(1+𝐶) 𝑚𝑎𝑥
−𝑙𝑛[1−(1+𝐶)𝜀]
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Minimum fluid capacity rate (W/K) = 𝐶𝑝 𝑚̇
𝑁= (1+𝐶) 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum fluid capacity rate (W/K) = 𝐶𝑝 𝑚̇
Counter flow: 𝑚̇ = Mass flow rate of fluid (kg/s)

4.2.2
1−𝑒𝑥𝑝[−𝑁(1−𝐶)] 𝐶𝑝 = Specific heat of fluid (J/kgK)
𝜀 = 1−𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑝[−𝑁(1−𝐶)]
𝑁 = Number of transfer units = 𝑈𝐴⁄𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
1 𝜀−1
𝑁 = 𝐶−1 𝑙𝑛 (𝐶𝜀−1) 𝑘 = Thermal conductivity of pipe material
𝑅𝑓𝑜 = Outer surface fouling resistance (m 2K/W)
4.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient 𝑅𝑓𝑖 = Inner surface fouling resistance (m 2K/W)
Outside area based: Inside area based:

1 1 𝑟𝑜 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 1 1 1 𝑟𝑖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 1
= ℎ + 𝑅𝑓𝑜 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑟𝑜 + 𝑟𝑜 𝑅𝑓𝑖 + 𝑟𝑜 ℎ = ℎ + 𝑅𝑓𝑖 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑟𝑜 + 𝑟 𝑖 𝑅𝑓𝑜 + 𝑟 𝑖 ℎ
𝑈𝑜 𝑜 𝑘 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑜 𝑈𝑖 𝑖 𝑘 𝑖 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜

5. Radiation:
5.1 Introduction
𝑐 𝜆 = Wavelength (m)
5.1.1 Wave length, 𝜆=𝜈 = Speed of light = 3*108 m/s
𝑐
5.1.2 Radiation property, 𝜌 + 𝛼 + 𝜏 =1 𝜈 = Frequency
5.1.3 Kirchoff’s law, 𝜀𝜆 = 𝛼𝜆 𝜌 = Reflectivity

for gray bodies, 𝜀𝜆 = 𝛼𝜆 = 𝜀 = 𝛼 𝛼 = Absorptivity
5.1.4 Wien’s law, 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2898 𝜇𝑚𝐾 𝜏 = Transmissivity
𝜀𝜆 = Monochromatic emissivity
5.1.5 Stefan-Boltzmann law for black bodies,
𝛼𝜆 = Monochromatic absorptivity
𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4 𝜀 = Emissivity = 𝐸 ⁄𝐸𝑏
𝐶 𝜆−5 𝐸 = Emissive power (W/m 2)
5.1.6 Plank’s law, 𝐸𝑏𝜆 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝐶1 ⁄𝜆𝑇)−1
2
𝐸𝑏 = Emissive power of black body (W/m2)
5.2 Radiation exchange 𝑇 = Temperature of the body (K)
5.2.1 Energy leaving gray bodies,

𝜀
𝐸𝑏𝜆 = Emissive power for black body per unit
𝑄 = 𝜌 𝐴(𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽) wave length
𝐶1 = 0.374177107*10-15 W/m2
𝐽 = 𝜌𝐺 + 𝜀𝐸𝑏
𝐶2 = 0.014387752 mK
5.2.2 Reciprocity theorem,
𝐴1 𝐹1−2 = 𝐴2 𝐹2−1 𝑄 = Net heat exchange (W)
𝐴 = Radiated area (m 2)
5.2.3 Net heat exchange between two black
𝐽 = Radiosity (W/m 2)
bodies,
𝐺 = Irradiation (W/m 2)
𝑄12 = 𝐴1 𝐹1−2 𝜎(𝑇1 4 − 𝑇2 4 )
𝐹1−2 = Shape factor
𝐹2−1 = Shape factor

5.2.4 Net heat exchange between two gray bodies

Properties of water:

Properties of Ethylene Glycol and Engine oil:
MME 3251: Heat transfer

157
Properties of air:

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B.Tech.

Course Code Course Name Page No.

MAT 2151 Engineering Mathematics - III 1

MME 2151 Kinematics of Machinery 13

MME 2152 Manufacturing Technology 21

MME 2153 Material Science and Metallurgy 26

MME 2154 Strength of Materials 28

MME 2155 Thermodynamics -1 40

MAT 2260 Engineering Mathematics - IV 45

MME 2251 Dynamics of machinery 55

MME 2252 Fluid Mechanics 68

MME 2253 Metrology and Measurements 83

MME 2254 Thermodynamics - 2 93

MME 3151 CAD - CAM 100

MME 3152 Finite Element Methods 111

MME 3154 Turbo Machines 129

HUM 3151 Engineering Economics and Financial Management 140

MME 3251 Heat Transfer 144

This book is for internal circulation only

6) If 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐 be the equation of a surface and 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) is a point on it then

13) 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑓⃗ × 𝑔⃗) = 𝑔⃗. 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑓⃗ − 𝑓⃗. 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍𝑔⃗

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 1

17) ∇. (𝜙𝑓⃗) = 𝜙(∇. 𝑓⃗) + (∇𝜙). 𝑓⃗

18) ∇ × (𝜙𝑓⃗) = 𝜙(∇ × 𝑓⃗) + ∇𝜙 × 𝑓⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Then the line integral is defined by  A  dr   A  dr   A dx  A dy  A dz .

7) Consider a closed surface in space enclosing a volume V. Then  AdV

called volume integrals or space integrals. Here  is a scalar function.

  AdV   A.  ndS   A  dS

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 2

These values of 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 are known as Euler’s formulae.

HALF RANGE SERIES

Consider the function 𝑔(𝑥) defined as follows:

The function 𝑔(𝑥) can be expanded as Fourier cosine series

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 3

FOURIER INTEGRAL REPRESENTATION

Such an integral representation is called the Fourier integral representation of f(x).

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 4

8. 𝐹{ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥)} = (𝑖𝑠)𝑛 𝐹(𝑓(𝑥)).

𝐹{ ( 𝑓 ∗ 𝑔)(𝑥)} = 𝐹{ 𝑓(𝑥)}𝐹{ 𝑔(𝑥)}.

Consider the Fourier cosine integral representation of a function 𝑓(𝑥)

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 5

Then the inverse Fourier sine transform of 𝐹𝑠 (𝑠) is defined as

𝐹𝑐 {𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑓(𝑠) (𝐹𝑠 {𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑓(𝑠)).

(1) Both Fourier cosine and sine transforms are linear.

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 6

The order of the highest derivative is called order of the equation.

Method of separation of variables

That is, 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑐 2 .

D’Alembert’s solution for wave equation:

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 7

2. Solution of the One-dimensional Wave equation:

y  (C1 cos px  C2 sin px)(C3 cos cpt  C4 sin cpt ) .

u  (C1 cos px  C2 sin px)ec p t .

Boundary value problems governed by second order ordinary differential

Boundary conditions of the first kind : y(a) = A, y(b) = B (2)

MAT 2151: Engineering Mathematics – III 8

Finite Difference Methods for Ordinary Differential Equation:

a = x0 x1 x2 xi-1 xi xi+1 xn-1 xn =b