Unit 1

MODULE

5 DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST

Overview

The crust deforms as a result of the stress generated from the endogenic process deep
within the earth. Historically, this has already been observed by a scientist name Alfred Wegener
in 1912 when he wrote in his book, “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” that continents were
actually connected to each other. Supported by different evidences, later on, this continental
drift theory of Alfred Wegener expanded into what we know now as plate tectonics.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson the students must be able to do the following:
• Identify the continental drift theory.
• Explain the movement of plates that leads to the formation of folds and faults
• Cite evidence that support continental drift.

Ready?

The crust moves a consequence of the convection happening in the earth’s mantle.
Upwelling (when convection currents point up) brings new material to the surface as oceanic
crust in Mid-Oceanic Ridges (MOR). Sinking destroys crust back into the convection as
observed in the subduction zones. Within the life of crustal formation and destruction, tectonic
plates are made to move, slide, and collide with each other. From these stresses, we deform
rocks. This section will focus on the deformation as a result of tectonic stresses applied to rocks.

Get Set!

List at least five (5) events that could happen before a volcanic eruption.
 Go!

Stress or Strain?
You’ve probably heard your friends say the word “stress” in one of your conversations.
Stress is the force applied to a body. When the body reacts to that certain amount of stress
applied to it, any change in the original bodily ratio of the unit will be called strain or
deformation.

Rocks experience stress (just like you, dear students) from the tectonic forces that act on
them. Hence, rocks will be compressed, stretched or sheared depending on the nature applied t
them. For starters, let us first look on the three types of stress.

1. Compression
When two units collide, the highest compressive stress is experienced by the ones closest
to the contact. Rocks are inertly more accustomed to compression rather than tension.

2. Tension
A unit experiencing tension is similar to a rope being pulled from both sides. Rocks
undergoing tension break easily.

3. Shear
Similar to compression involving two units but not really colliding. Instead, rocks
undergoing shear stress past each other along the plane.

Strain is the deformation exhibited by a body that is undergoing stress. Most materials
will accommodate a certain amount of stress and revert back to its original form when the stress
is removed. This type of deformation is called elastic deformation. After some amount of stress,
materials will undergo deformation that will have permanent difference from its original,
unstressed state. This type of deformation is inelastic deformation.

There are two types of inelastic deformation: (1) ductile and (2) brittle. Ductile
deformation is similar to the deformation you see in a ball of molding clay. Upon the
application of stress, the molding clay will deform and will not go back to its original, ball state.
Brittle deformation, on the other hand, is similar to how a piece of biscuit breaks. The
application of stress will break the biscuit into several individual smaller units of the original
biscuit.

Rocks, Stress and Deformation

When rocks are subjected to stress, they deform accordingly to the type of stress applied to them
and the conditions present at the time the stress is applied. The table below lists the possible
combinations of stress and deformation in rocks.

Type of Deformation
Stress Ductile Brittle Elastic
Compression Folds Reverse Fault
Tension Thinning Normal Fault
Shear Shear Zone Strike-Slip Faults

Compressional Features Tensional Features Shearing Features

Effects of stress on rocks and different types of strain associated with each type of stress applied.

Folds are evidences of ductile deformation in rocks. Under compressive stresses, the
rocks themselves are made to shorten along the axis of stress. Orogeny, or the process of
mountain building, is usually associated with compressive stress. Rocks undergoing such process
will most likely exhibit folding.
Faults are brittle deformation features in rocks that show evidence of movement. Joints,
on the other hand, are fractures in rocks with no observable movement. Faults have several types
depending on the nature of stress that moves it. Let us start first with identifying the different
parts of the fault.
Proper identification of the different parts of a fault will help us understand the nature of
movement and classify the fault.
 Transform fault

Horst and graben

Thrust fault

Different types of faults based on movement. Transform faults (strike-slip faults) move slide past each
other. Horst and graben (formed by natural faults) are formed from tensional stress. Thrust faults
(reverse faults) are formed from compressive stress.

Faults and Man

Faults are evidences that rocks are undergoing stress. The type of fault gives a clue as to
the type of regional stress that is acting on the area. As students of Earth Science, understanding
why faults move and how they affect us is important because it allows us to aware of the hazards
that faults pose to the community that is close to it.
Faults move and lying on top of it may affects the structural integrity of buildings. At the
same time, because faults accommodate stress, another geologic hazard can happen – the
earthquake. Earthquakes are natural geologic hazards generated from the release of energy by
faults, volcanic eruption, subduction zones and explosions.

Deformation of the Crust

The crust deforms as a result of the stress generated from endogenic process deep within
the earth. Historically, this has already been observed by a scientist named Alfred Wegener in
1912 when he wrote in his book, “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” that continents were
actually connected to each other. Supported by different evidences, later on, this continental
drift theory of Alfred Wegener expanded into what we know as plate tectonics.
The continental drift theory supports the idea of continents being together because of (1)
what appears to be jigsaw puzzle fit of certain land masses, (2) terrestrial fossils scattered on
different areas of the globe, (3) similar rocks and structures found in continents separated by
oceans and (4) evidence from ancient climate.
1. Jigsaw Puzzle Fit
Have you seen a map of the world showing the distribution of continents? If you notice,
South America and Africa looks like bigger piece of land if not separated by the Atlantic
Ocean. The same analogy goes with other continents and neighboring land masses. This
idea became one of the evidences of the continental drift theory.

2. Terrestrial fossils
Fossils are preserved remains of living organisms. Terrestrial plants and animals that
once roamed the planet will leave remains not very far from where they live. The
discovery of fossils of the plants and animals scattered in South America and Africa
strengthened the credibility of the idea that some continents were once joined together.
Fossils of an aquatic reptile, Mesosaurus, were documented by Alfred Wegener. The
physiological character of the Mesosaurus won’t allow it to travel large bodies of water
but Wegener was able to document the occurrence of such fossils in both continents.
Another fossils from the seed fern plant, Glossopteris, were scattered in Africa, India,
 Australia and even Antarctica. The seed of such plant is large to be carried by the wind.
Because of such wide occurrence in different continents, the idea that the continents were
once connected seemed more possible.

3. Rock and Structures

In the same way that coastline of continents appears to be fit together, several mountain
belts that run across the land masses of Brazil and Africa, British Isles and Scandinavia
and Appalachians seem to be fit together. Wegener found evidence of the age of such
rocks to be close to each other.

4. Ancient Climate
Going back to our previous statement on terrestrial fossils, the presence of Glossopteris
in Antarctica raised a big question: why is there polar region. The answer can be found in
the continents of South America, Africa, Australia and Eurasia. Ancient glacier deposits
of around 300 million years old covered the southern coastlines of these continents.
When stitched together, it forms a large ice sheet covering the whole of Antarctica with
some portions of the continents. It is difficult to imagine ice covering these continents as
of the present given their latitudinal locations. Therefore, it must be that the continents
were once near the polar regions and drifted away.

The Continental Drift Problem and the birth of Plate Tectonics

Overwhelming evidence is not a problem for most scientists who believed in Wegener’s
Continental Drift Theory. The problem lies in a much bigger perspective that left a hole
puzzling scientist for years after Wegener’s death. What causes the plates to move? Tidal
forces? Weaker oceanic crust?
 It was years after Wegener’s death when ocean exploration became available which
allowed mapping of the ocean floor. This exploration led to the discovery of active chains
of underwater ridges that goes around the world, earthquakes occurring at certain depths
within the earth and oceanic crust being significantly younger than continental crust.

Plate Tectonics
Continental drift theory represents the evidences that land masses and were once
joined together. However, it was not able to present a mechanism for the movement.
With the advent of more sophisticated and advanced tools for geologic exploration, data
from the bottom of the oceans became available. We were able to discover a widespread
active volcanic chain underwater, locate earthquakes and define their focus, and identify
the physical character of the lithosphere.

The rigid lithosphere rides the plastic asthenosphere beneath in. Because of the
connective motion happening in the mantle, the lithosphere rides along the movement
eventually colliding with and sliding past each other.

The Plate Boundaries

Because of the motion of lithosphere, portions of the earth’s crust move
independently from each other as one unit. These units are what we call lithosphere or
tectonic plates. Tectonic plates range in size from small units (microplates) to big ones.
Seven major lithosphere plates account for more than 90% of the earth’s surface.
Lithospheric plates include the oceanic crust that goes beyond the coastlines of continents
until a tectonic plate boundary is reached.

Several smaller tectonic plates include: Caribbean, Nazca, Philippine, Arabian,

Cocos, Scotia and Juan de Fuca plates. Along with the bigger tectonic plates, these
intermediate plates to contribute to the total surface area of the earth.
 Plates are bounded by distinct types of boundaries dependent on the nature of motion.
Listed below are the different types of plate boundaries.

1. Divergent boundaries
Also known as constructive margins, divergent boundaries define areas where plates
move apart. Because of this movement, new material is introduced unto the surface
forming new oceanic crust material.

2. Convergent boundaries
Plates collide with each other in convergent boundaries. Because of this collision, one
plate usually subducts or goes under the other plate (which is usually density driven).
In effect, one plate goes back into the mantle. Addition of materials will cause
significant change in the mantle chemistry forming volcanic chains or mountain belts.

3. Transform boundaries
Where two plates neither collide nor move away, transform boundaries are found.
Plates simply slide past each other without the creation or destruction of lithosphere.

History of the Earth

How old are you? Basically, every one of us is has been asked this question at least once
in our lives. In the same way, we might have wondered how old the Earth is. Since the
beginning, we have based time in the daily cycle of the earth and its revolution around the sun.
From here on, we had a glimpse of how long processes take and compared them to familiar
events in our lives.

Knowing the Age of the Earth

Several attempts were made in the past to determine the age of the Earth. It was only
through a much recent time when radioactive isotopes became the most popular method for
determining the exact age of rocks. Nevertheless, the attempts to know the age of the Earth
seemed plausible and made sense for quite some time.
 Previous estimates of the age of the Earth became quite popular near 1900s. Lord Kelvin
in 1897 estimated the age of the Earth from conduction and radiation studies and found it to be
around 24-40 million years. John Joly in 1901 studied the rate of delivery of salts into the oceans
and estimated the age of the Earth to be around 90-100 million years.
Modern geology began 200 years before than in late 1700s when James Hutton published
his Theory of the Earth. He presented his fundamental principle on uniformitarianism which
states that processes operating today has been operating since the formation of the Earth albeit at
different rates, and will continue to do so in the future. This principle is summarized further by
saying that “the present is the key to the past.”

Knowing the Age of the Events

With the advancement of technology, it is easier to determine the age of rocks and put
them in a chronological sequence. But this would mean that we have to sample every rock in the
world to get a good glimpse of the events that happened. Luckily for us modern scientists, we
don’t have to resort to getting the numerical age of rocks.

Relative Dating
1. Law of Superposition
- States that in an undisturbed sequence of rocks, the oldest strata/layer will be
found on the bottom of the basin.

2. Principle of Original Horizontality

- States that sediments will assume a horizontal manner and will assume such
orientation until lithification process preserves it.
3. Principle of Cross-cutting relationships
When faults cuts through rocks, the event of faulting is always younger than the rocks
it cuts.

4. Inclusions
- Are pieces of rocks contained within another. In the same way, anything that is
enclosed in rocks are older than the rock unit surrounding it.

5. Unconformities
- Rocks that were deposited without interruption would follow the laws and principles
we have discussed earlier. Hence, an undisturbed sequence of rocks would look
like horizontal layers stacked on top of each other. Any disturbance to the
sequence will be preserved in the rocks as any of the following listed below.
a. Angular Unconformity – tilted strata overlain by more horizontal (younger
strata). This type of unconformity is easy to distinguish and represents tilting
or folding.
b. Disconformity – are evidences of erosive agents acting on the surface of the
rocks which represents a time when deposition is minimum.
c. Nonconformity – igneous rocks sometimes cut through the layers of rocks
inserting a younger rock unit that curs across older rocks. In the same way,
metamorphic rocks acting a base for younger rock units can define a
nonconformity.
d. Para conformity - perhaps the most difficult unconformity to identify. It is the
absence of horizon based on fossil assemblage. It represents a period of non-
deposition.
Fossils
Fossils are preserved remains or traces of organisms. Fossils are very important for the
determination of the possible age of formation of sedimentary rocks. The study of fossils is not
restricted to geology but more of the biological aspect of living things (the study is called
Paleontology)

The remains of organisms may or may not be fossilized. Listed below are some conditions
required to permit fossilization or preservation of the remains of an organism.
1. Rapid Burial
- Prevents the decomposition of the remains. Without oxygen from the atmosphere,
the rate of decay becomes at minimum.
2. Protective cover or medium
- prevent the attack of organisms living on dead organisms and will also prevent air
and moisture from building up.
3. Possession of hard part or durable tissues
- Bones, teeth, shells and other hard parts of an organism will most likely be
preserved during fossilization. Soft tissues, organs, and flesh usually disintegrate.

There are different types of fossilization depending on the preservation and medium involved.
1. Preservation without alteration
- Is a type of fossilization where no major modification of the chemistry of the
remains occurred. This type of fossilization provides an excellent window for
studying ancient life because most of the organic molecules are still intact. Some
notable fossils made from this type of fossilization include the frozen mammoths
and elephants of Siberia and Alaska.
2. Preservation with alteration
- Most fossilization proceeds with altering the chemical composition of organic
remains. The subtypes of preservation are dependent on the process involved.
a. Petrification – probably the most popular method of preservation with
alteration, petrification is the replacement of porous woody material with
minerals. The original wood components are already replaced by materials
such as silica leaving a rock image of the remains.
b. Recrystallization – shells of organisms made from the calcium carbonate,
aragonite, are unstable at near surface conditions. When the organism dies, the
aragonite recrystallizes forming the much more stable polymorph, calcite.
c. Carbonization – soft tissues of organisms can be preserved through the
process of carbonization. This process leaves the carbon component of the
remains as black films embedded in sediments.

3. Ichnofossils or Trace Fossils

The preservation success percentage of organic remains is very small. Most organic
remains are destroyed early through process of decay and erosion. There are, however,
cases where remains are not the usual body fossils but are traces of the organism itself.
These types of fossils are called ichnofossils. It includes molds, casts, burrows, coprolites
and gastroliths.

Absolute Dating
Absolute dating is determining the numerical age of materials using radioactive isotopes.
Radioactive isotopes are variants of the same element but with different mass number.
Because of the extra subatomic particles in the isotope, the atom spontaneously breaks
apart which produces a more stable daughter product. This transformation of parent
isotope to stable product varies from element to element and is often measured in terms
of half-lives.

Half-life is the length of time that will transform half of the parent isotope to its daughter
product. To simply put it in analogy, given the 100 grams of the radioactive parent to
“X”, the half-life is simply the time required for 50 grams of parent “X” to be converted
into daughter “Y”.

Radioactive Parent Stable Daughter Half-life

Rubidium 87 Strontium 87 48.8 billion years
Thorium 232 Lead 208 14 billion years
Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.47 billion years
Potassium 40 Argon 40 1.25 billion years
Uranium 235 Lead 207 704 billion years
Carbon 14 Nitrogen 14 5,730 years
Geologic Time Scale
The Geologic Time Scale is a hierarchical set of divisions describing geologic time. Units
of time include the eon, era, period, epoch and age. Divisions in the GTS is determined
by varying events such as extinction, magnetic pole reversals, start of a particular species
of organisms, etc. The setting of boundaries for each division is based on worldwide
applicable evidences and is governed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.

Divisions on the Geologic Time Scales

 Run the World!
Click and answer the links, attach screenshots of your result. (20 pts)
https://www.liveworksheets.com/cr1295225ee
https://www.liveworksheets.com/worksheets/en/Geology/Law_of_Superposition/Law_of_Super
position_br25396lp

Keep Moving!
Multiple Choice
1. Brittle deformation features in rocks that show evidence of movement.
a. Faults c. Sediments
b. Folds d. Igneous rocks

2. Evidences of ductile deformation in rocks

a. Faults c. Sediments
b. Folds d. Igneous rocks

3. Are preserved remains of living organisms.

a. Ancient Climate c. Fossils
b. Jigsaw Puzzle Fit d. Inclusions

4. Also known as constructive margins, it defines areas where plates move apart.
a. Divergent boundaries c. Disconformity
b. Convergent boundaries d. Transform boundaries

5. A law of Relative Dating that states that in an undisturbed sequence of rocks, the oldest
strata/layer will be found on the bottom of the basin.
a. Principal of Original Horizontality c. Law of Superposition
b. Cross-Cutting Relationship d. Unconformities

6. It states that sediments will assume a horizontal manner and will assume such orientation
until lithification process preserves it.
a. Unconformities c. Law of Superposition
b. Cross-Cutting Relationship d. Principal of Original Horizontality

7. It is where plates collide with each other and because of this collision, one plate usually
subducts or goes under the other plate.
 a. Transform boundaries c. Divergent boundaries
b. Convergent boundaries d. Cross-cutting

8. Is a hierarchical set of divisions describing geologic time.

a. Geologic Time Rate c. Geologic Event Scale
b. History Time Scale d. Geologic Time Scale

9. A type of theory that explains the evidences that continents move through fitting puzzle
like match of land shapes, fossils, rock similarities and paleoclimate conditions.
a. Plate Tectonics c. Continental Drift Theory
b. Deformation d. Faults and Folds

10. It is the study of fossils

a. Paleontology c. Anatomy and Physiology
b. Genetics d. Fossilogy

True or False
_______1. Crustal deformation involves endogenic processes which causes plates to
collide, diverge or slide past each other.
_______2. The history of the earth is recorded in its rocks.
_______3. Absolute dating involves the determination of numerical ages while relative
dating simply put them in chronologic order.
_______4. The geologic time scale represents events that are recorded in rocks.
_______5. The geologic time scale is divided into Eon, Era, Epoch, Period and Age.
_______6. Plate Tectonics combine continental drift with mechanisms to drive plate
movement.
_______7. Despite overwhelming evidences, the mechanism for continental drift were
not presented or still debated.
_______8. Exogenic processes are responsible for volcanism and plate movement.
_______9. Paleontology is the study of fossils.
_______10. Continental Drift Theory explains the evidences that continents move
through fitting puzzle like match of land shapes, fossils, rock similarities and
paleoclimate conditions.

Almost There!
Answer the question below. (5 pts)
 1. Why do think underwater volcanoes don’t erupt as much as surface volcanoes
given that they outnumber the latter?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________.

You are a Finisher!

CHAPTER REVIEW
Section 1
Key Concepts
• Crustal deformation involves endogenic processes which causes plates to collide, diverge
or slide past each other.
• The history of the earth is recorded in its rocks.
• Absolute dating involves the determination of numerical ages while relative dating
simply put them in chronologic order.
• The geologic time scale represents events that are recorded in rocks.
• Endogenic processes are responsible for volcanism and plate movement.
• Paleontology is the study of fossils.
• Continental Drift Theory explains the evidences that continents move through fitting
puzzle like match of land shapes, fossils, rock similarities and paleoclimate conditions.
• The geologic time scale is divided into Eon, Era, Epoch, Period and Age.
• Plate Tectonics combine continental drift with mechanisms to drive plate movement.
• Despite overwhelming evidences, the mechanism for continental drift were not presented
or still debated.

Key Words
• Plate Tectonics
• Deformation
• Continental Drift Theory
• Fossils
• Paleontology
• Absolute Dating
• Geologic Time Scale