s

Quadratic Equation

Form:
Ax2 + Bx + C = 0

Roots:

x=
−B ± √B2 − 4AC

2A

Sum of Roots:

x1 + x2 = −
B
A

Product of Roots:

x1 ∙ x2 = +
C
A

Progression

AM ∙ HM = (GM)2

Arithmetic Progression:

d = a2 − a1 = a3 − a2

an = a1 + (n − 1)d

an = ax + (n − x)d

Sn =
n
2

(a1 + an)

Harmonic Progression:
- reciprocal of arithmetic
progression
Geometric Progression:

r = a2/a1 = a3/a2

an = a1 r
n−1

an = ax r
n−x

Sn = a1
1 − rn

1−r

S∞ =
a1

1−r

Trigonometric Identities

Squared Identities:

sin2A + cos2A = 1

1 + tan2A = sec2A

1 + cot2A = csc2A

Sum & Diff of Angles Identities:

sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B

tan (A ± B) =
tan A ± tan B

1 ∓ tan A tan B

Double Angle Identities:

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

cos 2A = cos2A − sin2A

cos 2A = 2 cos2A − 1

cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2A

tan 2A =
2 tan A

1 − tan2A

Spherical Trigonometry

Sine Law:
sin 𝑎
sin 𝐴

=
sin 𝑏
sin 𝐵

=
sin 𝑎
sin 𝐴

Cosine Law for sides:

cos 𝑎 = cos 𝑏 cos 𝑐 + sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐 cos 𝐴

Cosine Law for angles:

Spherical Polygon:

AB =
πR2E
180°

Spherical Pyramid:

V=
1
3

ABH =
πR3E
540°

Binomial Theorem

Form:
(x + y)n

rth term:
rth = Cm x

n−mym

where: m=r-1
n

Worded Problems Tips

 Age Problems
→ underline specific time conditions

 Motion Problems
→a=0
→ s = vt

 Work Problems

Case 1: Unequal rate

rate =
work
time

Case 2: Equal rate

→ usually in project management
→ express given to man-days or man-hours

 Clock Problems

θ=
11M − 60H

+ if M is ahead of H
- if M is behind of H

cos 𝐴 = − cos 𝐵 cos 𝐶 + sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶 cos 𝑎

n-sided Polygon

Interior Angle, ɤ:

γ=
(n − 2)180°

Deflection Angle, δ:
δ = 180° − γ

Central Angle, β:

β=
360°

E = spherical excess
E = (A+B+C+D…) – (n-2)180°

Area = n ∙ ATRIANGLE

Area = n ∙
1
2

R2sinβ

Area = n ∙
1
2

ah

Polygon Names

3 - triangle
4 - quad/tetragon
5 - pentagon
6 - hexagon/sexagon
7 - septagon/heptagon
8 - octagon
9 - nonagon
10 - decagon
11 - undecagon/
monodecagon
12 - dodecagon/
bidecagon
13 - tridecagon
14 - quadridecagon
15 - quindecagon/
pentadecagon

16 - hexadecagon
17 - septadecagon
18 - octadecagon
19 - nonadecagon
20 - icosagon
21 - unicosagon
22 - do-icosagon
30 - tricontagon
31 - untricontagon
40 - tetradecagon
50 - quincontagon
60 - hexacontagon
100 - hectogon
1,000 - chilliagon
10,000 - myriagon
1,000,000 - megagon
∞ - aperio (circle)

Triangle

A=
1
2

bh

A=
1
2

ab sin C

A=
1
2

a2
sin B sin C

sin A
A = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

s=
a+b+c

Common Quadrilateral

Square:
A = s2
P = 4s
d = √2s

Parallelogram:
A = bh
A = ab sin θ

A=
1
2

d1d2 sin θ

Rhombus:
A = ah
A = a2 sin θ

A=
1
2

d1d2

Trapezoid

A=
1
2

(a + b)h

A1
A2

=
n
m

;w=√
ma2 + nb2

m+n

General Quadrilateral

Cyclic Quadrilateral: (sum of opposite angles=180°)

A = √(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)

Ptolemy’s Theorem is applicable:

ac + bd = d1d2

Non-cyclic Quadrilateral:

A = √(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos2

ε
2

Triangle-Circle Relationship

Circumscribing Circle:

AT =
abc
4R

diameter =
opposite side
sine of angle

d=
a

sin A
=

b
sin B

=
c
sin C

Inscribed Circle:

AT = rs

Escribed Circle:

AT = Ra(s − a)
AT = Rb(s − b)
AT = Rc(s − c)

Ex-circle-
In-circle

1
𝑟

=
1
𝑟1

+
1
𝑟2

+
1
𝑟3

s=
a+b+c+d

1 minute of arc =
1 nautical mile

1 nautical mile =
6080 feet

1 statute mile =
5280 feet

1 knot =
1 nautical mile
per hour
Centers of Triangle

INCENTER
- the center of the inscribed circle (incircle)
of the triangle & the point of intersection of
the angle bisectors of the triangle.

CIRCUMCENTER
- the center of the circumscribing circle
(circumcircle) & the point of intersection of
the perpendicular bisectors of the triangle.

ORTHOCENTER
- the point of intersection of the altitudes of
the triangle.

CENTROID
- the point of intersection of the medians of
the triangle.

EULER LINE
- the line that would pass through the
orthocenter, circumcenter, and centroid of
the triangle.
Pappus Theorem

Pappus Theorem 1:

SA = L ∙ 2πR

Pappus Theorem 2:

V = A ∙ 2πR

NOTE: It is also used to locate centroid of an area.

Prism or Cylinder
V = ABH = AXL
v

LA = PBH = PxL

Pointed Solid
V=

1
3

ABH

AB/PB → Perimeter or Area of base

H → Height & L → slant height
AX/PX → Perimeter or Area of cross-
section perpendicular to slant height

Right Circ. Cone

LA = πrL

Reg. Pyramid

LA =
1
2
PBL

Special Solids

Truncated Prism or Cylinder:

V = ABHave
LA = PBHave

Frustum of Cone or Pyramid:

V=
H
3

(A1 + A2 + √A1A2)

Prismatoid:

V=
H
6

(A1 + 4AM + A2)

Spherical Solids
Sphere:

V=
4
3

πR3
LA = 4πR2

Spheroid:

V=
4
3
πabc

LA = 4π [
a2 + b2 + c2

3
]

Prolate Spheroid:

V=
4
3
πabb

LA = 4π [
a2 + b2 + b2

3
]

Oblate Spheroid:

V=
4
3
πaab

LA = 4π [
a2 + a2 + b2

3
]

about minor axis

about major axis

Spherical Lune:

Alune
θrad

=
4πR2

2π

Alune = 2θR
2

Spherical Wedge:
Vwedge
θrad

=
4
3

πR3

2π

Vwedge =
2
3

θR3

Spherical Zone:
Azone = 2πRh

Spherical Sector:

V=
1
3

AzoneR

V=
2
3

πR2h

Spherical Segment:

For one base:

V=
1
3

πh2(3R − h)

For two bases:

V=
1
6

πh(3a2 + 3b2 + h2)

Rectangle:
A = bh
P = 2a + 2b
d = √b2 + h2

Ellipse

A = πab C = 2π√
a2 + b2

# of diagonals:

d=
n
2

(n − 3)

Tetrahedron

H = a√
2
3

SA = a2√3

V = a3
√2
12
Circle
- the locus of point that moves such
that its distance from a fixed point
called the center is constant.

General Equation:
x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard Equation:
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

Analytic Geometry

Slope-intercept form:
y = mx + b

Point-slope form:

m=
y − y1
x − x1

Two-point form:

y2 − y1
x2 − x1

=
y − y2
x − x2

Point-slope form:

x
a

+
y
b

=1

Archimedean Solids
- the only 13 polyhedra that are
convex, have identical vertices, and
their faces are regular polygons.

where:
E → # of edges
V → # of vertices
N → # of faces
n → # of sides of each face
v → # of faces meeting at a vertex

E=
Nn
2

V=
Nn
v

Distance from a point to another point:

d = √(y2 − y1)
2 + (x2 − x1)

Distance from a point to a line:

d=
|Ax + By + C|

√A2 + B2

Distance of two parallel lines:

d=
|C1 − C2|
√A2 + B2
Angle between two lines:

tan θ =
m2 − m1

1 + m1m2

Conic Sections

General Equation:
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Based on discriminant:
B2 − 4AC = 0 ∴ parabola
B2 − 4AC < 0 ∴ ellipse
B2 − 4AC > 0 ∴ hyperbola

Based on eccentricity, e=f/d:

𝑒 = 0 ∴ circle
𝑒 = 1 ∴ parabola
𝑒 < 1 ∴ ellipse
𝑒 > 1 ∴ hyperbola

Parabola
- the locus of point that moves such that it is always equidistant from a
fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix).

General Equation:
y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
x2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard Equation:
(x − h)2 = ±4a(y − k)
(y − k)2 = ±4a(x − h)

Elements:

Eccentricity, e:

e=
df
dd

=1

Length of latus
rectum, LR:

LR = 4a

Ellipse
- the locus of point that moves such
that the sum of its distances from
two fixed points called the foci is
constant.

General Equation:
Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard Equation:

(x − h)2

a2
+

(y − k)2

b2
=1

(x − h)2

b2
+

(y − k)2

a2
=1

Elements:

Location of foci, c:

c2 = a2 − b2

Length of LR:
LR =
2b2

Loc. of directrix, d:

d=
a
e

Eccentricity, e:

e=
c
a

Hyperbola
- the locus of point that moves such
that the difference of its distances
from two fixed points called the foci
is constant.

General Equation:
Ax2 − Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Standard Equation:

(x − h)2

a2
−

(y − k)2

b2
=1

(y − k)2
a2
−

(x − h)2

b2
=1

Elements:

Location of foci, c:

c2 = a2 + b2

Eq’n of asymptote:
y − k = ±m(x − h)
where:
m is (+) for upward asymptote;
m is (-) for downward
m = b/a if the transverse axis is horizontal;
m = a/b if the transverse axis is vertical

Same as ellipse:
Length of LR,

Loc. of directrix, d
Eccentricity, e

Line Tangent to Conic Section

To find the equation of a line

tangent to a conic section at a
given point P(x1, y1):

In the equation of the conic

equation, replace:

𝑥2 → 𝑥𝑥1
𝑦2 → 𝑦𝑦1

𝑥→
𝑥 + 𝑥1

𝑦→
𝑦 + 𝑦1

2
𝑥𝑦 →
𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑥1

Engineering Economy

 Simple Interest:

I = P𝑖n
F = P(1 + 𝑖n)

 Compound Interest:

F = P(1 + 𝑖)n

F = P (1 +
r
m

)
mt

ER =
I
P

= (1 −
r
m

)
m

−1

 Continuous Compounding Interest:

F = Pert
ER = er − 1

 Annuity:

F=A[
(1 + 𝑖)n
′
−1

𝑖
]

P=A[
(1 + 𝑖)n

′
−1

𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
]

 Perpetuity:

P=
A
𝑖

= F(1 + 𝑖)−n

 Capitalized Cost:

C = FC +
OM

𝑖
+

RC − SV
(1 + 𝑖)n − 1

AC = C ∙ 𝑖

AC = FC ∙ 𝑖 + OM +
(RC − SV)𝑖
(1 + i)n − 1

 Single-payment-compound-amount factor:

(F/P, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)n

 Single-payment-present-worth factor:

(P/F, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)−n
 Equal-payment-series-compound-amount factor:

(F/A, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n

′
−1

𝑖
]

 Equal-payment-sinking-fund factor:

(A/F, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n

′
−1

𝑖
]

−1

 Equal-payment-series-present-worth factor:

(P/A, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n

′
−1

𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
]

 Equal-payment-series-capital-recovery factor:

(A/P, 𝑖, n) = [
(1 + 𝑖)n

′
−1

𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
]
−1

where:
F → future worth
P → principal or present worth
i → interest rate per interest period
r → nominal interest rate
n → no. of interest periods
m → no. of interest period per year
t → no. of years
ER → effective rate

where:
F → future worth
P → principal or present worth
A → periodic payment
i → interest rate per payment
n → no. of interest periods
n’ → no. of payments

where:
C → capitalized cost
FC → first cost
OM → annual operation
or maintenance cost
RC → replacement cost
SV → salvage cost
AC → annual cost

Depreciation

BVm = FC − Dm

 Straight-Line:

d=
FC − SV

Dm = d(m)

 Sinking Fund:

d = (FC − SV) [
(1 + i)n − 1

𝑖
]

−1

Dm = d [
(1 + i)m − 1

𝑖
]

 Sum-of-the-Years-Digit (SYD):

dm = (FC − SV) [
n−m+1

∑ years
]

Dm = (FC − SV) [
∑ xnn−m+1

∑ xn1
]

 Declining Balance (Matheson):

BVm = FC(1 − k)
m

SV = FC(1 − k)n k → obtained

Dm = FC − BVm

 Double Declining Balance:

BVm = FC(1 − k)
m

k = 2/n k → obtained
Dm = FC − BVm

 Service Output Method:

d=
FC − SV

Qn

D = dQm

where:
FC → first cost
SV → salvage cost
d → depreciation
per year
n → economic life
m → any year before n
BVm → book value
after m years
Dm → total depreciation

where:
FC → first cost
SV → salvage cost
d → depreciation per year
Qn → qty produced during
economic life
Qm → qty produced during
up to m year
Dm → total depreciation

CALTECH:
Mode 3 3
x

(time)
y

(BV)
0 FC
n SV

n+1 SV

CALTECH:
Mode 3 6
x

(time)
y

(BV)
0 FC
n SV
CALTECH:
Mode 3 2
x

(time)
y

(BV)
0 FC
n SV

 Inflation:

𝑖f = 𝑖 + f + 𝑖f

 Break-even analysis:

cost = revenue

 Rate of return:

RR =
annual net profit

capital

Annual net profit

= savings – expenses
– depreciation (sinking fund)

RP =
1

RR

Differential Calculus

Curvature:

k=
y"
[1 + (y′)2]
3
2

Maxima & Minima (Critical Points):

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

= y′ = 0

Point of inflection:

𝑑2𝑦
𝑑𝑥2

= y" = 0

Versed sine:

vers A = 1 − cos A
Versed cosine:

covers A = 1 − sin A
Half versed sine:

hav A =
1 − cos A

Exsecant:

exsec A = sec A − 1

Unit Circle

Radius of curvature:

ρ=
[1 + (y′)2]

3
2

𝑦"
(+) minima
(-) maxima

Integral Calculus-The Cardioid

A = 1.5πa2
P = 8a
r = a(1 − sin θ) r = a(1 − cos θ)
r = a(1 + sin θ) r = a(1 + cos θ)

1 revolution
= 2π rad
= 360˚
= 400 grads
= 6400 mills

Statistics

Measure of Natural Tendency

 Mean, x̅, μ → average

→ Mode Stat 1-var
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on
→ Input
→ AC Shift 1 var x̅

 Median, Me → middle no.

Me
th =

n+1
2

Me
th =
1
2
[(
n
2
)+(

n
2
+ 1)]

 Mode, Mo → most frequent

Standard Deviation

 Population standard deviation

→ Mode Stat 1-var
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on
→ Input
→ AC Shift 1 var σx

 Sample standard deviation

→ Mode Stat 1-var
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on
→ Input
→ AC Shift 1 var sx

NOTE:
If not specified whether population/sample
in a given problem, look for POPULATION.

Coefficient of Linear Correlation

or Pearson’s r

→ Mode Stat A+Bx

→ Input
→ AC Shift 1 Reg r

NOTE:
-1 ≤ r ≤ +1; otherwise erroneous

 Population standard deviation

Variance

 standard deviation = σ

 variance = σ2

 relative variability = σ/x

Mean/Average Deviation

 Mean/average value

mv =
1

b−a
∫ f(x)dx
b

 Mean value

RMS = √
1

b−a
∫ f(x)2dx
b

Walli’s Formula

∫ cosm θ sinn θ dθ =
[(m − 1)(m− 3)(m − 5)… (1 or 2)][(n − 1)(n − 3)(n − 5)… (1 or 2)]

(m + n)(m + n − 2)(m + n − 4)… (1 or 2)

π
2

0
∙α

NOTE:

α = π/2 for m and n are both even

α =1 otherwise

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
r = x2 + y2
θ = tan−1
y
x

Discrete Probability Distributions

 Binomial Probability Distribution

P(x) = C(n, x) px qn−x

where:
p → success
q → failure

 Geometric Probability Distribution

P(x) = p(qx−1)

 Poisson Probability Distribution

P(x) =
μxe−μ

x!

Transportation Engineering

Design of Horizontal Curve

 Minimum radius of curvature

R=
v2

g(e + f)

R → minimum radius of curvature

e → superelevation
f → coeff. of side friction or
skid resistance
v → design speed in m/s
g → 9.82 m/s2

 Centrifugal ratio or impact factor

Impact factor =
v2

gR

R → minimum radius of curvature

v → design speed in m/s
g → 9.82 m/s2

Power to move a vehicle

P = vR
P → power needed to move vehicle in watts
v → velocity of vehicle in m/s
R → sum of diff. resistances in N

Design of Pavement

 Rigid pavement without dowels

t=√
3W
f

 Rigid pavement with dowels

t=√
3W
2f
t=√

3W
4f

(at the edge) (at the center)

t → thickness of pavement
W → wheel load
f → allow tensile stress of concrete

 Flexible pavement

t=√
W
𝜋f1
−r

f1 → allow bearing pressure of subgrade

r → radius of circular area of contact
between wheel load & pavement

 Thickness of pavement in terms

of expansion pressure

t=
expansion pressure
pavement density

 Stiffness factor of pavement

SF = √
Es
Ep

ES → modulus of elasticity of subgrade

EP→ modulus of elasticity of pavement

Traffic Accident Analysis

 Accident rate for 100 million

vehicles per miles of travel in a
segment of a highway:

R=
A (100,000,000)
ADT ∙ N ∙ 365 ∙ L

A → no. of accidents during period of analysis

ADT → average daily traffic
N → time period in years
L → length of segment in miles

 Accident rate per million entering

vehicles in an intersection:

R=
A (1,000,000)
ADT ∙ N ∙ 365
A → no. of accidents during period of analysis
ADT → average daily traffic entering all legs
N → time period in years

 Severity ratio, SR:

SR =
f∙i
f∙i∙p

f → fatal
i → injury
p → property damage

 Spacing mean speed, US:

Us =
∑d
∑t

=
n

∑(
1
U1
)

 Time mean speed, Ut:

Ut =
∑
d
t
n
=
∑U1
n

Ʃd → sum of distance traveled by all vehicles

Ʃt → sum of time traveled by all vehicles
Ʃu1 → sum of all spot speed
1/Ʃu1 → reciprocal of sum of all spot speed
n → no. of vehicles
 Rate of flow:

q = kUs

q → rate of flow in vehicles/hour

k → density in vehicles/km
uS → space mean speed in kph

 Minimum time headway (hrs)

= 1/q

 Spacing of vehicles (km)

= 1/k

 Peak hour factor (PHF)

= q/qmax
s

Fractiles

 Range
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚

 Coefficient of Range

=
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚

 Quartiles

when n is even

Q1 =
1
4
n Q2 =

2
4
n Q3 =

3
4
n

when n is odd
 Interquartile Range, IQR
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
= Q3 −Q1

 Coefficient of IQR

=
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒

=
Q3 −Q1
Q3 +Q1

 Quartile Deviation (semi-IQR) = IQR/2

 Outlier
→ extremely high or low data higher than
or lower than the following limits:

Q1 − 1.5IQR > x
Q3 + 1.5IQR < x

 Decile or Percentile

im =
m

10 or 100
(n)

Q1 =
1
4
(n + 1) ; Q1 =

1
4
(n + 1) ; Q1 =

1
4
(n + 1)
Normal Distribution

 Z-score or
standard score
or variate

z=
x−μ
σ

x → no. of observations
μ → mean value, x̅
σ → standard deviation

→ Mode Stat
→ AC Shift 1 Distr
left of z → P(
right of z → R(
bet. z & axis → Q(
→ Input

Fibonacci Numbers

an =
1
√5
[(
1 + √5
2

)
n

−(
1 − √5
2

)
n

Tip to remember:
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0

Mode Eqn 5

𝑥=
1 ± √5
2

Exponential Distribution

P(x ≥ a) = e−λa
P(x ≤ a) = 1 − e−λa
P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = e−λa − e−λb

Period, Amplitude & Frequency

Period (T) → interval over which the graph of

function repeats
Amplitude (A) → greatest distance of any point
on the graph from a horizontal line which passes
halfway between the maximum & minimum
values of the function
Frequency (ω) → no. of repetitions/cycles per unit
of time or 1/T

Function Period Amplitude

y = A sin (Bx + C) 2π/B A
y = A cos (Bx + C) 2π/B A
y = A tan (Bx + C) π/B A

Measurement
Corrections

Due to temperature:
(add/subtract); measured length

C = αL(T2 − T1)

Due to pull:
(add/subtract); measured length

C=
(P2 − P1)L

EA
Due to sag:
(subtract only); unsupported length

C=
w2L3

24P2

Due to slope:
(subtract only); measured length

C2 = S2 − h2

Normal Tension:

PN =
0.204W√AE

√PN − P

measure lay-out
too long add subtract
too short subtract add

Probable Errors

Probable Error (single):

E = 0.6745√
∑(x − x̅)

n−1

Probable Error (mean):

Em =
E

√n
= 0.6745√
∑(x − x̅)
n(n − 1)

Proportionalities of weight, w:
E=error; d=distance; n=no. of trials

𝑤∝
1

𝐸2
𝑤∝

1
𝑑

𝑤∝𝑛

Effect of Curvature & Refraction

hcr = 0.067K
2

h = h2 +
D2

D1 + D2
(h1 − h2) − 0.067D1D2

Stadia Measurement

Horizontal:

D = d + (f + c)

D=(
𝑓
𝑖

)s+C
D = Ks + C

Inclined:

D = Ks cos θ + C
H = D cos θ
V = D sin θ
Subtense Bar

D = cot
θ
2

Reduction to
Sea Level

CD
R

=
MD

R+h

Leveling

Elev𝐵 = Elev𝐴 + 𝐵𝑆 − 𝐹𝑆

Inclined Upward:

error/setup = −eBS + eFS

Inclined Downward:

error/setup = +eBS − eFS

Total Error:
eT = error/setup ∙ no. of setups

Area of Closed Traverse

Error of Closure:

= √ΣL2 + ΣD2

Relative Error/Precision:

=
Error of Closure
Perimeter

Lat = L cos α
Dep = L sin α

Area of Irregular Boundaries

Trapezoidal Rule:

A=
d
2

[h1 + hn + 2Σh]

Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:

A=
d
3

[h1 + hn + 2Σh𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 4Σh 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛]

Note: n must be odd

Double Meridian Distance Method DMD

DMD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Dep𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
DMD𝑛 = DMD𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛
DMD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Dep𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡

2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Lat)

Double Parallel Distance Method DPD

DPD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Lat𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
DPD𝑛 = DPD𝑛−1 + Lat𝑛−1 + Lat𝑛
DPD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Lat𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡

2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Dep)

Parabolic Curves

Symmetrical:

H=
L
8

(g1 + g2)

x2

y
=

(
L
2

)
2

H
L1

Unsymmetrical:

H=
L1L2

2(L1+L2)
(g1 + g2)

g3(L1+L2) = g1L1 + g2L2

Note: Consider signs.

1 acre =
4047 m2

Simple, Compound & Reverse Curves

T = R tan

I
2

E = R [sec
I
2

− 1]

m = R [1 − cos
I
2
]

L = 2R sin
I
2

Lc = RI ∙
π

180°

20
D

=
2πR
360°

R=
1145.916

D
Spiral Curve

θ=
L2

2RLs
∙

180°
π

i=
θ
3

;p=
Ls

24R

x=
L3

6RLs

Y=L−
L5

40R2Ls
2

Ts =
Ls
2

+ (R + p) tan
I
2
Es = (R + p) sec
I
2

−R

Ls =
0.036k3

e=
0.0079k2

D
DC

=
L
Ls

Earthworks

𝑑𝐿
±𝑓𝐿

±𝑓

𝑑𝑅
±𝑓𝑅

A=
f
2

(dL + dR) +
w
4
(fL + fR)

Volume (End Area):

Ve =
L
2

(A1 + A2)

Volume (Prismoidal):

VP =
L
6

(A1 + 4Am + A2)

Prismoidal Correction:

CP =
L

12
(c1 − c2)(d1 − d2)

VP = Ve − Cp

Volume (Truncated):

VT = ABase ∙ Have = A (
Σh
n

VT =
A
n

(Σh1 + 2Σh2 + 3Σh3 + 4Σh4)

LT → long tangent
ST → short tangent
R → radius of simple curve
L → length of spiral from TS to any point
along the spiral
Ls → length of spiral
I → angle of intersection
Ic → angle of intersection of the simple
curve
p → length of throw or the distance from
tangent that the circular curve has been
offset
x → offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to any point on
the spiral
xc → offset distance (right angle
distance) from tangent to SC
Ec → external distance of the simple
curve
θ → spiral angle from tangent to any
point on the spiral
θS → spiral angle from tangent to SC
i → deflection angle from TS to any point
on the spiral
is → deflection angle from TS to SC
y → distance from TS along the tangent
to any point on the spiral

Stopping Sight Distance

S = vt +
v2

2g(f ± G)

a = g(f ± G)

tb =
v

g(f ± G)

Eff =
f

fave
(100)

v → speed in m/s
t → perception-reaction time
f → coefficient of friction
G → grade/slope of road

Parabolic Summit Curve

L>S
L=
A(S)2

200(√h1 + √h2)
2

L<S

L = 2(S) −
200(√h1 + √h2)

L → length of summit curve

S → sight distance
h1 → height of driver’s eye
h1 = 1.143 m or 3.75 ft
h2 → height of object
h2 = 0.15 m or 0.50 ft

(deceleration)

(breaking time)

Parabolic Sag Curve

L>S

L=
A(S)2

122 + 3.5S

L<S

L = 2(S) −
122 + 3.5S

A → algebraic difference
of grades, in percent
L → length of sag curve
S → sight distance

Underpass Sight Distance

L>S

L=
A(S)2

800H

L<S

L = 2(S) −
800H

A → algebraic difference of
grades, in percent
L → length of sag curve

L=
A(K)2

395

Horizontal Curve

L>S

R=
S2

8M

L<S

R=
L(2S − L)

8M

L → length of horizontal
curve
S → sight distance
R → radius of the curve
M → clearance from the
centerline of the road

H=C−
h1 + h2

For passengers comfort,

where K is speed in KPH

too long

CD = MD (1 +
e

TL
)

too short

CD = MD (1 −
e

TL
)

Azimuth
from South

Properties of Fluids

W = Mg

ɤ=
W
V

;ρ=
M
V

ɤ = ρg =
pg
RT

s. v. =
V
M

=
1
ρ

s. g. =
ɤ

ɤ𝑤
=

ρ
ρ𝑤

EB = −
∆P
∆V
V

;β=
1

EB

μ=τ
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑉

=
FT
L2

υ=
μ
ρ

=
L2

σ=
pd
4

h=
4σcosθ

ɤd

Pressure

p𝑎𝑏𝑠 = p𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + p𝑎𝑡𝑚

p = ɤh

h2 =
s. g.1
s. g.2

h1

h𝑤 = s. g.1 h1

Hydrostatic Forces

e=
Ig
Aӯ

On plane surfaces:

F = ɤh̅A
On curved surfaces:

Fℎ = ɤh̅A

F𝑣 = ɤV

F = √Fℎ
2 + F𝑣

h̅ = ӯ (for vertical only)

Dams

F1 = ɤAh1 =
1
2

ɤh1
2
; F2 = ɤAh2 =

1
2

ɤh2
2

U1 = ɤh2B ; U2 =
1
2

(h1 − h2)ɤB

RM = W1(X1) + W2(X2)+. . . +W𝑛(X𝑛) + F2 (

h2
3

OM = F1 (
h
3

) + U1 (
1
2
B) + U2 (
2
3

B)

Rx̅ = RM − OM

FS𝑂 =
RM
OM

& FS𝑆 =
μR𝑦
R𝑥

𝑒=|
B
2

− x̅|

𝑒<
B
6

;q=−
R𝑦
B

[1 ±
6𝑒
B

𝑒>
B
6

;q=
2R𝑦
3x̅

𝑒=
B
6
;q=−
R𝑦
B

𝑒 = 0; q =
2R𝑦

Buoyancy

BF = W

BF = ɤ𝑤V𝑑

Stability of Floating Bodies

MG = metacentric height

MG = MB𝑂 ± GB𝑂
Use (-) if G is above BO and (+) if G is below BO.
Note that M is always above BO.

RM or OM = Wx
= W(MG sin θ)

MB𝑂 =
B2

12D
[1 +

tan2θ
2

MB𝑂 =
vs

VD sin θ
=

I
VD

NOTE:
ħ = vertical distance from cg of
submerged surface to liquid surface

Relative Equilibrium of Fluids

Horizontal Motion:

tan θ =
a
g

Inclined Motion:

tan θ =
ah

g ± av

Vertical Motion:

p = ɤh (1 ±
a
g

Rotation:

tan θ =
ω2x

y=
ω2x2

2g
;

r2

h
=

x2

V=
1
2

πr2h

1 rpm =
π

30
rad/sec

Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem

z = elevation head; P/ɤ = pressure head; v2/2g = velocity head

z1 +
P1
ɤ

+
v1

2g
= z2 +

P2
ɤ

+
v2

2g
+ H. L.

with pump:

z1 +
P1
ɤ

+
v1

2g
+ HA = z2 +

P2
ɤ

+
v2

2g
+ H. L.

with turbine:

z1 +
P1
ɤ

+
v1

2g
− HE = z2 +

P2
ɤ

+
v2

2
2g
+ H. L.

efficiency =
output
input

; HP =
QɤE
746

Major Losses in Pipes

Darcy Weisbach Eq’n:

H. L. = f
L
D

v2

2g

H. L. =
0.0826 f L Q2

D5

Manning’s Formula:

H. L. =
10.29 n2 L Q2

D16/3

Hazen William’s Formula:

H. L. =
10.64 L Q1.85
C1.85 D4.87

Series-Parallel Pipes

Series Connection:

H. L.T = H. L.1+ H. L.2 +. . . +H. L.n

QT = Q1 = Q2 = Qn

Parallel Connection:

H. L.T = H. L.1 = H. L.2 = H. L.n

QT = Q1 + Q2+. . . +Qn

Celerity (velocity of sound)

(rigid pipes)

c=√
EB
ρw

(non-rigid pipes)

c=√
EB

ρw (1 +
EB D
Et

Constant Head Orifice

Without headloss:

v = √2gh
With headloss:

v = Cv√2gh

Q = CAo√2gh

C = CcCv

Cc =
a
A

Cv =
v
vt

H. L. =
v2

2g
[

1
Cv

2
− 1]

H. L. = ∆H[1 − Cv
2]

y=
x2

4Cv
2h

Falling Head Orifice

Time to remove water from h1 to h2 with constant cross-section:

t=
2As

CAo√2g
(√h1 − √h2)

Time to remove water from h1 to h2 with varying cross-section:

t=∫
As dh

CAo√2gh

h1

h2

Time in which water surfaces of two tanks will reach same elevation:

t=
2

CAo√2g
(As1)(As2)
(As1 + As2)

(√h1 − √h2)

Abel =
sgm
sgl

Atot

Vbel =
sgm
sgl

Vtot

Stresses/Hoops

St =
pD
2t
s=
2T
pD

St = tensile stress
p = unit pressure
D = inside diameter
t = thickness of wall
s = spacing of hoops
T = tensile force

Open Channel

Specific Energy:

E=
v2

2g
+d

v = C√RS

Theoretically:

C=√
8g
f

Kutter Formula:

C=
1
n

+ 23 +
0.000155

S
1+

n
√R

(23 +
0.000155
S
)

If C is not given, use Manning’s in V:

v=
1
n

R2/3S1/2

Most Efficient Sections

Rectangular:
b = 2d

R=
d
2

Trapezoidal:
x = y1 + y2

R=
d
2

Triangular:
b = 2d
A = d2
θ = 90°

Semi-circular:
d = r (full)
R=

r
2

Circular:
Qmax if d = 0.94D
Vmax if d = 0.81D

Fluid Flow
Q = Av

Q → discharge
→ flow rate
→ weight flux

volume flow rate → m3/s

weight flow rate → N/s
mass flow rate → kg/s

Pump → Output & Turbine → Input

Manning Formula:

C=
1
n

R1/6

Bazin Formula:

C=
87

1+
m
√R

Hydrodynamics

Force on Curve Vane/Blade:

∑ Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x)

∑ Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y)

Force on Pipe’s Bend & Reducer:

(same as on Curve Vane/Blade)

Water Hammer
∆Pmax = ρcv
tc =
2L
c

A. TIME of closure:
rapid/instantaneous
∆P = ∆Pmax
Slow Closure

∆P = ∆Pmax (
tc

tactual
)

B. TYPE of closure:
Partial Closure (vf ≠ 0)
∆P = ρc(vi − vf)
Total Closure (vf = 0)
∆P = ρcvi

1 atm
= 101.325 KPa
= 2166 psf
= 14.7 psi
= 760 mmHg
= 29.9 inHg

TRAPEZOIDAL:
For minimum seepage:

b = 4d tan
θ
2

e=
ɤIg sin θ

Force on the Jet

(at right angle):
F = ρQv
Casagrande:
k = 1.4e2k0.85

Dr (%) Description
0 – 20 Very Loose
20 – 40 Loose
40 – 70 Medium Dense
70 – 85 Dense
85 – 100 Very Dense

LI State
LI < 0 Semisolid
0 < LI < 1 Plastic
LI > 1 Liquid

Volume

e=
Vv
Vs

n=
Vv
V

S=
Vw
Vv

Weight

ω=
Ww
Ws
0<e<∞
e=

n
1−n

0<n<1

n=
e

1+e

Se = Gsω

ɤ=
W
V

ɤd =
WS
V

ɤd =
ɤ

1+ω

Unit Weight:

ɤ=
(Gs + Gsω)ɤw

1+e

ɤ=
(Gs + Se)ɤw
1+e

When S=0:

ɤd =
Gsɤw
1+e

When S=100%:

ɤsat =
(Gs + e)ɤw

1+e

ɤsub = ɤsat − ɤw

ɤsub =
(Gs − 1)ɤw

1+e

ɤzav =
Gsɤw

1 + Gsω

Specific Gravity of Solid:

Gs =
ɤs
ɤw

Bulk Specific Gravity:

g = Gs(1 − n)

Relative Compaction:

R=
ɤd

ɤd𝑚𝑎𝑥
Relative Density/
Density Index:

Dr =
e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e

e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e𝑚𝑖𝑛

Dr =

1
ɤd𝑚𝑖𝑛

−
1

ɤd
1

ɤd𝑚𝑖𝑛
−

1
ɤd𝑚𝑎𝑥

Atterberg Limits

PI = LL − PL

LI =
ω − PL
LL − PL

SI = PL − SL

CI =
LL − ω
LL − PI
SL =
m1 − m2

m2
−

V1 − V2
m2

ɤw

SL =
e

Gs
; SR =

m2
V2ɤw

G𝑠 =
1

1
SR

− SL

GI = (F − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)]

+0.01(F − 15)(PI − 10)

Ac =
PI
μ

; St =
quund
qurem

μ = % passing 0.002mm

PI Description

0 Non-plastic
1-5 Slightly plastic
5-10 Low plasticity
10-20 Medium plasticity
20-40 High plasticity
>40 Very High plastic

Ac Class
AC < 0.7 Inactive
0.7 < AC < 1.2 Normal
AC > 1.2 Active

Sieve Analysis

Uniformity
Coefficient:

Cu =
D60
D10

Coeff. of Gradation
or Curvature:

Cc =
(D30)

D60 ∙ D10

Sorting
Coefficient:

So = √
D75
D25

Suitability Number:
Sn = 1.7√
3

(D50)
2

+
1

(D20)
2

+
1

(D10)
2

Permeability

v = ki ; i =
∆h
L

; v𝑠 =
v
n

Q = vA = kiA

Constant Head Test:

k=
QL
Aht

Falling/Variable Head Test:

k=
aL
At

𝑙𝑛
h1
h2
Stratified Soil

for Parallel flow:

keq =
h1k1 + h2k2+. . . +hnkn

for Perpendicular flow:

keq =
H

h1
k1

+
h2
k2

+. . . +
hn
kn

Pumping Test:

Unconfined:

k=
Q 𝑙𝑛

r1
r2
π(h1
2

− h2
2

Confined:

k=
Q 𝑙𝑛

r1
r2

2πt(h1 − h2)

Hazen Formula
k = c ∙ D10

Samarasinhe:

k = C3 ∙
en

1+e

Kozeny-Carman:

k = C1 ∙
e2

1+e

Stresses in Soil

Effective Stress/
Intergranular Stress:
pE = pT − pw

Pore Water Pressure/

Neutral Stress:
pw = ɤwhw

Total Stress:
pT = ɤ1h1 + ɤ2h2+. . . +ɤnhn

Flow Net / Seepage

Isotropic soil:

q = kH
Nf
Nd

Non-Isotropic soil:

q = √kxkzH
Nf
Nd

Compressibility of Soil

Compression Index, CC:

Cc = 0.009(LL − 10%)

Cc =
e − e′

𝑙𝑜𝑔
∆P + Po

Po

For normally consolidated clay:

S=
e − e′
1+e

S=
CcH

1+e
𝑙𝑜𝑔

∆P + Po
Po

With Pre-consolidation pressure, Pc:

when (△P+Po) < Pc:

S=
CsH

1 + eo
𝑙𝑜𝑔

∆P + Po
Po

when (△P+Po) > pc:

S=
CsH

1+e
𝑙𝑜𝑔

Pc
Po

+
CcH

1+e
𝑙𝑜𝑔

∆P + Po
Pc

Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR):

OCR =
pc
po
; OCR = 1

Coefficient of Compressibility:

av =
∆e
∆P

Coefficient of Volume Compressibility:

mv =
∆e
∆P

1 + eave

Coefficient of Consolidation:

Cv =
Hdr

2Tv
t

Coefficient of Permeability:

k = mvCvɤw

Equipotential line ----

Flow line ----

Lateral Earth Pressure

ACTIVE PRESSURE:

pa =
1
2

kaɤH
2 − 2cH√ka

For Inclined:

ka = cos β
cos β − √cos2 β − cos2 Ø
cos β + √cos2 β − cos2 Ø

For Horizontal:

ka =
1 − sin Ø
1 + sin Ø

If there is angle of friction α bet. wall and soil:

ka =
cos2 Ø

cos α [1 + √
sin (Ø + α) sin Ø

cos α
]

PASSIVE PRESSURE:

pP =
1
2

kPɤH
2 + 2cH√kP

For Inclined:

kP = cos β
cos β + √cos2 β − cos2 Ø
cos β − √cos2 β − cos2 Ø

For Horizontal:

kP =
1 + sin Ø
1 − sin Ø
If there is angle of friction α bet. wall and soil:

kP =
cos2 Ø

cos α [1 − √
sin (Ø − α) sin Ø

cos α
]

AT REST:
ko = 1 − sin Ø

(for one layer only)

Swell Index, CS:

Cs =
1
5

Cc

(for normally consolidated soil)

△e → change in void ratio

△P → change in pressure

Hdr → height of drainage path

→ thickness of layer if drained 1 side
→ half of thickness if drained both sides
Tv → factor from table
t → time consolidation

Shear Strength of Soil

Ө → angle of failure in shear

Ø → angle of internal friction/shearing resistance
C → cohesion of soil

θ = 45° +
Ø
2
TRI-AXIAL TEST:
σ1 → maximum principal stress
→ axial stress
△σ → additional pressure
→ deviator stress
→ plunger pressure
σ3 → minimum principal stress
→ confining pressure
→ lateral pressure
→ radial stress
→ cell pressure
→ chamber pressure

 Normally consolidated:
sin Ø =

r
σ3 + r

 Cohesive soil:
sin Ø =

r
x + σ3 + r

tan Ø =
c
x

 Unconsolidated-
undrained test:

c=r

 Unconfined
compression test:

σ3 = 0

DIRECT SHEAR TEST:

σn → normal stress
σs → shear stress
 Normally consolidated soil:

tan Ø =
σS
σN

 Cohesive soil:

tan Ø =
σS

x + σN
=

c
x

σS = c + σN tan ∅

Nf → no. of flow channels [e.g. 4]

Nd → no. of potential drops [e.g. 10]

12
3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

NOTE:
Quick
condition:
pE = 0

Capillary Rise:

hcr =
C

eD10

aSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS

Terzaghi‘s Bearing Capacity (Shallow Foundations)

 General Shear Failure

(dense sand & stiff clay)
Square Footing:
qult = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.4ɤBNɤ

Circular Footing:
qult = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3ɤBNɤ

Strip Footing:
qult = cNc + qNq + 0.5ɤBNɤ

 Local Shear Failure

(loose sand & soft clay)

Square Footing:
qult = 1.3c′Nc

′ + qNq
′ + 0.4ɤBNɤ

Circular Footing:
qult = 1.3c′Nc

′ + qNq
′ + 0.3ɤBNɤ

Strip Footing:
qult = c′Nc

′ + qNq
′ + 0.5ɤBNɤ

EFFECT OF WATER TABLE:

 Bearing Capacity Factor

Nq = tan
2 (45° +

Ø
2

) eπ tan Ø
Nc = (Nq − 1) cot Ø

Nɤ = (Nq − 1) tan 1.4Ø

 Parameters
qult → ultimate bearing capacity
qu → unconfined compressive strength
c → cohesion of soil

c=
qu
2

q = ɤDf (for no water table)

qallow =
qult
FS

=
Pallow

qnet =
qult − q

FS

Weirs

 Rectangular

Considering velocity of approach:

Q=
2
3

C√2g L [(H +
va
2g

)
3/2

−(
va
2g

)
3/2

Neglecting velocity of approach:

Q=
2
3

C√2g L H3/2

Considering velocity of approach:

Q = m L [(H +
va
2g

)
3/2

−(
va
2g

)
3/2

Neglecting velocity of approach:

Q = m L H3/2

Francis Formula (when C and m is not given)

Considering velocity of approach:

Q = 1.84 L′ [(H +
va
2g

)
3/2

−(
va
2g

)
3/2

Neglecting velocity of approach:

Q = 1.84 L′ H3/2

NOTE:

L’ = L for suppressed
L’ = L – 0.1H for singly contracted
L’ = L – 0.2H for doubly contracted

Time required to discharge:

t=
2As
mL

[
1

√H2
−

1
√H1

where:
W → channel width
L → weir length
Z → weir height
H → weir head

PARAMETERS:
C → coefficient of discharge
va → velocity of approach m/s
m → weir factor

 Triangular (symmetrical only)

Q=
8

15
C√2g tan

θ
2

H5/2

Q = m H5/2

When θ=90°

Q = 1.4H5/2

 Cipolletti (symmetrical, slope 4V&1H)

θ = 75°57’50”

Q = 1.859 L H3/2

 with Dam:
Neglecting velocity of approach:

Q = 1.71 L H3/2

Capacity of Driven Piles (Deep Foundations)

 Pile in Sand Layer

Qf = PAkμ

where:
P → perimeter of pile
A → area of pressure diagram
k → coefficient of lateral pressure
μ → coefficient of friction

Qtip = peNqAtip
(AKA Qbearing)

where:
pe → effective pressure at bottom
Nq → soil bearing factor
Atip → Area of tip
QT = Qf + Qtip

Qdes =
QT
F. S.

 Pile in Clay Layer

Qf = CLαP

where:
C → cohesion
L → length of pile
α → frictional factor
P → perimeter of pile

Qtip = cNcAtip
(AKA Qbearing)

where:
c → cohesion
Nc → soil bearing factor
Atip → Area of tip

QT = Qf + Qtip

Qdes =
QT
F. S.

Group of Piles

 Group Efficiency (sand or clay)

Eff =
Qdes−group
Qdes−indiv

 Alternate Equation for Group

Efficiency (sand only)
Eff =
2(m + n − 2)s + 4d

mnπD

where:
m → no. of columns
n→ no. of rows
s → spacing of piles
D → diameter of pile

Soil Stability

 Analysis of Infinite Slope

Factor of safety against sliding (without seepage)

FS =
C

ɤ H sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
+

tan ∅
tan 𝛽

Factor of safety against sliding (with seepage)

FS =
C

ɤ𝑠𝑎𝑡 H sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽

+

ɤ′
ɤ𝑠𝑎𝑡

tan ∅
tan 𝛽

 Analysis of Finite Slope

Factor of safety against sliding

FS =
Ff + Fc
W sin 𝜃
Maximum height for critical equilibrium
(FS=1.0)

Hcr =
4𝐶
ɤ

[
sin 𝛽 cos ∅

1 − cos(𝛽 − ∅)
]

where:
C → cohesion
β → angle of backfill from horizontal
Ø → angle of internal friction
H → thickness of soil layer

Stability No.:

m=
C

ɤH

Stability Factor:

SF =
1
m

Case 1
q = ɤ(Df − d)+ɤ′d

3rd term ɤ = ɤ′

Case 2
q = ɤDf

3rd term ɤ = ɤ′

Case 3
q = ɤDf

3rd term ɤ = ɤave

for d ≤ B
ɤave ∙ B = ɤd + ɤ′(B − d)

for d > B

ɤave = ɤ

NOTE:
ɤ′= ɤ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = ɤ − ɤ𝑤

where:
Ff → frictional force; Ff = μN
Fc → cohesive force
Fc = C x Area along trial failure plane
W → weight of soil above trial failure plane

H
tan 𝜃

−
H

tan 𝛽
= BC

QTIP

Qf

dc
Critical depth, dc:
Loose 10 (size of pile)
Dense 20 (size of pile)

Reynold’s Number

NR =
Dv
υ

=
Dvρ

Laminar Flow (NR ≤ 2000)

hf =
64
NR

Turbulent Flow (NR > 2000)

hf = f
L
D

v2

2g

hf =
0.0826 f L Q2

D5

Boundary Shear Stress

τ = ɤRS

Boundary Shear Stress

(for circular pipes only)

τo =
f
8

ρv

Froude Number
NF =

v
√gdm

where:
v → mean velocity (Q/A)
g → 9.81 m/s2
dm → hydraulic depth (A/B)
B → width of liquid surface

NF = √
Q2 ∙ Bc
Ac

3
∙g

Take note that it is only derived from

the critical depth equation.

Critical Flow NF = 1
Subcritical Flow NF < 1
Supercritical Flow NF > 1

Critical Depth

For all sections:

Q2

g
=

Ac
3

Bc

NOTE:
E is minimum for critical depth.

For rectangular sections ONLY:

dc = √
q2

g
3

=
2
3

Ec

q=
Q
B

E𝑐 =
v2

2g
+ d𝑐

vc = √gdc

where:
Q → flow rate m3/s
g → 9.81 m/s2
AC → critical area
BC → critical width

where:
q → flow rate or discharge
per meter width
EC → specific energy at
critical condition
vC → critical velocity

Hydraulic Jump

Height of the jump:

∆d = d2 − d1

Length of the jump:

L = 220 d1 tanh
NF1−1

22

Solving for Q:

For all sections:

P2 − P1 =
ɤQ
g

(v1 − v2)

P = ɤh̅A

For rectangular sections ONLY:

q2

g
=

1
2

(d1 ∙ d2)(d1 + d2)

Power Lost:
P = QɤE

Load Combinations
→ choose largest U in design

Basic Loads:
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿

With Wind Load:

𝑈 = 0.75(1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 + 1.7𝑊)
𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.3𝑊
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿

With Earthquake Load:

𝑈 = 1.32𝐷 + 1.1𝑓1𝐿 + 1.1𝐸
𝑈 = 0.99𝐷 + 1.1𝐸
With Earth Pressure Load:
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 + 1.7𝐻
𝑈 = 0.9𝐷
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿

With Structural Effects:

𝑈 = 0.75(1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 + 1.4𝑇)
𝑈 = 1.4(𝐷 + 𝑇)

Strength Reduction Factors, Ø

(a) Flexure w/o axial load ……………………… 0.90

(b) Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure .… 0.90
(c) Axial comp. & axial comp. w/ flexure:
(1) Spiral ……………………………….………. 0.75
(2) Tie …………………….…………….………. 0.70
(d) Shear & torsion ……………………….………. 0.85
(e) Bearing on concrete ……………….…,……. 0.70

Working Strength Design (WSD)

or Alternate Strength Design (ASD)

Allowable Stresses (if not given):

 Horizontal members
(i.e. beam, slab, footing, etc.)
fc = 0.45 f’c
fs = 0.50 fy

where:
f’c → compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
fy → axial strength of steel
Structural Grade ASTM Gr.33 / PS Gr.230 fy = 230 MPa
Intermediate Grade ASTM Gr.40 / PS Gr.275 fy = 275 MPa
High Carbon Grade ASTM Gr.60 / PS Gr.415 fy = 415 MPa

424.3.2 for fy = 275 MPa; fs ≤ 140 MPa

for fy = 415 MPa; fs ≤ 170 MPa

Modular Ratio, n (if not given):

n=
Estronger
Eweaker
=
Esteel

Econcrete
=

200,000
4700√fc

424.6.4 n must be taken as the nearest whole number & n ≥ 6

424.6.5 for doubly, use n for tension & use 2n for compression

 Vertical members
(i.e. column, wall, etc.)
fc = 0.25 f’c
fs = 0.40 fy

Design Conditions

Over-reinforced:
→ concrete fails first
→ fs < fy (USD)
→ Ms > Mc (WSD)

Under-reinforced:
→ steel fails first
→ fs > fy (USD)
→ Ms < Mc (WSD)

Balance Condition:
→ concrete & steel
simultaneously fail
→ fs = fy (USD)
→ Ms = Mc (WSD)

Solutions for Cracked Section (Singly):

 Location of neutral axis, NA:

Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA

bx (
x
2

) = nAs(d − x)
x → obtained

 Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:

INA =
bx3

3
+ nAs(d − x)

2
INA → obtained

 Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:

For concrete:

fc =
Mc ∙ x

INA

Solutions for Uncracked Section (By Sir Erick):

 Location of neutral axis, NA:

Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA

bx (
x
2

) = b(d − x) (
d−x

2
) + (n − 1)As(d − x)

x → obtained

 Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:

INA =
bx3
3
+

b(d − x)3

3
+ (n − 1)As(d − x)

2
INA → obtained

 Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:

For concrete:

fc =
Mc ∙ x

INA

Internal Couple Method:

Factor k:

k=
n

n+
fs
fc

Moment Resistance Coefficient, R:

R=
1
2

fckj

Moment Capacity:

Mc = C ∙ jd =
1
2
fckdb ∙ jd = Rbd
2

Ms = T ∙ jd = Asfs ∙ jd

Factor j:

j=1−
1
3

Values

Choose Smaller Value/

Round-down
→ Moment Capacity
→
→

Choose Larger Value/

Round-up
→
→

For tension steel:

fs
n

=
Ms ∙ (d − x)

INA

Solutions for Cracked Section (Doubly):

 Location of neutral axis, NA:

Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA
bx (
x
2

) + (2n − 1)As
′ (x − d′) = nAs(d − x)

x → obtained

 Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:

INA =
bx3

3
+ (2n − 1)As

′ (x − d′)2 + nAs(d − x)
2

INA → obtained

 Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:

For concrete:

fc =
Mc ∙ x

INA

For tension steel:

fs
n

=
Ms ∙ (d − x)

INA

For comp. steel:

fs
′

2n
=

Ms
′ ∙ (x − d′)

INA

Solutions for Gross Section (Singly):

 Location of neutral axis, NA:

yt =
h
2

; yt → obtained

 Solve moment of inertia of gross section at NA:

Ig =
bx3

12

Ig → obtained

 Solve for cracking moment:

fr = 0.7√fc
′=

Mcr ∙ yt
Ig

Mcr → obtained

For tension steel:

fs
n

=
Ms ∙ (d − x)

INA

Provisions for Uncracked Section:

 Solve for inertia of gross section, Ig.

 Solve for cracking moment, Mcr.
 Solve for actual moment, Ma:

Ma =
wL2

409.6.2.3. if Ma < Mcr, no crack; Ig = Ie

if Ma > Mcr, w/ crack; solve for Ie

 Solve for inertia of cracked section:

Icr =
bx3

3
+ nAs(d − x)

 Solve for effective moment of inertia, Ie:

Ie = (
Mcr
Ma

)
3

∙ Ig + [1 − (
Mcr
Ma

)
3

] ∙ Icr

409.6.2.4. For simply supported, Ie = Ie (mid)

For cantilever, Ie = Ie (support)

Ie =
Ie mid + Ie support

409.6.2.5. Factor for shrinkage & creep due

to sustained loads:

𝜆=
𝜉

1 + 50𝜌′

 Solve for instantaneous deflection:

δi =
5wL4

384EcIe

 Solve for additional deflection:

δadd = δsus ∙ 𝜆
δadd = (% of sustained load)δi ∙ 𝜆

Say, 70% of load is sustained after n yrs.

δadd = 0.7δi ∙ 𝜆

 Solve for final deflection:

δfinal = δi + δadd

(for simply supported beam)

time-dep factor, ξ:
5 yrs + 2.0
12 mos 1.4
6 mos 1.0
3 mos 1.0

(for uniformly distributed load)

Ultimate Strength Design

 Based in Strain Diagram:

εs
d−c

=
0.003

εs = 0.003 (
d−c

c
)

fs = 600 (
d−c

c
)

 a = β1c
a → depth of compression block
c → distance bet. NA &
extreme compression fiber

Provisions for β1:

0.65 ≤ β1 ≤ 0.85

* 1992 NSCP
β1 = 0.85 − 0.008(fc
′ − 30)

* 2001 NSCP

β1 = 0.85 −
0.05

7
(fc

′ − 30)
* 2010 NSCP

β1 = 0.85 −
0.05

7
(fc

′ − 28)

Steel Ratio

Steel ratio for balance condition:

ρb =
0.85fc

′β1600
fy(600 + fy)

Maximum & Minimum steel ratio:

ρmax = 0.75ρb
Asmax = 0.75Asb

ρmin =
1.4
fy

(choose larger between the 2)

Singly Reinforced Beam

INVESTIGATION
Computing MU with given As:

(1st) Compute for a:

C=T

0.85fc
′ab = Asfs

(assume tension steel yields fs=fy)

0.85fc
′ab = Asfy

a → obtained

(2nd) Check if assumption is correct:

a = β1c
c → obtained

fs = 600 [
d−c

c
]

fs → obtained

If fs > fy, tension steel yields; correct a.

If fs < fy, tension steel does not yield;
compute for new a.

(2nd-b) Recomputation:
C=T
0.85fc

′ab = Asfs
0.85fc

′β1cb = As ∙ 600 [
d−c

c
]

c → obtained

a = β1c
a → obtained

(3rd) Solve for Moment Capacity:

Mu = ∅(C or T) [d −
a
2
]

Mu = ∅(0.85fc
′ab) [d −

a
2
] or

Mu = ∅(Asfs) [d −
a
2
]

Singly Reinforced Beam

DESIGN

Computing As with given WD & WL:

(1st) Compute ultimate moment, Mu:

WU = 1.4WD + 1.7WL

MU =
WUL

(2nd) Solve for coeff. of resistance, Rn:

Rn =
MU

∅bd2

(3rd) Solve for steel ratio, ρ:

ρ=
0.85fc

fy
[1 − √1 −

2Rn
0.85fc

′
]

Check:
ρmin ≤ ρ ≤ ρmax

If ρmin < ρ < ρmax, use ρ.

If ρmin > ρ, use ρmin.
If ρ > ρmax, design doubly.

(4th) Solve for area of steel

reinforcement, As and required no. of
bars, N:

As = ρbd

N=
As
Ab

=
ρbd

π
4

db
2
 Ultimate Moment Capacity:

Mu = ∅Mn

Mu = ∅Rnbd
2

Mu = ∅fc
′bd2 ω(1 −

10
17

ω)

ω=ρ
fy
fc

 Coefficient of resistance, Rn:

Rn = fc
′ω(1 −

10
17

ω)

Rn =
Mu

∅bd2

 Steel reinforcement ratio, ρ:

ρ=
As
bd

 Combined ρ & Rn:

ρ=
0.85fc
′

fy
[1 − √1 −

2Rn
0.85fc

′
]

ρmin =
√fc

4fy

(for simply supported)

Singly or Doubly ?

Singly Reinforced Beam (SRB)

ρ < ρmax (rectangular only)

As < Asmax (any section)

Doubly Reinforced Beam (DRB)

ρ > ρmax (rectangular only)

As > Asmax (any section)

Doubly Reinforced Beam

Investigation
if SRB or DRB:

(1st) Compute for ab:

fs = fy = 600 [
d − c𝑏

c𝑏
]

Thus,

c𝑏 =
600d

600 + fy

c𝑏 → obtained

a𝑏 = β1c𝑏
a𝑏 → obtained

(2nd) Solve for Asmax:

C=T
0.85fc

′a𝑏b = As𝑏fy
As𝑏 → obtained

Asmax = 0.75As𝑏

(2nd) Solve for given As

& compare:

If As < Asmax
Solve the given beam
using SRB Investigation
procedure.

If As > Asmax
Solve the given beam
using DRB Investigation
procedure.

Doubly Reinforced Beam

INVESTIGATION

Computing MU with given As:

(1st) Compute for a:

Cc + Cs = T

0.85fc
′ab + As′fs′ = Asfs
(assume tension steel yields fs=fs’=fy)

0.85fc
′ab + As′fy = Asfy

a → obtained

(2nd) Check if assumption is correct:

a = β1c
c → obtained

fs = 600 [
d−c

c
]

fs → obtained

If fs > fy, tension steel yields; correct a.

If fs < fy, tension steel does not yield;
compute for new a.

fs′ = 600 [
c − d′

c
]

fs′ → obtained

If fs’ > fy, compression steel yields;

correct a.
If fs’ < fy, compression steel does not
yield; compute for new a.

(2nd-b) Recomputation:
C=T
0.85fc

′ab + As′fs′ = Asfs

NOTE: Use fs & fs’ as

fs = 600 [
d−c
c
]

fs′ = 600 [
c−d′

c
]

c → obtained

a = β1c
a → obtained

(3rd) Solve for Moment Capacity:

Mu = ∅Cc [d −
a
2
] + ∅Cc[d − d′]

Mu = ∅(0.85fc
′ab) [d −

a
2
]

+ ∅(As′fs′)[d − d′] or

Mu = ∅T [d −
a
2
]

Mu = ∅(Asfs) [d −
a
2
]

Minimum Concrete Covers:

20 mm → slab

40 mm → beam
→ column

75 mm → column footing
→ wall footing
→ retaining wall

Balance Condition for Doubly

ρb𝑑 = ρb𝑠 +
As′
bd

ρ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑 = 0.75ρb𝑠 +
As′
bd

As𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑑
= ρ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑bd

Doubly Reinforced Beam

DESIGN
Computing As with given Mu:

(1st) Solve for nominal M1:

ρb =
0.85fc

′β1600
fy(600 + fy)

ρmax = 0.75ρb
As1 = 0.75ρb ∙ bd
M1 = (As1fy) [d −

a
2
]

(2nd) Solve for nominal M2:

M2 =
MU
∅

− M1

(3rd) Solve for As2:

M2 = (As2fy)[d − d′]
As2 → obtained

(4th) Solve for # of tension bars:

N=
As
Ab

=
As1 + As2

π
4

db
2

(5th) Solve for fs’:

fs′ = 600 [
c − d′

c
]

If fs’ > fy, compression steel yields;

As’ = As2.
If fs’ < fy, compression steel does not
yield; Use fs’ to solve for As’.

(6th) Solve for As’:

As′fs′ = As2fy

(7th) Solve for # of compression bars:

N=
As
Ab

=
As′

π
4

db
2

Design of Beam Stirrups

(1st) Solve for Vu:

ΣFv = 0
Vu = R − wud

Vu =
wuL

2
− wud

(2nd) Solve for Vc:

Vc =
1
6

√fc′bwd

(3rd) Solve for Vs:

Vu = ∅(Vc + Vs)
Vs → obtained

(4th) Theoretical Spacing:

s=
dAvfy

n
Vs

NOTE:
fyn → steel strength for shear reinforcement
Av → area of shear reinforcement
n → no. of shear legs

Av =
π
4

d2 ∙ n

NSCP Provisions for

max. stirrups spacing:

2Vc =
1
3

√fc′bwd

i. when Vs < 2Vc,

smax =
d
2

or 600mm

ii. when Vs > 2Vc,

smax =
d
4

or 300mm

iii. & not greater than to:

smax =
3Avfyn

T-Beam

NSCP Provisions for effective flange width:

i. Interior Beam:

bf =
L
4

bf = bw +
s1
2

+
s2
2

bf = bw + 8tf

ii. exterior Beam:

bf = bw +
L

12

bf = bw +
s1
2

bf = bw + 6tf

Thickness of One-way Slab & Beam

NSCP Provisions for minimum thickness:

Canti- Simple One Both

lever Support End Ends

Slab L/10 L/20 L/24 L/28

Beams L/8 L/16 L/18.5 L/21

Factor: [0.4 +
fy

700
] [1.65 − 0.0003𝜌𝑐]

(for lightweight concrete only)

Design of One-way Slab

(1st) Compute ultimate moment, Mu:

WU = 1.4WD + 1.7WL

MU =
WUL

(2nd) Solve for slab thickness, h:

See NSCP Provisions for minimum thickness.

(3rd) Solve for effective depth, d:

d = h − cc −
db
2

(4th) Solve for a:

Mu = ∅(C) [d −
a
2
]

Mu = ∅(0.85fc
′ab) [d −

a
2

]
a → obtained

(5th) Solve for As:

C=T
0.85fc

′ab = Asfy
As → obtained
LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN BARS

(6th) Compute steel ratio, ρ:

ρ=
As
bd

(7th) Check for minimum steel ratio:

ρmin =
1.4
fy

& ρmin =
√fc

4fy

If ρmin < ρ, use ρ.

If ρmin > ρ, use ρmin & recompute As.

(8th) Determine # of req’d main bars:

N=
As
Ab

=
As

π
4

db
2

(9th) Determine spacing of main bars:

s=
b
N
(10th) Check for max. spacing of main bars:
smax = 3h or 450mm

TEMPERATURE BARS/
SHRINKAGE BARS

(11th) Solve for As:

As = kb⫠h

NSCP Provision for k:

i. fy = 275 MPa, k = 0.0020
ii. fy = 415 MPa, k = 0.0018
iii. fy > 415 MPa, k = 0.0018 (400/fy)

(12th) Determine # of req’d temp. bars:

N=
As
Ab

=
As

π
4

db
2

(13th) Determine spacing of temp. bars:

s=
b
N

(14th) Check for max. spacing of temp. bars:

smax = 5h or 450mm

Minimum Steel Ratio

For one-way bending:

k → steel ratio

i. fy = 275 MPa,
k = 0.0020
ii. fy = 415 MPa,
k = 0.0018
iii. fy > 415 MPa,

k = 0.0018 [
400
fy

For two-way bending:

ρ → steel ratio

ρmin =
1.4
fy

ρmin =
√fc

4fy

(choose larger between the 2)

Design of Column

P = PC + PS
P = 0.85fc

′(Ag − Ast) + Astfy

ρ=
Ast
Ag

Thus,

Ag =
P

0.85fc
′(1 − ρ) + ρfy

0.01Ag < Ast < 0.08Ag

TIED COLUMN

PN = 0.8P
PU = ∅0.8P ; ∅ = 0.7
PU = (0.7)(0.8)[0.85fc

′(Ag − Ast) + Astfy]

No. of main bars:

N=
Ast
Ab

N is based on Pu.

NOTE: If spacing of main bars < 150mm, use 1 tie per set.

SPIRAL COLUMN

PN = 0.85P
PU = ∅0.85P ; ∅ = 0.75
PU = (0.75)(0.85)[0.85fc

′(Ag − Ast) + Astfy]

ρs = 0.45
fc

fy
[
Ag
Ac

− 1] =
volume of spiral
volume of core

s=
π
4
(dsp)
2 ∙ π(Dc−dsp)

π
4

(Dc)
2 ∙ ρs

=
4Asp
Dcρs

Spacing of bars:
s = 16db
s = 48dt
s = least dimension

Design of Footing

qA = qS + qC + qsur + qE

qE =
P

Aftg
; qU =

PU
Aftg

where:

qA → allowable bearing pressure

qS → soil pressure
qC → concrete pressure
qsur → surcharge
qE → effective pressure
qU → ultimate bearing pressure
Ø = 0.85

WIDE BEAM SHEAR

VU1 = qU(B)(x)

VU1 ≤ ∅Vwb = ∅
√fc

6
Bd

τwb =
VU1
∅Bd

τwb(allw) =
√fc

PUNCHING/DIAGONAL TENSION SHEAR

VU2 = PU − qU(a + d)(b + d)

VU2 ≤ ∅Vpc = ∅
√fc

3
bod

τpc =
VU2

∅bod

τpc(allw) =
√fc

3
BENDING MOMENT

MU = qU(B)(x) (
x
2

** design of main bars and

temperature bars –
Same as slab.