Applied Physics: Computer Laboratory Manual

Computer Laboratory
Manual
Applied Physics
er S
Name: Syed Yousha Abbas
Student ID: 1204-2-0008
Department: BSCS
NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND

ECONOMICS
Lab No INDEX
Page No
To find the volume of a cylinder and volume of a cube by using Vernier caliper 2
01
7
02 To find the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge
10
03 To find the radius of curvature of a convex lens with the help of a spehrometer
15
04 Designing of voltage divider circuit to obtain desired values of voltage.
To find the Voltage Range, Voltage Sensitivity, Current Range & Current 17
05
Sensitivity of the galvanometer.
To find Voltage range& Sensitivity of galvanometer. 20

06
To determine the frequency of AC supply Melde's apparatus. 22

07
To learn the relationships between the period, frequency, amplitude and length of 26
08
a simple pendulum
ES-153 PHYSICS – LAB MANUAL
LAB # 1
OBJECTIVE
To find the volume and surface area of a cylinder using Vernier

calipers
Apparatus – Vernier calipers and a cylinder
Formula-
Volume of the cylinder = π r2h

Surface area of the cylinder = 2π r(r + h)
Theory -
About Vernier calipers- It is a device to measure the length or width of any small
object with greater precision than with a normal mm scale. While the least count of a
mm scale is one mm, the least count of Vernier calipers is normally 0.1 mm or even
lesser. Different Vernier calipers have different least counts.
Vernier calipers consist of a rectangular steel bar graduated in inches on one side and
centimeters on the other side. This is known as the main scale. Over this scale slides
another small scale called Vernier scale (see figure). The instrument has two jaws A
and B. The jaw A is fixed at the end of the main scale, while the jaw B is movable. It is
a part of the sliding Vernier scale. Each jaw is at right angles to the main scale. Usually
when
The two jaws are touching each other, the zero of the Vernier scale coincides with the
zero of the main scale. If it is not so then the instrument has a zero error.
4 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

In some forms of the instrument, the jaws protrude upwards as P and Q. These
projecting jaws are used to measure the internal diameter of the tubes. The movable
jaw also carries a thin rectangular rod R that is used to measure the depth of a vessel.
As shown in Fig. AB=PQ=R=d
Vernier constant or Least Count- In order to understand how the fraction of the
smallest scale division on the main scale (mm) can be read, consider a Vernier scale
having 10 Vernier divisions. Let these 10 Vernier scale divisions coincide with 9 main
scale divisions.
1 V.D = 9/10 M.S.D
1 M.S.D- 1V.D = 1/10 M.S.D = 0.1 M.S.D = 0.1 mm
The difference between one main scale division and one Vernier division is called
Vernier constant or least count of the Vernier calipers.
smallest divisionon the main scale

Alternatively:least Count , L . C=
number of divisions on vernier callipers

0.1
¿ =0.01 cm
10
In order to measure the length of a cylinder, hold it between the jaws and note the
position of the zero of the Vernier against the main scale. Say it lies between 1.2 cm
and 1.3 cm on the main scale. This means that the length of the cylinder is more than
1.2 cm and less than 1.3 cm. In order to find the fraction of mm, note which division
on Vernier scale coincides with the main scale division. For example, in Fig. 6 thvernier
division coincides with main scale division. If we denote fraction after 1.2 cm by x,
then
1.2 + x + 6 V.D = 1.2 + 6 M.S.D
=
x 6 ( M.S.D – V.D)
= ×Vernier
x 6 constant
x = . 6 M.S.D
x = . 6 mm or .06 cm
Therefore the length of the cylinder is equal to 1.2 cm + .06 cm or 1.26 cm
Zero error- when the two jaws are pressed together, then the zero line of the
Vernier scale should coincide with the zero line of the main scale. If it is not
so, then the instrument has a zero error. To find the zero correction, note the
division, which coincides with any main scale division. Multiply that number
with the Vernier constant. This is the zero correction. It is positive if the zero
of the Vernier scale lies ahead of the zero of the main scale; and it is negative,
if the zero of the Vernier lies behind the zero of the main scale.
Procedure-
(1) Hold the cylinder length wise between the jaws of the Vernier calipers
tightly and note the reading on main scale and also note which division of
Vernier scale coincides with main scale division.
(2) Repeat the procedure at least four times by changing the positions of the
jaws on the two cross sections of the cylinder.
(3) Hold the cylinder diameter wise between the jaws of the Vernier calipers
tightly. Note the reading on main scale and also note which division of
Vernier scale coincides with main scale division.
(4) Repeat the procedure at least four times by changing the position of the
jaws to measure different diameters. Find the mean value. Apply
correction.

(5) Calculate the volume of the cylinder by using the formula for volume.
(6) Hold the cube between the jaws of the Vernier calipers and measure its
length, breadth and height. Take at least four readings for each
dimension.
(7) Calculate the volume of the cube by using the formula.
Observations-
Zero correction = Nil
Measurement of length
Reading on the main Mean value of

Sl. scale The division on Measured h
No ( cm) the Vernier which length=
wit Main reading
coincides h +
mai scal X × least
the n e count.
division (X)
1 9.6cm 5 9.65
2 9.6cm 4 9.64
3 9.6cm 5 9.65 9.6475cm
4 9.6cm 5 9.65
Correct value of h = measured value of h + zero correction
Value of h after applying correction = mean value of h + zero correction

Because zero error is Nil
h=9.6475cm.

Measurement of diameter
Reading on the main division

Sl. scale The on Measured Mean value of d
No (cm) the Vernier which length=
wit Main reading
coincides h +
sca X × least
the main le count
division (X)
1 6.2cm 3 6.23
2 6.2cm 4 6.24 6.235cm
3 6.2cm 3 6.23
4 6.2cm 4 6.24
Correct value of diameter d= measured value d + zero correction =

Mean diameter of the sphere, D= 2r = 6.235
Mean radius of the sphere, r= D/2 = 3.1175 cm.
Calculations:
Volume of the cylinder = π r2h

Volume of the cylinder = (3.14)* (3.1175)2 (9.6475)
Volume of the cylinder = 3.14*9.7188*9.6475
Volume of the cylinder = 30.517*9.6475
Volume of the cylinder = 294.39cm3
Surface area of the cylinder =2π r(r + h)

Surface area of the cylinder = 2*(3.14)*(3.1175)*(3.1175+9.6475)
Surface area of the cylinder =6.28*3.1175*12.765
Surface area of the cylinder =249.91cm2

Precautions-
1. Calculate the least count carefully.
2. Note the zero correction carefully.
3. Take the readings carefully.
4. Find the diameter at least at four different places along the length. Also at
each place, find the diameter along two perpendicular directions.
Teacher Signature: ________________________

LAB # 02
OBJECTIVE
To find the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge
Apparatus- A screw gauge, a piece of wire
Figure-
Theory-
About Screw Gauge- It is an instrument designed to have a least count .01 mm or

even smaller. It is used to measure the thickness of very thin objects such a thin
sheet, a wire or a hair etc. It is based upon the principle of a screw. It consists of a U-
shaped frame, which has a fixed end at A. A fine and an accurately cut screw of
uniform pitch passes through the other end of the frame. A cap fits on to the screw
and carries on its inner edge 100 or 50 equal division marks. This is called the circular
scale (H) and is used to measure the fraction of a revolution. There is another linear

scale graduated on the nut parallel to the axis of the screw. This is called pitch scale
(S). When the screw is rotated, the number of complete rotations can be read on the
pitch scale, while the fraction of rotation can be read from the circular scale. In some
screw gauges, the screw head is provided with a ratchet arrangement R (See Fig.).
When the studs A and C are in contact with each other or with some other object
placed in between, the ratchet slips over the screw without moving the screw
forward. This helps in avoiding undue pressure between the studs or on the object for
accurate measurements.
To find the least count of the screw gauge
Pitch The distance between two consecutive threads taken parallel to its axis is called
the pitch of the screw. It is measured as the distance through which the screw moves
forward or backward when one full rotation is given to the screw cap.
Pitch= Distance traveled on the pitch scale
Number of rotations
Normally the pitch is either 0.5 mm or 1.0 mm
Least Count of a screw gauge is defined as the distance through which the screw
moves (on the pitch scale) when the cap of the screw is rotated through one division
on the circular scale.
Pitch
Least Count =
Number of divs on c . s
Usually, the least count of a screw gauge is 0.01 mm.
Zero Error – when we bring the studs A and C in contact without applying an undue
pressure (one click on the ratchet), the zero of the circular scale should coincide with
the reference line on the pitch scale. If it is not so; then the instrument has zero error.
In some instruments, the zero of the circular scale goes beyond the reference line;
while in other instruments, it is left behind. To find the zero correction, count the
number of divisions on the circular scale by which the zero of the circular scale has
gone beyond or left behind the reference line. Multiply this number with the least
count of the instrument. This is the correction. If the zero of the circular scale lies
beyond the reference line, then the correction is positive and if the zero of the
circular scale lies behind the reference line, then the correction is negative.
Procedure-
(1) Hold the wire between the studs A and C of the jaws just tight, without undue
pressure (with one click on the ratchet).

(2) Note the reading on the circular scale against the reference line on the pitch scale.
Multiply it with the least count and add it to the number of complete divisions
visible on the main scale. If the pitch is 0.5 mm, then care should be taken to
note threading on the pitch scale correct to 0.5 mm.
(3) Turn the wire through 90° and again take the reading as in step (2).
(4) Repeat the procedure by holding the wire at least three different places.
(5) Find the mean value of different readings.
(6) Obtain the correct value of the diameter by applying correction.
Observations-
Zero correction= -0.03mm
Diameter of the wire
Pitc Mean value

Sl. Reading on h Circular scale Measured of
scale(m
No ) reading (x) diameter= diameter
m × pitch +
x × least
count
0m
1 m 48 0.48mm
0m
2 m 47 0.47mm 0.4775mm
0m
3 m 48 0.48mm
0m
4 m 48 0.48mm
Mean value of measured diameter=0.4775mm

Volume of the wire= π (d/2)2 *l
Volume of the wire= (3.14)*(0.477/2)2*13
Volume of the wire=2.321cm3
Precautions-

1. The circular scale should be rotated in the same direction to avoid backlash
error.
2. There should be no undue pressure on the wire. Rotate the circular scale
and stop when one click is heard on the ratchet arrangement.
3. Measure diameter in two perpendicular directions by turning the wire by

900. Take such measurements at least at four different places along the
length of the wire.
Teacher Signature: _______________________

LAB # 3
OBJECTIVE
To find the radius of curvature of a convex lens with the help of a spherometer
Apparatus – A spherometer, a plane glass slab, a convex lens of appropriate

diameter (about 8cm to 10 cm), a Vernier calipers and wooden blocks for
supporting the lens
Formula-
l2 h
Radius of curvature of the lens R = +
6h 2
Figure-
Theory –
About spherometer –
It is a device to measure the thickness of a thin plate and the radius of curvature of
any spherical surface (concave /convex mirror or a lens). It carries a small vertical
scale usually divided into millimeters. The body of the instrument is supported on
three legs whose lower tips form an equilateral triangle and lie in one plane. A screw
which carries a circular scale (having 100 or 50 divisions) at its top is so supported that
the tip of this screw is at circum- centre of the triangle formed by the tips of the legs.
The distance through which the screw advances along the vertical scale in one full
rotation is called pitch of the spherometer. It is usually 1 mm or 0.5 mm. If the pitch is
1 mm and the circular scale has 100 divisions, then this means that when the circular
scale is rotated by 100 divisions, the screw moves through distance 1mm. Therefore

when rotated through one division, it moves through .01 mm. This is the least count
of the instrument.
Zero Error- If the instrument is correct, then the zero of the circular scale should
coincide with the zero of the vertical scale when the tip of the screw is in the plane of
the tips of the legs. This is seldom so and hence the instrument has initial error called
zero error. The correction whether positive or negative depends upon the final
reading whether taken by moving the screw downward or upward. It is not quite
necessary to find the zero error if the number of divisions through which the circular
scale is rotated is measured correctly and carefully.
To determine the radius of curvature of a spherical surface-
The formula for calculating R can be easily derived.
Fig 1 Fig 2
From the geometry of the circle (Fig 1), we have
AD2= ED. DF
Or r2 = h (2R-h)
or 2 R h = r2 + h2
Or R = r2/2h + h/2
If l is the length of each side of the equilateral triangle ABC formed by joining the tips
of the three outer legs, then as shown in Fig 2,

3/
I/2 = r cosθ = r 2
l
Substituting r = 2
h
l/ 3 , we have R = 6 +
h 2
Procedure –
(1) Find the least count of the spherometer.
(2) Raise the screw by tuning its head so that it may be above the plane containing
the tips of the three legs. Place the spherometer on the page of your notebook on
which experiment is to be done. Press the spherometer to get the impression of
the tips of three legs. Mark the position of each of the three points by drawing a
small circle round each point. Measure the length of each side of the triangle
formed by joining these points and let the mean value. Let the mean length be l
cm.
(3) Set the convex lens firmly on a horizontal surface (table).Place the spherometer
on the surface of convex lens after raising its central leg through four or five
complete rotations of the circular scale. Turn the screw so that the central leg
while moving downwards touches the surface of the lens. Note the circular scale
reading against the edge of the vertical scale. Repeat this step three times
(4) Place the spherometer on the surface of the plane glass slab or a table. Turn the
screw in the same directions as in the previous step till tip of the central leg just
touches the plane surface. Count the number of complete rotations and the
additional number of circular divisions moved.
(5) Repeat the step three times by moving the central leg every time in the upward
direction through a sufficient large distance as compared to the value of ‘h’ .
Observation:
Pitch of the screw =1mm
Total number of divisions on circular scale (n) = 100

Least count of the spherometer = Pitch/ n=1/100=0.01mm
Mean distance between the legs l = 40mm
Measurement of h
No. of o Mean value of

Sl. No. complete No. f h = m × pitch + h
addition
rotations (m) al x ×least count in meters
circular
divisions
moved
(x)
1 3m 55 3.55
2 3m 51 3.51 3.52m
3 3m 52 3.52
2
Radius of curvature of the lens R h
= 6 +
h 2
Radius of curvature of the lens R= ((40)2/6(3.526)) + (3.526)/2

Radius of curvature of the lens R=105.75*10-3m
Precautions
(1) l should be measured accurately with the help of Vernier calipers because we
use l² in calculations. Measure l by use of projecting jaws P and Q of the
Vernier calipers correct to a fraction of a millimeter or with the help of a
traveling microscope.
(2) The lens must be in perfectly stable position when readings are being taken.

(3) There should be no play between the screw and the nut in which it rotates

1. From Graph: 2
A'D' = _________ cm and B'E' = __________ cm.
Since L2 = (A'D' + B'E') / 2 = ____________ cm
And T2 = OC' = ___________ s.
Therefore the value of g1 is given by
= ___________ cm/s2.
Now calculate the mean value of 'g' as
Mean g = (g1 + g2) / 2 = ____________ cm / s2.
RESULTS:-
1. The value of acceleration due to gravity = _______________ cm / s 2.

LAB # 4
OBJECTIVE:-
● Designing of voltage divider circuit to obtain desired values of voltage.
EQUIPMENT:-
1. Multimeter.
2. 5 kΩ constant resistance.
3. A constant DC voltage source (10 V).
THEORY:-
"Voltage divider circuit is a series combination of resistances
Which can be used to obtain desired values of voltages at its
Intermediate nodes".
If resistors are combined to form a series circuit and a voltage is applied across its end
terminals that voltage is divided across each resistor in proportion to its resistance value.
UsingFig-1 we can show that:
V1
R1
VSECONOMICS
20 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND =10V
Rx
Fig-1
PROCEDURE:-
1. Fabricate the circuit given in Fig-1 on the Vero board.

2. Apply a constant DC voltage of 10 Volt input terminals.
3. Set the value of Rx as indicated in the Table-1 and measure the voltages V1 and Vxby
using voltmeter.
4. Calculate the value of Vx for all values of Rx by using Eq-1.
5. Find the % Error between calculated and measured values.
OBSERVATIONS:-
R1 = 5 kΩ
% Error =
CalcVx -MeasVx X
Measured Values Calculated Values
S.N Rx 100
CalcVx
V1 Vx V1 Vx
1 10 Ω
2 100 Ω
3 1 kΩ
4 5 kΩ

5 10 kΩ
6 100 kΩ
CALCULATIONS:-
Put each set of values of R1, Rx and VSUP in the equation below and perform calculations.
--------- Eq-1
COMMENTS:-
Comment for the comparison of measured and calculated values of Vx:
Student Registration No: ________________________
LAB # 5

OBJECTIVE:-
● To find the Voltage Range, Voltage Sensitivity, Current Range & Current
Sensitivity of the galvanometer.
● Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter.
● Find the Voltage Range & Voltage Sensitivity, Current Range & Current Sensitivity
of the converted Voltmeter.
EQUIPMENT:-
● Galvanometers.
● Regulated variable Power Supply.
● Resistors (Very small/Very High).
● DMM (Digital Multimeter)
THEORY:-
A Galvanometer is a type of ammeter which is able to detect and measure only very small
amount of current, it is also used to indicate the direction of current in an electric circuit. It
is an analog electromechanical device that produces a rotary deflection through a limited
arc in response to electric current flowing through its coil.
(GALVANOMETER)
Procedure 1

1. To find the voltage range (V R) of the galvanometer we connect the galvanometer in

parallel with the regulated DC voltage supply.
2. Vary the voltage until the maximum deflection of galvanometer occurs.
3. To find the voltage sensitivity (VS) of galvanometer, divide the measured voltage
range (VR) by the maximum deflection scale division (30).
4. To find current range (IR) divide the voltage range (VR) by the total internal resistance
of galvanometer (RG =100 Ω).
5. To find current sensitivity (IS) of galvanometer divide the calculated current range (I R)
by the maximum deflection scale division (30).
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:-
1. Galvanometer measured voltage Range. (VR) = ____________________.

2. Galvanometer Voltage Sensitivity. (VS) = VR/30 = __________________.
3. Galvanometer current Range. (IR) = VR/RG = __________________.
4. Galvanometer current Sensitivity. (IS) = IR/30 = __________________.
(Modification of Galvanometer into Voltmeter)
Procedure 2
RG= 100 RH = 2.4K

G
1. To convert galvanometer into voltmeter adds a multiplier resistance (very high

resistance (RH)) in series with the galvanometer internal resistance so that maximum
voltage will drop across this very high resistance and hence obtain high voltage
measurement ranges.

2. Connect a variable voltage supply across the modified circuit and vary the voltage
until the pointer of galvanometer shows full deflection. The full deflection will occur
at a higher voltage as compared to the original galvanometer measured voltage
Range. This is the Voltage Range of the modified voltmeter (V R).
3. To find the voltage sensitivity (VS) of this modified voltmeter, divide the measured
voltage range (VR) by the maximum deflection scale division (30).
4. To find current range (IR) divide the voltage range (VR) by the Equivalent resistance
(RE).
5. To find current sensitivity (IS) of Voltmeter divide the calculated current range (I R) by
the maximum deflection scale division (30).
1. Modified Voltmeter equivalent Resistance (RE)
RE = RG + RH = _________________.
2. Voltmeter measured voltage Range. (VR) = _________________.

3. Voltmeter Voltage Sensitivity. (VS) = VR/30 = _________________.
4. Voltmeter current Range. (IR) = VR/RE __________________.
5. Voltmeter current Sensitivity. (IS) = IR/30 = _________________.
LAB # 6
OBJECTIVE:-

● To find Voltage range& Sensitivity of galvanometer.

● To find the Current Range & Sensitivity of galvanometer.
● Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter.
● Find the Voltage Range & Voltage Sensitivity, Current Range & Current Sensitivity of
the modified Ammeter.
RG = 100
EQUIPMENT:-
G
● Galvanometers.
● Regulated variable Power Supply.
● Resistors (Very small/Very High). RS
● DMM.
PROCEDURE:-
1. To convert galvanometers into Ammeter add a Shunt resistance (small resistance

(RS)) in parallel with the galvanometer internal resistance (R G) so that the large
amount of current will flow through the shunt resistance.
2. Connect a variable voltage supply across the modified circuit and vary the voltage
until the pointer of galvanometer shows full deflection. This is the Voltage Range of
the modified Ammeter (VR).
3. To find the voltage sensitivity (V S) of this modified Ammeter, divide the measured
voltage range (VR) by the maximum deflection scale division (30).
4. To find current range (IR) divide the voltage range (VR) by the Equivalent resistance
(RE).
5. To find current sensitivity (IS) of Ammeter divide the calculated current range (I R) by
the maximum deflection scale division (30).
1. Modified Ammeter equivalent Resistance (RE),
RE = (RG.RH) /RG + RH) = ________________.

2. Ammeter measured voltage Range. (VR) = ________________.

3. Ammeter Voltage Sensitivity. (VS) = VR/30 = ________________.
4. Ammeter current Range. (IR) = VR/RE = ________________.
5. Ammeter current Sensitivity. (IS) = IR/30 = ________________.
LAB # 07
OBJECTIVE:-
● To determine the frequency of AC supply Melde's apparatus.

EQUIPMENT:-
1. Melde's apparatus (vibrograbh)

2. AC supply.
3. Pulley with stand.
4. Two small optical pins with stands.
5. Light string of about 3 meters.
6. Pan.
7. Weight box.
8. Meter scale.
THEORY:-
The frequency of AC supply is given by;
Where 'f' is the frequency of AC supply for frequency of transverse standing waves
produced in string,
lis the distance between two successive nodes, i.e. equal to the length of a loop.
M is the total mass suspended to the string. i.e., mass placed in the pan plus mass of pan.
g is acceleration due to gravity, and m is mass per unit length of string.
PROCEDURE:-

1. If the mass per unit length of string is not known, measure full length of string, say
2m, and weight it to the nearest milligram. Divide the measured mass by its length
to get mass per unit length m of string. Note also the mass of pan m1.
2. One end of string is tied to the iron strip of vibrograph and the other end is passed
over a frictionless pulley and is attached to a light pan (Fig-1). Take care that the pan
does not touch the table or any other thing.
3. Stretch the string by placing some mass m2 say 20 gm, in the pan attached at end of
string, and set vibrograph to vibrations by switching the current on.
4. The length of the string is adjusted by moving vibrograph or position of vibrating
strip is adjusted until standing waves having amplitude of about 1-2 cm are seen in
the string.
Fig: 2
5. Now one optical pin is placed at the second and second last node formed in string
and the distance L between these two optical pins measured by meter scale, and
the string are not true nodes, and measurements should not be made from these
points.
6. Record the values of L and n and hence find out length of lof one loop.
7. Alter the values of tension in string by changing weight in pan, say 30, 40, 50 and
100 gm, and repeat the operation five times for each weight to find L and n.
8. Determine the frequency of AC supply in each case by using formula

And take the mean value.
OBSERVATIONS:-
1. Mass per unit length of string = m = 0.0017 g/cm.

2. Mass of pan = m1 = ________________ g.
Total Length Frequenc

Mass
Total mass No of length of of one y of AC Mean frequency
in pan
S# M = m1 + m2 Loops n loops loop of AC
m2
n L L = L/n Hz or C/s
gm
gm Hz or c/s
cm cm
CALCULATIONS:-
The frequency of AC supply is given by;
= __________________ Hz.

RESULTS:-
The frequency of AC supply = _________________ Hz.
PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS:-
1. Vibrating strip or length of string should be so adjusted that the loops formed are
sharp, stationary and of maximum amplitude.
2. The pulley used should be frictionless and in line with the string.
3. The string should be of uniform diameter.
4. The pan should be light.
5. The string and pan should be kept off the table.
6. Optical pins should be carefully adjusted.
LAB # 8
Objective
To learn the relationships between the period, frequency, amplitude and length of a simple
pendulum
Theory|:
A simple pendulum has a small-diameter bob and a string that has a very small mass but is
strong enough not to stretch appreciably.

When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to
a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position.
When released, the restoring force acting on the pendulum's mass causes it to oscillate
about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete cycle, a
left swing and a right swing, is called the period. The period depends on the length of the
pendulum and also to a slight degree on the amplitude, the width of the pendulum's swing.
The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the local strength
of gravity, and to a small extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away
from vertical, θ0, called the amplitude. It is independent of the mass of the bob. If the
amplitude is limited to small swings, the period T of a simple pendulum, the time taken for a
complete cycle, is:
T =2 π √ ❑
Where l is the length of the pendulum and g is the local acceleration of gravity.
For small swings the period of swing is approximately the same for different size swings:
that is, the period is independent of amplitude. This property, called isochronism, is the
reason pendulums are so useful for timekeeping Successive swings of the pendulum, even if
changing in amplitude, take the same amount of time.
Procedure:
a) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure above. // A small brass or
Bob was attached to the thread. The thread was held by a clamp of a
The retort stand.

b) The length of the thread, l was measured by a meter rule, starting
With 80.0 cm. The bob of the pendulum was displaced and released.
c) The time for 20 complete oscillations, t was taken using the stop
Watch. Calculate the period of oscillation by using, T = t / 20
d) The experiment was repeated using different lengths such as

90.0 cm. 100.0 cm, 110.0 cm and 120.0 cm.

Observations:
Length of Time taken for 20 Period of T2

pendulum, l oscillation
oscillations, t (s) (s2 )
cm
T
t1 t2 t3 Average, t
Plotting the graph:

∙ The graph should be labeled by a
heading
∙ All axes should be labeled with
quantities and their respective units.
∙ The manipulated variable (l) should
be plotted on the x-axis while the
responding variable (T2 ) should be
plotted on the y-axis

∙ Make sure that the transference of data from the table to the graph is accurate.
∙ Draw the best straight line.
- the line that passes through most of the points plotted such that is balanced by the
number of points above and below the straight line.
2 l
Calculations: g=4 π
T2
Select a point on the graph other than the observed points and within the range of selected
lengths. Use l&T 2ofthe selected point to calculate g.
Result: At Karachi The value g =………….cm/s2
Discussion / Precaution of the experiment / to improve the accuracy

a) The bob of the pendulum was displaced with a small angle
b) The amplitude of the oscillation of a simple pendulum is small.
c) The simple pendulum oscillate in a vertical plane only.
d) Switch off the fan to reduce the air resistance
11. Conclusion
The length of simple pendulum is directly proportional to

The square of the period of oscillation. //
T2 is directly proportional to l (the straight line graph passing

Through the origin)

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Computer Laboratory

NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND

To find Voltage range& Sensitivity of galvanometer. 20

To determine the frequency of AC supply Melde's apparatus. 22

To find the volume and surface area of a cylinder using Vernier

Apparatus – Vernier calipers and a cylinder

Volume of the cylinder = π r2h

4 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

As shown in Fig. AB=PQ=R=d

1 M.S.D- 1V.D = 1/10 M.S.D = 0.1 M.S.D = 0.1 mm

smallest divisionon the main scale

5 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

1.2 + x + 6 V.D = 1.2 + 6 M.S.D

Therefore the length of the cylinder is equal to 1.2 cm + .06 cm or 1.26 cm

6 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

(7) Calculate the volume of the cube by using the formula.

Zero correction = Nil

Reading on the main Mean value of

3 9.6cm 5 9.65 9.6475cm

Correct value of h = measured value of h + zero correction

Value of h after applying correction = mean value of h + zero correction

7 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

Reading on the main division

Correct value of diameter d= measured value d + zero correction =

Volume of the cylinder = π r2h

Surface area of the cylinder =2π r(r + h)

8 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

1. Calculate the least count carefully.

2. Note the zero correction carefully.

3. Take the readings carefully.

Teacher Signature: ________________________

9 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

To find the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge

Apparatus- A screw gauge, a piece of wire

About Screw Gauge- It is an instrument designed to have a least count .01 mm or

10 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

To find the least count of the screw gauge

Pitch= Distance traveled on the pitch scale

Normally the pitch is either 0.5 mm or 1.0 mm

Usually, the least count of a screw gauge is 0.01 mm.

11 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

(5) Find the mean value of different readings.

(6) Obtain the correct value of the diameter by applying correction.

Zero correction= -0.03mm

Diameter of the wire

Pitc Mean value

Mean value of measured diameter=0.4775mm

12 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

3. Measure diameter in two perpendicular directions by turning the wire by

Teacher Signature: _______________________

13 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

Apparatus – A spherometer, a plane glass slab, a convex lens of appropriate

14 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

To determine the radius of curvature of a spherical surface-

The formula for calculating R can be easily derived.

From the geometry of the circle (Fig 1), we have

15 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

Total number of divisions on circular scale (n) = 100

16 NEWPORTS INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATIONS AND ECONOMICS

A'D' = _ cm and B'E' = __ cm.