Analytic Thinking: The Thinker's Guide To

sample download copy
The Thinker’s Guide

to
Analytic
Thinking
How To Take Thinking Apart
And What To Look For When You Do
The Elements of Thinking

and
The Standards They Must Meet
By Dr. Linda Elder and Dr. Richard Paul
Based on Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools

A Companion to:
The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools
The Foundation for Critical Thinking
Client: Foundation for Critical Thinking Proof 1 Proof 2 Proof 3 Proof 4

Project Title: Analytic Thinking Guide ©2007 (07-051) 9/28 11:40a 10/2 11:10a 10/2 2:25p 10/3 10:15a
2
sample download copy The Thinker’s Guide to Analytic Thinking The Thinker’s Guide to Analytic Thinking 3
Contents
Part I: Understanding the Basic Theory of Analysis Part 3: Using Analysis to Figure Out the Logic of Anything
This section provides a range of sample analyses (as well as templates
This section provides the foundational theory essential to analysis. It delineates for analysis).
the eight basic structures present in all thinking.
The Spirit of Critical Thinking 22
Why a Guide on Analytic Thinking? 4 Analyzing the Logic of Human Emotions 23–25
Analyzing Problems 26–27
Why the Analysis of Thinking is Important 5
Analyzing the Logic of an Article, Essay, or Chapter 28–31
All Thinking is Defined by the Eight Elements That Make It Up 5 Analyzing the Logic of a Textbook 32
All Humans Use Their Thinking To Make Sense of the World 6 Evaluating an Author’s Reasoning 33
Analyzing the Logic of a Subject: 34
To Analyze Thinking We Must Learn to Identify and Question Its Elemental Structures 7 • Science 35
To Evaluate Thinking, We Must Understand and Apply Intellectual Standards 8–9 • History 36
• Sociology 37
Thirty-five Dimensions of Critical Thought 10–11
• Economics 38–39
On the Basis of the Above We Can Develop A Checklist for Evaluating Reasoning 12–13 • Ecology 40–41
Part 2: Getting Started: Some First Steps Part 4: Taking Your Understanding to a Deeper Level
This section explains the elements more comprehensively, differentiating skilled
This section enumerates the most important foundational moves in analysis. from unskilled reasoners.
Think About Purpose 14 Analyzing and Assessing:

• Goals, Purposes, or Objectives 42
State the Question 15 • Questions, Problems, and Issues 43
Gather Information 16 • Data, Evidence, Experience, Research 44
• Inferences, Interpretations, and Conclusions 45
Watch Your Inferences 17
• Assumptions and Beliefs 46
Check Your Assumptions 18 • Concepts, Ideas, and Theories 47
• Points of View and Perspectives 48
Clarify Your Concepts 19
• Implications and Consequences 49
Understand Your Point of View 20 Distinguishing Between Inferences and Assumptions 50–51
Think Through the Implications 21 Conclusion 52
© 2007 Foundation for Critical Thinking www.criticalthinking.org © 2007 Foundation for Critical Thinking www.criticalthinking.org
4
The Thinker’s Guide to Analytic Thinking The Thinker’s Guide to Analytic Thinking 5
Why a Guide on Analytic Thinking? Why the Analysis of Thinking

Analysis and evaluation are recognized as crucial skills for all students to master. And is Important
for good reason. These skills are required in learning any significant body of content in
Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is
a non-trivial way. Students are commonly asked to analyze poems, mathematical for- biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or downright prejudiced. Yet the quality of our
mulas, biological systems, chapters in textbooks, concepts and ideas, essays, novels, and life and of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our
articles—just to name a few. Yet how many students can explain what analysis requires? thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. If we want to
How many have a clear conception of how to think it through? Which of our graduates think well, we must understand at least the rudiments of thought, the most basic struc-
could complete the sentence: “Whenever I am asked to analyze something, I use the tures out of which all thinking is made. We must learn how to take thinking apart.
following model:…”
The painful fact is that few students have been taught how to analyze. Hence, when All Thinking Is Defined by the Eight Elements That Make It Up
they are asked to analyze something scientific, historical, literary, or mathematical—let
Eight basic structures are present in all thinking: Whenever we think, we think for a
alone something ethical, political, or personal—they lack a model to empower them in
purpose within a point of view based on assumptions leading to implications and con-
the task. They muddle through their assignment with only the vaguest sense of what
sequences. We use concepts, ideas and theories to interpret data, facts, and experiences
analysis requires. They have no idea how sound analysis can lead the way to sound
in order to answer questions, solve problems, and resolve issues. Thinking, then:
evaluation and assessment. Of course, students are not alone. Many adults are similarly
confused about analysis and assessment as intellectual processes.
Yet what would we think of an auto mechanic who said, “I’ll do my best to fix your
n generates purposes Point of View Purpose
car, but frankly I’ve never understood the parts of the engine,” or of a grammarian who
frame of reference, goal,
said, “Sorry, but I have always been confused about how to identify the parts of speech.” perspective,
Clearly, students should not be asked to do analysis if they do not have a clear model, n raises questions objective
orientation
and the requisite foundations, for the doing of it. Similarly, we should not ask students
to engage in assessment if they have no standards upon which to base their assessment. n uses information
Implications and Question at issue
Subjective reaction should not be confused with objective evaluation. Consequences problem, issue
To the extent that students internalize this model through practice, they put n utilizes concepts Elements
themselves in a much better position to begin to think historically (in their history of
Assumptions Thought Information
classes), mathematically (in their math classes), scientifically (in their science classes), n makes inferences presupposition, data, facts,
and therefore more skillfully (in all of their classes). When this model is internalized, taking for granted observations,
students become better students because they acquire a powerful “system-analyzing- makes assumptions experiences
system.”
n
Concepts
theories, Interpretation
This thinker’s guide is a companion to The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking definitions, axioms,
n generates implications and Inference
Concepts and Tools. It supports, and is supported by, all of the other miniature guides laws, principles, conclusions,
in the series. It exemplifies why thinking is best understood and improved when we are models solutions
n embodies a point of view
able to analyze and assess it EXPLICITLY. The intellectual skills it emphasizes are the
same skills needed to reason through the decisions and problems inherent in any and
every dimension of human life. Each of these structures has implications for the others. If you change your purpose
or agenda, you change your questions and problems. If you change your questions and
problems, you are forced to seek new information and data. If you collect new information
and data…
Essential Idea: There are eight structures that define thinking. Learning to analyze
thinking requires practice in identifying these structures in use.
6
All Humans Use Their Thinking To To Analyze Thinking We Must Learn to Identify and
Make Sense of the World Question its Elemental Structures
The words thinking and reasoning are used in everyday life as virtual synonyms.
Reasoning, however, has a more formal flavor. This is because it highlights the infer- 8 1
ence-drawing capacity of the mind. to answer a Whenever
Reasoning occurs whenever the mind draws conclusions on the basis of reasons. We question or we think
7 solve a we think for a 2
draw conclusions whenever we make sense of things. The result is that whenever we problem. purpose
think, we reason. Usually we are not aware of the full scope of reasoning implicit in our
based on
minds. concepts and within a
We begin to reason from the moment we wake up in the morning. We reason theories point of view
Universal
when we figure out what to eat for breakfast, what to wear, whether to make certain Structures
purchases, whether to go with this or that friend to lunch. We reason as we interpret 6 of Thought 3
the oncoming flow of traffic, when we react to the decisions of other drivers, when to make based on
inferences and assumptions
we speed up or slow down. One can draw conclusions, then, about everyday events or, judgements
really, about anything at all: about poems, microbes, people, numbers, historical events,
social settings, psychological states, character traits, the past, the present, the future. We use leading to
By reasoning, then, we mean making sense of something by giving it some meaning data, facts, implications and
and experiences consequences.
in our mind. Virtually all thinking is part of our sense-making activities. We hear
scratching at the door and think, “It’s the dog.” We see dark clouds in the sky and think, 5 4
“It looks like rain.” Some of this activity operates at a subconscious level. For example,
all of the sights and sounds about us have meaning for us without our explicitly 8 1
noticing that they do. Most of our reasoning is unspectacular. Our reasoning tends to What is the What is my
become explicit only when someone challenges it and we have to defend it (“Why do key question I fundamental
you say that Jack is obnoxious? I think he is quite funny”). Throughout life, we form 7 am trying to purpose? 2
answer?
goals or purposes and then figure out how to pursue them. Reasoning is what enables What is What is my
us to come to these decisions using ideas and meanings. the most basic point of view
concept in the with respect to
On the surface, reasoning often looks simple, as if it had no component structures. the issue?
question? Universal
Looked at more closely, however, it implies the ability to engage in a set of interrelated Structures
intellectual processes. This miniature guide is largely focused on making these intellec- 6 What are my of Thought 3
What
tual processes explicit. It will enable you to better understand what is going on beneath most fundamental
assumptions am
the surface of your thought. inferences or
conclusions? I using in my
What What reasoning?
information are the
do I need to implications
answer my of my reasoning
question? (if I am correct)?
5 4
Essential Idea: Reasoning occurs when we draw conclusions based on reasons.

We can upgrade the quality of our reasoning when we understand the intellectual Be aware: When we understand the structures of thought, we ask important ques-
processes that underlie reasoning. tions implied by these structures.
26
Analyzing Problems Analyzing Problems

Identify some problem you need to reason The Problem of Polution as an Example1
through. Then complete the following: What is the problem? The problem is pollution and the fact that because people are
not doing enough to reduce it, a host of negative consequences are occurring (e.g.
What exactly is the problem? (Study the problem to make clear the kind
increased medical problems, loss of animal and plant life, increased contamina-
of problem you are dealing with. Figure out, for example, what sorts
of things you are going to have to do to solve it. Distinguish problems tion of the earth’s water sources).
over which you have some control from problems over which you Questions that emerge from the problem are… What can I personally do to reduce
have no control. Pay special attention to controversial issues in which pollution? A related question is: What can we collectively do to reduce pollution?
it is essential to consider multiple points of view.) My purpose in addressing the problem is to increase the things I do to contribute to
The key question that emerges from the problem is… (State the question as a more healthy biosphere.
clearly and precisely as you can. Details are very important.) The important information relevant to the question is information about what
My purpose in addressing the problem is… (Know exactly what you are I am currently doing to increase pollution (such as generating trash that could
after. Make sure you are not operating with a hidden agenda and that be recycled, driving a car, etc.), information about what I could do to reduce the
your announced and real purposes are the same.) amount of pollution I contribute to (such as locating recycling centers, pursuing
Actively seek the information most relevant to the question. (Include alternative forms of transportation, etc.), information about environmental groups
in that information options for action, both short-term and long-term. I might support, etc.
Recognize limitations in terms of money, time, and power.) Some important assumptions I am using in my thinking are that pollution is
Some important assumptions I am using in my thinking are… (Figure out causing significant damage to the biosphere, that everyone can help reduce pol-
what you are taking for granted. Watch out for self-serving or unjustified lution, that I, and everyone else, have an obligation to make a significant effort to
assumptions.) help reduce pollution.
If we solve this problem, some important implications are… If we fail If many people were to reason well through this issue, some implications are
to solve this problem, some important implications are… (Evaluate that there would be a longer and higher quality of life for millions of people.
options, taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of possible Additionally, plant and animal species and ecosystems would be protected. A host
decisions before acting. What consequences are likely to follow from this or of other positive implications would follow as well, implications for the atmo-
that decision?) sphere, the waterways, the forests, etc.
The most important concepts, theories, or ideas I need to use in my think- The most important concepts, or ideas, I need to use in my thinking are the con-
ing are… (Figure out all significant ideas needed to understand and cepts of pollution, and that of a healthy biosphere. Each of these concepts leads to
solve the problem. You may need to analyze these concepts. Use a good a host of further technical, ecological, and ethical concepts required to understand
dictionary.) the multiple dimensions of pollution and the ethical responsibilities that knowl-
The point(s) of view is/are as follows: (Know the point of view from which edge of its many harmful effects entails.
your thinking begins. Be especially careful to determine whether multiple My point of view is as follows: I am looking at pollution. I am seeing it as something I
points of view are relevant.) can help reduce through many means.
After reasoning through the parts of thinking above, the best solution After reasoning through the parts of thinking above, the best solution (conclu-
(conclusion) to the problem is… (If the problem involves multiple con- sion) to the problem will be to put into action the various options that my
flicting points of view, you will have to assess which solution is the best. If research has revealed.
the problem is one-dimensional, there may be just one “correct” solution.)
1 This problem is presented without details and is intended merely to exemplify how one might begin to
If I, and many others, fail to reason well through this issue, the implications are reason through the logic of a complex question. When using this approach, the more details one includes,
that we will unnecessarily contribute to pollution’s many harmful effects. the deeper the analysis can be. Many layers of detail could then be specified based on research into all of
these levels. For further background information on this particular problem, see the Logic of Ecology (p. 40).
34
Analyzing the Logic of a Subject

When we understand the elements of reasoning, we realize that all subjects, all
The Logic of Science
disciplines, have a fundamental logic defined by the structures of thought embed-
ded in them.
Therefore, to lay bare a subject’s most fundamental logic, we should begin with Looking
Purpose
these questions: at the physical To figure out
world as something to how the physical
• What is the main purpose or goal of studying this subject? What are people in be understood through world operates
this field trying to accomplish?
Po
careful observation and through systematic
int
• What kinds of questions do they ask? What kinds of problems do they try to systematic study
of
observation and
ion
Vie
est
solve? experimentation
Qu
• What sorts of information or data do they gather? If we systematically
study the physical What can be figured
• What types of inferences or judgments do they typically make? (Judgments world, we can gain
about…) out about how the
important knowledge physical world operates
• How do they go about gathering information in ways that are distinctive to about that world by observation and
this field? Implications and Consequences Elements experimentation
• What are the most basic ideas, concepts or theories in this field? of
That there are laws at work Reasoning Information
• What do professionals in this field take for granted or assume? in the physical world that
• How should studying this field affect my view of the world? can be figured out through Facts that can be
systematic observation The systematically gathered
Int
• What viewpoint is fostered in this field?
erp
and experimentation workings about the physical
• What implications follow from studying this discipline? How are the products
ret
of the world
ati
ns
of this field used in everyday life? Judgements
o
physical world
tio
na
based on
mp
Essential Concepts
nd
These questions can be contextualized for any given class day, chapter in the as predictable and
su
observations and
Inf
understandable through
As
textbook and dimension of study. For example, on any given day you might ask one
ere
carefully designed experimentation that
nc
or more of the following questions: lead to systematized
e
hypotheses, predictions
• What is our main purpose or goal today? What are we trying to accomplish? and experimentation knowledge of nature
• What kinds of questions are we asking? What kinds of problems are we trying and the physical
world
to solve? How does this problem relate to everyday life?
• What sort of information or data do we need? How can we get that
information?
• What is the most basic idea, concept or theory we need to understand to solve
the problem we are most immediately posing?
• From what point of view should we look at this problem?
• What can we safely assume as we reason through this problem?
• Should we call into question any of the inferences that have been made?
• What are the implications of what we are studying?
Be aware: Many people who have studied science in school fail to think
scientifically in their professional and personal lives.
36
The Logic of History The Logic of Sociology

Looking
Purpose
Purpose
Seeing
at the past as To create a “story” To learn how and
human behavior
something that can be about the past why people act the
as deeply shaped by the
understood through study that captures its way they do as a
beliefs and values of
Po
Po
and interpretation dynamics and helps result of living with
int
int
groups
from multiple
of
of
us make decisions others in groups
ion
ion
If we
Vie
Vie
viewpoints
est
est
systematically about the present
w
w
Qu
Qu
and plans for If I know the
study the past,
the future groups a person
we can gain important What happened during this How do humans
belongs to, I can
knowledge of patterns that particular time period and in this behave in groups?
predict much of
shed light on the present and help particular place in the past that can his/her behavior
us live better in the future help us understand current events
Implications and Consequences Elements and make future decisions? Implications and Consequences Elements
of of
That there are important patterns Reasoning Information Reasoning Information
in the past that can be figured out Important information from the A central determinant in
through systematic observation and past gathered in the attempt the life of humans is the Information about specific
interpretation and that help us to devise an account of the group to which we belong human groups and the
Int
Int
erp
erp
live better in the future dynamics of the past characteristics they do
ret
ret
The and do not share
ati
ati
ns
ns
Judgements Humans Judgements
o
o
past as
tio
tio
na
na
about the past as a herd about groups
mp
mp
Essential Concepts
Essential Concepts
understandable
nd
nd
su
su
based on important or conforming that tell us how
Inf
Inf
through careful
As
As
ere
ere
study and interpretation information about animal humans behave in
nc
nc
how and why things groups, and why
e
e
happened as they did
Be aware: Much human thinking is “historical.” We use our beliefs (formed in the Be aware: Much of our everyday decision-making is based on poor “sociological”
past) to make thousands of decisions in the present and plans for the future. Much thinking. For example, we often uncritically conform to peer groups when we
of this historical thinking is deeply flawed. should question them or note their contradictions and inconsistencies.
52
Conclusion
Clearly there are many varieties of analysis specific to particular disciplines and Announcing the
technical practices. These forms of analysis often require technical training of a
specialized nature. For example, one cannot do qualitative analysis in chemistry
3rd InternatIonal
Academy on
without instruction in chemistry.
What we have provided in this guide, however, is the common denominator between
all forms of analysis because all forms require thoughtful application and all thought
Critical Thinking
presupposes the elements of thought. For example, one cannot think analytically FOR
NO PURPOSE. Or think analytically, with NO QUESTION in mind. This much should
be self-evident. Unfortunately, it is not self-evident to most students.
Those who would develop analytic minds need guidance, instruction, and practice
in monitoring their thinking using intellectual tools applicable to every discipline. to be held at
They need to learn to question purposes, goals, problem definitions, information,
concepts, etc… It is these interdisciplinary analytic tools that enable those skilled in St. John’S College,
them to understand and assess their analytic thinking, whether in a highly technical
area or in an everyday personal application. It is these analytic tools that enable one CambrIdge UnIverSIty, UK
to get at the most fundamental logic of any discipline, subject, problem, or issue. They
provide the means for transfer of learning between and among subjects and disciplines. August 25-28, 2009
They enable motivated persons to gain an overview of their learning in any and every
situation analyzed, to think their way into and out of various intellectual domains.
Of course, there are no magic pills that will create analytic questioning minds. As in
any important area of skills and abilities, all learners need to log hundreds of hours to
gain command and deep insight. There are no shortcuts. We hope that this thinker’s guide
will serve as a launching pad toward analytic proficiency. It is admittedly a first step only,
but it is an essential, and we believe a powerful, first step. The question is, “Do you have the
will and the insight to commit yourself to the long-term practice required?”
Visit www.criticalthinking.org or call 800.833.3645
54
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educational use, and its likely misuse (1–24 copies $600 each; 25–199 copies $400
For Parents, Educators, and Concerned Citizens
How to Get Beyond
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Educational Glitz and Glitter
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Item #595m Fax: 707-878-9111

1–24 copies $6.00 each E-mail: cct@criticalthinking.org
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© 2007 Foundation for Critical Thinking www.criticalthinking.org

About the Authors

Dr. Linda Elder is an educational psychologist who has taught both psychology and critical thinking at the college
level She is the President of the Foundation for Critical Thinking and the Executive Director of the
Center for Critical Thinking Dr Elder has a special interest in the relation of thought and emotion,
the cognitive and the affective, and has developed an original theory of the stages of critical thinking
development She has authored and co-authored a series of articles on critical thinking including
a column on critical thinking for the Journal of Developmental Education. She has co-authored four
books on critical thinking She is a dynamic presenter
Dr. Richard Paul is a major leader in the international critical thinking movement He is Director of Research at the
Center for Critical Thinking, and the Chair of the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking,
author of over 200 articles and seven books on critical thinking Dr Paul has given hundreds of work-
shops on critical thinking and made a series of eight critical thinking video programs for PBS His
views on critical thinking have been canvassed in New York Times, Education Week, The Chronicle of
Higher Education, American Teacher, Educational Leadership, Newsweek, U.S. News and World Report,
and Reader’s Digest.
The Foundation for Critical Thinking

www.criticalthinking.org
707-878-9100
800-833-3645
cct@criticalthinking.org
ISBN 0-944-583-19-9
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© 2007 Foundation for Critical Thinking www.criticalthinking.org

Analytic Thinking: The Thinker's Guide To

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The Thinker’s Guide

The Elements of Thinking

By Dr. Linda Elder and Dr. Richard Paul

Based on Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools

The Foundation for Critical Thinking

Client: Foundation for Critical Thinking Proof 1 Proof 2 Proof 3 Proof 4

Think About Purpose                                                            14 Analyzing and Assessing:

Why a Guide on Analytic Thinking? Why the Analysis of Thinking

Essential Idea: Reasoning occurs when we draw conclusions based on reasons.

Analyzing Problems Analyzing Problems

Analyzing the Logic of a Subject

The Logic of History The Logic of Sociology

Visit www.criticalthinking.org or call 800.833.3645

The Human Mind

The Thinker’s Guide

How to Detect Media Bias and Propaganda—Designed to help readers come

can reasonably determine what media messages need to be supplemented, counter-

The Thinker’s Guide

The Elements of Thinking and

By Dr. Linda Elder and Dr. Richard Paul

Scientific Thinking—The essence of scientific thinking concepts and tools It focuses

Asking Essential Questions—Introduces the art of asking essential questions. It

Fallacies: The Art of Mental Trickery and Manipulation—Introduces the concept

The Thinker’s Guide

25–199 copies $400 each; 200–499 copies $250 each) #533m

How to By Dr. Richard Paul and Dr. Linda Elder

Engineering Reasoning—Contains the essence of engineering reasoning concepts

The Thinker’s Guide

a Paragraph Dr. Robert Niewoehner

The Art of Close Reading

The Thinker’s Guide

How to Write and better

How to say something worth saying

The Foundation For Critical Thinking $175 each) #540m

The Miniature Guide

Practical Ways for Promoting

Active and Cooperative

This guide is best used in conjunction with

200–499 copies $125 each) #550m

The Thinker’s Guide

How to Improve Student Learning—Provides 30 practical ideas for the

intellectual empathy, humility, perseverance, integrity,

of education. Why? Because only when students

Contact us online at www.criticalthinking.org

Critical Thinking Competency Standards— Provides a framework for assessing

Educational “Analytic Thinking” For More Information

How to Get Beyond

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About the Authors

The Foundation for Critical Thinking

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Think About Purpose 14 Analyzing and Assessing:

Scientific Thinking—The essence of scientific thinking concepts and tools It focuses

25–199 copies $400 each; 200–499 copies $250 each) #533m

The Foundation For Critical Thinking $175 each) #540m

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