Engineering Mathematics

Engineering Mathematics
In memory of Elizabeth
Engineering Mathematics
Fifth edition
John Bird BSc(Hons), CEng, CSci, CMath,
FIET, MIEE, FIIE, FIMA, FCollT
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
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First edition 1989
Second edition 1996
Reprinted 1998 (twice), 1999
Third edition 2001
Fourth edition 2003
Reprinted 2004
Fifth edition 2007
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7 8 9 10 11 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface xii Section 1 Number and Algebra 1
1 Revision of fractions, decimals

and percentages 3 1.1 Fractions 3 1.2 Ratio and proportion 5 1.3
Decimals 6 1.4 Percentages 9
2 Indices, standard form and engineering notation 11 2.1 Indices 11

2.2 Worked problems on indices 12 2.3 Further worked problems
on indices 13 2.4 Standard form 15 2.5 Worked problems on
Contents
standard form 15 2.6 Further worked problems on
standard form 16 2.7 Engineering notation and common
prefixes 17
3 Computer numbering systems 19 3.1 Binary numbers 19 3.2 equations 83
Conversion of binary to decimal 19 3.3 Conversion of decimal to 11.2 Solution of quadratic
binary 20 3.4 Conversion of decimal to equations by factorisation 83
binary via octal 21 3.5 Hexadecimal numbers 23 11.3 Solution of quadratic
equations by ‘completing
4 Calculations and evaluation of formulae 27 4.1 Errors and the square’ 85
approximations 27 4.2 Use of calculator 29 4.3 Conversion 11.4 Solution of quadratic
tables and charts 31 4.4 Evaluation of formulae 32 equations by formula 87
11.5 Practical problems involving
Revision Test 1 37 quadratic equations 88
11.6 The solution of linear and
quadratic equations
5 Algebra 38 5.1 Basic operations 38 5.2 Laws of Indices 40 5.3
simultaneously 90
Brackets and factorisation 42 5.4 Fundamental laws and
precedence 44 5.5 Direct and inverse
proportionality 46 12 Inequalities 91 12.1 Introduction in inequalities 91 12.2 Simple
inequalities 91 12.3 Inequalities involving a modulus 92 12.4
Inequalities involving quotients 93 12.5 Inequalities involving
square
functions 94
12.6 Quadratic inequalities 95
13 Logarithms 97 13.1 Introduction to logarithms 97 13.2 Laws of

logarithms 97 13.3 Indicial equations 100 13.4 Graphs of
logarithmic functions 101
6 Further algebra 48 6.1 Polynominal division 48 6.2 The factor

theorem 50 6.3 The remainder theorem 52 Revision Test 3 102
7 Partial fractions 54 7.1 Introduction to partial

fractions 54 7.2 Worked problems on partial 14 Exponential functions 103 14.1 The exponential function 103
fractions with linear factors 54 7.3 Worked problems on 14.2 Evaluating exponential functions 103 14.3 The power
partial series for ex 104 14.4 Graphs of exponential functions 106
fractions with repeated linear factors 57 7.4 Worked 14.5 Napierian logarithms 108 14.6 Evaluating Napierian
problems on partial logarithms 108 14.7 Laws of growth and decay 110
fractions with quadratic factors 58
15 Number sequences 114 15.1 Arithmetic progressions 114 15.2

8 Simple equations 60 8.1 Expressions, equations and Worked problems on
identities 60 8.2 Worked problems on simple arithmetic progressions 114
equations 60 8.3 Further worked problems on
simple equations 62 8.4 Practical problems involving
simple equations 64 8.5 Further practical problems
involving simple equations 65 Revision Test 2 67 15.3 Further worked problems on
arithmetic progressions 115
15.4 Geometric progressions 117 15.5 Worked problems on
9 Simultaneous equations 68 9.1 Introduction to simultaneous geometric progressions 118
equations 68 9.2 Worked problems on 15.6 Further worked problems on
simultaneous equations geometric progressions 119
in two unknowns 68 9.3 Further worked problems on 15.7 Combinations and
simultaneous equations 70 9.4 More difficult worked permutations 120
problems on simultaneous
equations 72 9.5 Practical problems involving
16 The binomial series 122 16.1 Pascal’s triangle 122 16.2 The
simultaneous equations 73
binomial series 123 16.3 Worked problems on the
binomial series 123
10 Transposition of formulae 77 10.1 Introduction to transposition 16.4 Further worked problems on
of formulae 77 the binomial series 125
vi Contents 16.5 Practical problems involving
the binomial theorem 127
10.2 Worked problems on 17 Solving equations by iterative methods 130 17.1 Introduction to
transposition of formulae 77 iterative methods 130 17.2 The Newton–Raphson method 130
10.3 Further worked problems on 17.3 Worked problems on the
transposition of formulae 78 Newton–Raphson method 131
10.4 Harder worked problems on
transposition of formulae 80
Revision Test 4 133
11 Quadratic equations 83 11.1 Introduction to quadratic
Multiple choice questions on functions 199 23.2 Angles of any magnitude 199 23.3 The
Chapters 1–17 134 production of a sine and
cosine wave 202
23.4 Sine and cosine curves 202 23.5 Sinusoidal form A sin(ωt
± α) 206 23.6 Waveform harmonics 209
Section 2 Mensuration 139
24 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 211 24.1 Introduction 211 24.2
18 Areas of plane figures 141 18.1 Mensuration 141 18.2 Properties Changing from Cartesian into
of quadrilaterals 141 18.3 Worked problems on areas of polar co-ordinates 211
plane figures 142 Cartesian co-ordinates 213
18.4 Further worked problems on 24.4 Use of R→P and P →R
areas of plane figures 145 functions on calculators 214
18.5 Worked problems on areas of
composite figures 147
18.6 Areas of similar shapes 148
Revision Test 6 215
19 The circle and its properties 150 19.1 Introduction 150 19.2
Properties of circles 150 19.3 Arc length and area of a sector 25 Triangles and some practical
152 19.4 Worked problems on arc applications 216 25.1 Sine and cosine rules 216 25.2 Area of any
length and sector of a circle 153 triangle 216 25.3 Worked problems on the solution
19.5 The equation of a circle 155 of triangles and their areas 216
Contents vii 25.4 Further worked problems on
the solution of triangles and
their areas 218
20 Volumes and surface areas of 25.5 Practical situations involving
trigonometry 220
25.6 Further practical situations
involving trigonometry 222
24.3 Changing from polar into
common solids 157 20.1 Volumes and surface areas of
26 Trigonometric identities and equations 225 26.1 Trigonometric
regular solids 157
identities 225 26.2 Worked problems on
20.2 Worked problems on volumes
trigonometric identities 225
and surface areas of regular solids 157
26.3 Trigonometric equations 226 26.4 Worked problems (i) on
20.3 Further worked problems on
trigonometric equations 227
volumes and surface areas of
26.5 Worked problems (ii) on
regular solids 160
20.4 Volumes and surface areas of
26.6 Worked problems (iii) on
frusta of pyramids and cones 164
20.5 The frustum and zone of
26.7 Worked problems (iv) on
a sphere 167
20.6 Prismoidal rule 170 20.7 Volumes of similar shapes 172
27 Compound angles 231 27.1 Compound angle formulae 231 27.2

21 Irregular areas and volumes and Conversion of a sin ωt + b cos ωt
mean values of waveforms 174 21.1 Area of irregular figures into R sin(ωt + α) 233
174 21.2 Volumes of irregular solids 176 21.3 The mean or 27.3 Double angles 236 27.4 Changing products of sines
average value of and cosines into sums or
a waveform 177 differences 238
27.5 Changing sums or differences
of sines and cosines into
Revision Test 5 182 products 239
Revision Test 7 241

Section 3 Trigonometry 185
22 Introduction to trigonometry 187 22.1 Trigonometry 187 22.2 Multiple choice questions on
The theorem of Pythagoras 187 22.3 Trigonometric ratios of Chapters 18–27 242
acute angles 188 22.4 Fractional and surd forms of
trigonometric ratios 190 viii Contents
22.5 Solution of right-angled triangles 191 22.6 Angle of
elevation and depression 193 22.7 Evaluating trigonometric
ratios of any angles 195 Section 4 Graphs 247
22.8 Trigonometric approximations
for small angles 197
28 Straight line graphs 249 28.1 Introduction to graphs 249 28.2
The straight line graph 249 28.3 Practical problems involving
23 Trigonometric waveforms 199 23.1 Graphs of trigonometric straight line graphs 255
29 Reduction of non-linear laws to Section 7 Statistics 331
linear form 261 29.1 Determination of law 261 29.2
Determination of law
involving logarithms 264 37 Presentation of statistical data 333 37.1 Some statistical
terminology 333 37.2 Presentation of ungrouped data 334
37.3 Presentation of grouped data 338
30 Graphs with logarithmic scales 269 30.1 Logarithmic scales 269
30.2 Graphs of the form y = axn 269 30.3 Graphs of the form
y = abx 272 30.4 Graphs of the form y = aekx 273 38 Measures of central tendency and
dispersion 345 38.1 Measures of central tendency 345 38.2
31 Graphical solution of equations 276 31.1 Graphical solution of Mean, median and mode for
simultaneous equations 276 discrete data 345
31.2 Graphical solution of 38.3 Mean, median and mode for
quadratic equations 277 grouped data 346
31.3 Graphical solution of linear 38.4 Standard deviation 348 38.5 Quartiles, deciles and
and quadratic equations percentiles 350
simultaneously 281
31.4 Graphical solution of cubic 39 Probability 352 39.1 Introduction to probability 352 39.2 Laws of
equations 282 probability 353 39.3 Worked problems on
probability 353
32 Functions and their curves 284 32.1 Standard curves 284 32.2 39.4 Further worked problems on
Simple transformations 286 32.3 Periodic functions 291 32.4 probability 355
Continuous and
discontinuous functions 291
32.5 Even and odd functions 291 32.6 Inverse functions 293
39.5 Permutations and
Revision Test 8 297 combinations 357
Revision Test 10 359

Section 5 Vectors 299
40 The binomial and Poisson distribution 360 40.1 The binomial
distribution 360 40.2 The Poisson distribution 363
33 Vectors 301 33.1 Introduction 301 33.2 Vector addition 301 33.3
Resolution of vectors 302 33.4 Vector subtraction 305
41 The normal distribution 366 41.1 Introduction to the normal
34 Combination of waveforms 307 34.1 Combination of two distribution 366
periodic 41.2 Testing for a normal
functions 307 distribution 371
34.2 Plotting periodic functions 307
34.3 Determining resultant

phasors by calculation 308
Multiple choice questions on
Chapters 28–41 375
Section 6 Complex Numbers 311
35 Complex numbers 313 35.1 Cartesian complex numbers 313 35.2

The Argand diagram 314 35.3 Addition and subtraction of Section 8 Differential Calculus 381
complex numbers 314
35.4 Multiplication and division of
42 Introduction to differentiation 383 42.1 Introduction to calculus
complex numbers 315
383 42.2 Functional notation 383 42.3 The gradient of a curve
35.5 Complex equations 317 35.6 The polar form of a 384 42.4 Differentiation from first
complex
principles 385
number 318
42.5 Differentiation of y = axn by
35.7 Multiplication and division in
the general rule 387
polar form 320
42.6 Differentiation of sine and
35.8 Applications of complex
cosine functions 388
numbers 321
42.7 Differentiation of eax and ln ax 390
36 De Moivre’s theorem 325 36.1 Introduction 325 36.2 Powers of

complex numbers 325 36.3 Roots of complex numbers 326 43 Methods of differentiation 392 43.1 Differentiation of common
functions 392
43.2 Differentiation of a product 394 43.3 Differentiation of a
Revision Test 9 329 quotient 395 43.4 Function of a function 397 43.5 Successive
differentiation 398
44 Some applications of differentiation 400 44.1 Rates of change tan2 x and cot2 x 447
400 44.2 Velocity and acceleration 401 44.3 Turning points 50.3 Worked problems on powers
404 44.4 Practical problems involving of sines and cosines 449
maximum and minimum 50.4 Worked problems on integration of
values 408 products of sines and cosines 450
Contents ix 50.5 Worked problems on integration
using the sin θ substitution 451
50.6 Worked problems on integration
44.5 Tangents and normals 411 44.6 Small changes 412 using the tan θ substitution 453
Revision Test 12 415 Revision Test 14 454
45 Differentiation of parametric
equations 416 45.1 Introduction to parametric 51 Integration using partial fractions 455 51.1 Introduction 455
equations 416 51.2 Worked problems on
45.2 Some common parametric integration using partial
equations 416 fractions with linear factors 455
45.3 Differentiation in parameters 417 45.4 Further worked 51.3 Worked problems on integration
problems on using partial fractions with
differentiation of parametric repeated linear factors 456
equations 418 51.4 Worked problems on integration
using partial fractions with
quadratic factors 457
46 Differentiation of implicit functions 421 46.1 Implicit functions
421 46.2 Differentiating implicit
functions 421 θ
52 The t = tan 2substitution 460 52.1 Introduction 460 52.2
46.3 Differentiating implicit
Worked problems on the
functions containing θ
products and quotients 422 t = tan 2substitution 460
46.4 Further implicit 52.3 Further worked problems on
differentiation 423 θ
the t = tan 2substitution 462
47 Logarithmic differentiation 426 47.1 Introduction to logarithmic 53 Integration by parts 464 53.1 Introduction 464 53.2 Worked
differentiation 426 problems on
47.2 Laws of logarithms 426 47.3 Differentiation of integration by parts 464
logarithmic 53.3 Further worked problems on
functions 426 integration by parts 466
47.4 Differentiation of [f (x)]x 429 Revision Test 13 431 Section
54 Numerical integration 469 54.1 Introduction 469 54.2 The
trapezoidal rule 469
9 Integral Calculus 433
48 Standard integration 435 48.1 The process of integration 435 54.3 The mid-ordinate rule 471 54.4 Simpson’s rule 473
48.2 The general solution of
integrals of the form axn 435
48.3 Standard integrals 436 48.4 Definite integrals 439
49 Integration using algebraic
substitutions 442 49.1 Introduction 442 49.2 Algebraic
substitutions 442 49.3 Worked problems on 55 Areas under and between curves 478 55.1 Area under a curve
integration using algebraic 478 55.2 Worked problems on the area
substitutions 442 under a curve 479
x Contents the area under a curve 482
55.4 The area between curves 484
integration using algebraic 56 Mean and root mean square values 487 56.1 Mean or average
substitutions 444 values 487 56.2 Root mean square values 489
49.5 Change of limits 444
57 Volumes of solids of revolution 491 57.1 Introduction 491 57.2

50 Integration using trigonometric Worked problems on volumes
substitutions 447 50.1 Introduction 447 50.2 Worked problems of solids of revolution 492
on 57.3 Further worked problems on
integration of sin2 x, cos2 x, volumes of solids of
revolution 493
58 Centroids of simple shapes 496 58.1 Centroids 496 58.2 The first equations 557 63.1 Family of curves 557 63.2 Differential
moment of area 496 58.3 Centroid of area between a equations 558 63.3 The solution of equations of
curve and the x-axis 496 dy
58.4 Centroid of area between a the form dx = f (x) 558
curve and the y-axis 497 63.4 The solution of equations of
dy
58.5 Worked problems on the form dx = f (y) 560
centroids of simple shapes 497 63.5 The solution of equations of
58.6 Further worked problems dy
on centroids of simple shapes 498 the form dx = f (x) · f (y) 562
58.7 Theorem of Pappus 501
59 Second moments of area 505 59.1 Second moments of area and
radius of gyration 505
Multiple choice questions on
59.2 Second moment of area of
Chapters 42–63 566 Answers to multiple choice questions 570
regular sections 505
59.3 Parallel axis theorem 506 59.4 Perpendicular axis
theorem 506 59.5 Summary of derived results 506 59.6
Worked problems on second Index 571
moments of area of regular
Preface
sections 507
59.7 Worked problems on second
moments of area of
composite areas 510
Section 10 Further Number and

Algebra 513
Engineering Mathematics 5th Edition covers a wide range of
60 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 515 60.1 Boolean algebra and syllabus requirements. In particular, the book is most suitable
switching circuits 515 for the latest National Certificate and Diploma courses and
60.2 Simplifying Boolean City & Guilds syllabuses in Engineering.
expressions 520 This text will provide a foundation in mathemat ical
60.3 Laws and rules of Boolean principles, which will enable students to solve mathematical,
algebra 520 scientific and associated engineering principles. In addition, the
60.4 De Morgan’s laws 522 60.5 Karnaugh maps 523 60.6 material will provide engineering applications and
Logic circuits 528 60.7 Universal logic gates 532 mathematical principles necessary for advancement onto a
range of Incorporated Engineer degree profiles. It is widely
61 The theory of matrices and
recognised that a students’ ability to use mathematics is a key
determinants 536 61.1 Matrix notation 536 61.2 Addition,
subtraction and element in determining subsequent success. First year
multiplication of matrices 536 undergrad uates who need some remedial mathematics will also
61.3 The unit matrix 540 61.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2 find this book meets their needs.
matrix 540 61.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a In Engineering Mathematics 5th Edition, new material is
2 by 2 matrix 541 included on inequalities, differentiation of parametric equations,
61.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix 542 61.7 The inverse implicit and logarithmic func tions and an introduction to
or reciprocal of a differential equations. Because of restraints on extent, chapters
3 by 3 matrix 544 on lin ear correlation, linear regression and sampling and
estimation theories have been removed. However, these three
62 The solution of simultaneous chapters are available to all via the internet.
equations by matrices and A new feature of this fifth edition is that a free Inter net
determinants 546 62.1 Solution of simultaneous download is available of a sample of solutions (some 1250) of
equations by matrices 546 the 1750 further problems contained in the book – see below.
62.2 Solution of simultaneous
Another new feature is a free Internet download (available
equations by determinants 548
62.3 Solution of simultaneous
for lecturers only) of all 500 illustrations contained in the text
equations using Cramers rule 552 – see below.
Throughout the text theory is introduced in each chapter by a
simple outline of essential definitions, formulae, laws and
Revision Test 17 553 procedures. The theory is kept to a minimum, for problem
solving is extensively used to establish and exemplify the
theory. It is intended that readers will gain real understanding
through see ing problems solved and then through solving
Section 11 Differential Equations 555 similar problems themselves.
For clarity, the text is divided into eleven topic areas, these
being: number and algebra, mensura tion, trigonometry, graphs,
63 Introduction to differential
vectors, complex numbers, (iv) Any introductory/access/foundation course involving
Engineering Mathematics at University, Colleges of
Further and Higher education and in schools.
Each topic considered in the text is presented in a way that

assumes in the reader little previous knowledge of that topic.
Engineering Mathematics 5th Edition provides a follow-
up to Basic Engineering Mathematics and a lead into Higher
Engineering Mathematics 5th Edition.
This textbook contains over 1000 worked problems,
followed by some 1750 further problems (all with
statistics, differential calculus, integral calculus, further number answers). The further problems are contained within some 220
and algebra and differential equations. Exercises; each Exercise follows on directly from the relevant
section of work, every two or three pages. In addition, the text
This new edition covers, in particular, the following contains 238 multiple choice questions. Where at all possible,
syllabuses: the problems mirror practical situations found in engineering
and sci ence. 500 line diagrams enhance the understanding of
the theory.
(i) Mathematics for Technicians, the core unit for National
Certificate/Diploma courses in Engi neering, to include At regular intervals throughout the text are some 18
all or part of the following chapters: Revision tests to check understanding. For example, Revision
test 1 covers material contained in Chapters 1 to 4, Revision test
1. Algebraic methods: 2, 5, 11, 13, 14, 28, 30 (1, 4, 8, 9
2 covers the material in Chapters 5 to 8, and so on. These
and 10 for revision)
Revision Tests do not have answers given since it is envisaged
2. Trigonometric methods and areas and vol umes:
that lecturers could set the tests for students to attempt as part of
18–20, 22–25, 33, 34
their course
3. Statistical methods: 37, 38
structure. Lecturers’ may obtain a complimentary set of
4. Elementary calculus: 42, 48, 55
solutions of the Revision Tests in an Instructor’s Manual
(ii) Further Mathematics for Technicians, the optional unit available from the publishers via the internet – see below.
for National Certificate/Diploma courses in A list of Essential Formulae is included in the Instructor’s
Engineering, to include all or part of the following Manual for convenience of reference. Learning by Example is
chapters: at the heart of Engineering Mathematics 5th Edition.
1. Advanced graphical techniques: 29–31 2.
Algebraic techniques: 15, 35, 38 JOHN BIRD
2. Trigonometry: 23, 26, 27, 34 Royal Naval School of Marine Engineering, HMS
3. Calculus: 42–44, 48, 55–56 Sultan,
formerly University of Portsmouth and
(iii) The mathematical contents of Electrical and Electronic Highbury College,
Principles units of the City & Guilds Level 3 Portsmouth
Certificate in Engineering (2800).
Free web downloads
Additional material on statistics

Chapters on Linear correlation, Linear regression and
Sampling and estimation theories are available for free to
students and lecturers at http://books.elsevier.com/
companions/9780750685559
In addition, a suite of support material is available to

lecturers only from Elsevier’s textbook website.
Solutions manual
Within the text are some 1750 further problems arranged
within 220 Exercises. A sample of over 1250 worked
solutions has been prepared for lecturers.
Instructor’s manual
This manual provides full worked solutions and mark
scheme for all 18 Revision Tests in this book.
Illustrations
Lecturers can also download electronic files for all
illustrations in this fifth edition.
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Section 1
Number and Algebra

This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
Revision of
fractions,
decimals and
percentages
1.1 Fractions i.e. 3, is called the denominator. 2
When the value of the numerator is less than 3 + 7 =
1
When 2 is divided by 3, it may be written as the value of the denominator, the fraction is Step (2) Step (3) ↓ ↓
2 2 called a proper
3 or 2/3 or 2/3. 3 is called a fraction. The (7 × 1) + (3 × 2) 21
Alternatively:
number above the line, i.e. 2, is called the
numerator and the number below the line, ↑
Step (1)
fraction; thus 23 is a proper fraction. When the value of the 13
21 = 21
numerator is greater than the denominator, the fraction is called
an improper fraction. Thus 73 is an improper fraction and can Step 1: the LCM of the two denominators; Step 2: for the
also be expressed as a mixed number, that is, an integer and a
fraction 13 , 3 into 21 goes 7 times, 7 × the numerator is 7 × 1;
proper frac tion. Thus the improper fraction 73 is equal to the
mixed number 213 . Step 3: for the fraction 27 , 7 into 21 goes 3 times, 3 × the
When a fraction is simplified by dividing the numer ator and numerator is 3 × 2.
denominator by the same number, the pro cess is called 1 2
cancelling. Cancelling by 0 is not permissible. Thus 3 + 7 = 7 + 6
13
21 = 21 as obtained previously.
1 2
Problem 1. Simplify 3 + 7 2 1
Problem 2. Find the value of 3 3 − 2 6
The lowest common multiple (i.e. LCM) of the two
denominators is 3 × 7, i.e. 21. One method is to split the mixed numbers into integers and
Expressing each fraction so that their denominators are 21, their fractional parts. Then
gives: 2 1 2 1
3 3−2 6=3+ 3−2+ 6
1 2 1
2 1 7 2 3 7 6 =3+ 3−2− 6
3 + 7 = 3 × 7 + 7 × 3 = 21 + 21 4 1 3 1
=1+ 6− 6=1 6=1 2
=7+6 Another method is to express the mixed numbers as improper
fractions.
1 12 1 13
1
8 1 8
Similarly, 2 6 = 6 + 6 = 6 = 5 × ✁71✁3 × ✚24✚
n
it
2 1 11 13 22 13
e
Thus 3 3 − 2 6 = 3 − 6 = 6 − 6 = ✁71= 8 × 1 × 8
9 1
S
4 Engineering Mathematics 5×1×1

6 = 1 2 as obtained previously.
64 4
= 5 = 12 5
9 2 9 2 11 Problem 3. Determine the value of
Since 3 = 3, then 3 3 = 3 + 3 = 3
3 12 3 12
Problem 6. Simplify 7÷ 21 7÷ 21 =
5 1 2 3 7
4 8−3 4+1 5 12 21
5 1 2 5 1 2 3
4 8 − 3 4 + 1 5 = (4 − 3 + 1) + 8 − 4 + 5 1✁7 × ✚21✚
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by the reciprocal of
the denominator gives:
3 1 = = 3
= 2 +5 × 5 − 10 × 1 + ✁3 3 1= 44
7
8 × 2 40 12 ✚12✚4
21 1
= 2 +25 − 10 + 16 40 ✚12✚
1
1✚21✚ × ✚21✚
✚12✚1
31 31 12 1 3
= 2 + 40 = 2 40 7÷ 21 = ✁31✁7 × ✚21✚
This method can be remembered by the rule: invert the second
fraction and change the operation from division to multiplication.
Thus:
3 Dividing numerator and denominator by 3 gives:
3 14 3 1
Problem 4. Find the value of 7 × 15 Problem 7. Find the value of 5 5 ÷ 7 3
3
✚12✚4= 4 as obtained previously.
1 1 14
✁3 ✚15✚5= 7 × 5 = 1 × 14
7×5 The mixed numbers must be expressed as
7 × 14 improper
Dividing numerator and denominator by 7 gives: fractions. Thus,
1 ×✚14✚2 2
1×5= 5
1✁7 ×5=1×2 5×3
This process of dividing both the numerator and denom inator of a 42
fraction by the same factor(s) is called cancelling. ✚22✚11= 55
3 1 28 22 14
5 5 ÷ 7 3 = 5 ÷ 3 = ✚28✚ Problem 8. Simplify
2
3 1 3 1 1 3 1
Problem 5. Evaluate 1 5 × 2 3 × 3 7 5+ 4÷ 8× 3
3−
Mixed numbers must be expressed as improper frac tions The order of precedence of operations for problems containing
before multiplication can be performed. Thus, fractions is the same as that for integers, i.e. remembered by
3 1 3 BODMAS (Brackets, Of, Division, Multiplication, Addition
1 5×2 3×3 7 and Subtraction). Thus,
5
3 6 1 21 3 2
5+ 5× 3+ 3× 7+ 7
= 1 3 1
3− 5+ 4÷ 8× 3
1
Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 5
1
20 ÷✁3 1
1 ✚24✚8(B) 2 3 2 1 23
= 3−4×2+5×1 2. (a) 7 + 11 (b) 9 − 7 +
n
2 1 1 26
5✚20✚ × ✁8 1 (D) = 3 − 13 = 3 − 5 (M)
43 47 16 17
(a) 77 (b) 63 15 (S) (a) 1 21 (b) 60
3 2 1 4 5
3. (a) 10 7 − 8 3 (b) 3 4 − 4 5 + 1 6 = −73
it
13
15 = −4 15
c
Problem 9. Determine the value of

119
S
5 3
(a) 12 (b) 49
3 5 17
= (5 × 1) − (3 × 26) 4. (a) 4 × 9 (b) 35 × 15
7 3 7 2 13 7 4
5. (a) 5 × 9 × 1 7 (b) 17 × 4 11 × 3 39
1 1 1 3 1
6of 3 2 − 2 4 + 5 8 ÷ 16 − 2
7 1 1 1 3 1
3 2 − 2 4 + 5 8 ÷ 16 − 2 3
6of (a) 5 (b) 11
7 1 41 3 1 3 45 1 59 8 12
= 6of 1 4 + 8 ÷ 16 − 2 (B) 6. (a) 8 ÷ 64 (b) 1 3 ÷ 2 (a) 15 (b) 23
7 5 41 3 1 7 5
= 6 × 4 + 8 ÷ 16 − 2 (O) = 6 × 4 +411✁8 × = 35 + 656
✚16✚ 2 1
24 − 2 (A)
1 1 2 1 3 2
3 − 2 (D) 9. 4 × 3 − 3 ÷ 5 + 7 − 13
35 82 1
= 24 + 3 − 2 (M)
126
1 3 8 1 7 7 5 3 15 4 2
7. 2 + 5 ÷ 15 − 3 1 24 8. 15of 15 × 7 + 4 ÷ 16 5 5
1 10.
= 691 24 − 2 (A) = 691 − 12 1 2 1 3 28
3 × 1 4 ÷ 3 + 4 + 1 5 2 55
the same kind. If one quantity is
24 (S)
6 Engineering Mathematics
= 679
7 directly proportional to another, then as one quantity
24 = 28 24
1
doubles, the other quantity also doubles. When a quan
tity is inversely proportional to another, then as one

Now try the following exercise n
t
quantity doubles, the other quantity is halved.
Exercise 1 Further problems on fractions c
Evaluate the following:

S
Problem 10. A piece of timber 273 cm long is cut

1 2 7 14 into three pieces in the ratio of 3 to 7 to 11.
1. (a) 2 + 5 (b) 16 −
9 3 Determine the lengths of the three pieces
(a) 10 (b) 16
11. If a storage tank is holding 450 litres when it is three- The total number of parts is 3 + 7 + 11, that is, 21. Hence
quarters full, how much will it contain when it is 21 parts correspond to 273 cm
two-thirds full?
[400 litres]
1 part corresponds to273
12. Three people, P, Q and R contribute to a fund. P
provides 3/5 of the total, Q provides 2/3 of the 21 = 13 cm
remainder, and R provides £8. Determine (a) the total 3 parts correspond to 3 × 13 = 39 cm
of the fund, (b) the contributions of P and Q. [(a) £60 7 parts correspond to 7 × 13 = 91 cm
(b) £36, £16]
11 parts correspond to 11 × 13 = 143 cm
i.e. the lengths of the three pieces are 39 cm, 91 cm and

1.2 Ratio and proportion 143 cm.
(Check: 39 + 91 + 143 = 273)
The ratio of one quantity to another is a fraction, and is the
number of times one quantity is contained in another quantity of
Problem 11. A gear wheel having 80 teeth is in mesh (a) the speed is 112 times that of the original speed
with a 25 tooth gear. What is the gear ratio? and
(b) if the speed is three-quarters of the orig inal
80 16 speed.
Gear ratio = 80 : 25 = 25 = 5 = 3.2
[(a) 2 h 10 min (b) 4 h 20 min]
i.e. gear ratio = 16 : 5 or 3.2 : 1
Problem 12. An alloy is made up of metals A and B in

the ratio 2.5 : 1 by mass. How much of A has to be added 1.3 Decimals
to 6 kg of B to make the alloy?
The decimal system of numbers is based on the digits 0 to 9.
Ratio A : B: :2.5 : 1 (i.e. A is to B as 2.5 is to 1) or A A number such as 53.17 is called a decimal fraction, a
2.5 decimal point separating the integer part, i.e. 53, from the
B= 1 = 2.5 fractional part, i.e. 0.17.
A A number which can be expressed exactly as a deci mal
When B = 6 kg, 6 = 2.5 from which,
fraction is called a terminating decimal and those which
A = 6 × 2.5 = 15 kg
cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal fraction
Problem 13. If 3 people can complete a task in 4 hours,

how long will it take 5 people to complete the same
task, assuming the rate of work remains constant are called non-terminating decimals. Thus, 32 = 1.5 is a
= 1.33333... is a non
terminating decimal, but 43 terminating
The more the number of people, the more quickly the task is decimal. 1.33333... can be written as 1.3, called ‘one point-
done, hence inverse proportion exists. three recurring’.
The answer to a non-terminating decimal may be
3 people complete the task in 4 hours.
expressed in two ways, depending on the accuracy required:
(i) correct to a number of significant figures, that is,

figures which signify something, and
1 person takes three times as long, i.e. (ii) correct to a number of decimal places, that is, the
4 × 3 = 12 hours, number of figures after the decimal point.
5 people can do it in one fifth of the time that one person The last digit in the answer is unaltered if the next digit
12 on the right is in the group of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, but is
takes, that is 5hours or 2 hours 24 minutes. increased by 1 if the next digit on the right is in the group of
numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9. Thus the non terminating decimal
7.6183... becomes 7.62, correct to 3 significant figures,
Now try the following exercise since the next digit on the right is 8, which is in the group of
numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9. Also 7.6183... becomes 7.618,
correct to 3 decimal places, since the next digit on the right
Exercise 2 Further problems on ratio and is 3, which is in the group of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4.
proportion
1. Divide 621 cm in the ratio of 3 to 7 to 13. [81 cm to Problem 14. Evaluate 42.7 + 3.04 + 8.7 + 0.06
189 cm to 351 cm]
2. When mixing a quantity of paints, dyes of four The numbers are written so that the decimal points are under
different colours are used in the ratio of 7 : 3 : 19 : each other. Each column is added, starting from the right.
5. If the mass of the first dye used is 312 g, 42.7
determine the total mass of the dyes used. [17 g] 3.04
3. Determine how much copper and how much zinc is 8.7
needed to make a 99 kg brass ingot if they have to 0.06
be in the proportions copper : zinc: :8 : 3 by mass. 54.50
[72 kg : 27 kg]
4. It takes 21 hours for 12 men to resurface a stretch of Thus 42.7 + 3.04 + 8.7 + 0.06 = 54.50
road. Find how many men it takes to resurface a
similar stretch of road in 50 hours 24 minutes, Problem 15. Take 81.70 from 87.23
assuming the work rate remains constant. [5]
5. It takes 3 hours 15 minutes to fly from city A to city The numbers are written with the decimal points under each
B at a constant speed. Find how long the journey other.
takes if 87.23
−81.70
5.53 22 290
28 234
Thus 87.23 − 81.70 = 5.53
(ii) As there are (1 + 1) = 2 digits to the right of the decimal
points of the two numbers being multiplied together,
Problem 16. Find the value of
(74.3 × 3.8), then
23.4 − 17.83 − 57.6 + 32.68
Revision of fractions, decimals and 74.3 × 3.8 = 282.34
percentages 7
Problem 18. Evaluate 37.81 ÷ 1.7, correct to (i) 4
The sum of the positive decimal fractions is significant figures and (ii) 4 decimal places
1
23.4 + 32.68 = 56.08

37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 37.81
o
1.7
t
The sum of the negative decimal fractions is S

The denominator is changed into an integer by multi plying
by 10. The numerator is also multiplied by 10 to keep the
fraction the same. Thus
17.83 + 57.6 = 75.43
Taking the sum of the negative decimal fractions from the 37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 37.81 × 10
sum of the positive decimal fractions gives: 1.7 × 10
56.08 − 75.43
= 378.1
i.e. −(75.43 − 56.08) = −19.35 17
Problem 17. Determine the value of 74.3 × 3.8
The long division is similar to the long division of integers
1
and the first four steps are as shown:
When multiplying decimal fractions: (i) the numbers are n
multiplied as if they are integers, and (ii) the position of the 22.24117..
decimal point in the answer is such that there are as many o
digits to the right of it as the sum of the digits to the right of

i
the decimal points of the two numbers being multiplied

together. Thus
(i) 743 (b) For mixed numbers, it is only necessary to convert the
proper fraction part of the mixed number to a decimal
38
fraction. Thus, dealing with the 78 gives:
5 944
34 0.875
c
7
378.100000 __ 7.000 i.e. 8 = 0.875 8
e
17
38
34 (a) 0.4375 can be written as0.4375 × 10 000
__ 7
41 Thus 5 8 = 5.875
34
__
70 Now try the following exercise
68
__
20 Exercise 3 Further problems on decimals
(i) 37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 22.24, correct to 4 significant figures, and In Problems 1 to 6, determine the values of the expressions
given:
(ii) 37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 22.2412, correct to 4 decimal places.
1. 23.6 + 14.71 − 18.9 − 7.421 [11.989]
Problem 19. Convert (a) 0.4375 to a proper fraction 2. 73.84 − 113.247 + 8.21 − 0.068
and (b) 4.285 to a mixed number [−31.265]
3. 3.8 × 4.1 × 0.7 [10.906] 4. 374.1 × 0.006 [2.2446] 5.
421.8 ÷ 17, (a) correct to 4 significant figures
changing its value, [(a) 24.81 (b) 24.812]
10 000 = 875
i.e. 0.4375 = 4375 6.0.0147
2000 = 175
10 000
2.3 , (a) correct to 5 decimal places and (b)
By cancelling 10 000without correct to 2 significant figures.
4375 and (b) correct to 3 decimal places.
35 7 8. Convert to mixed numbers:
400 = 80 = 16 (a) 1.82 (b) 4.275 (c) 14.125 (d) 15.35 and (e) 16.2125
7
i.e. 0.4375 = 16
[(a) 0.00639 (b) 0.0064]
(a) To convert a proper fraction to a decimal fraction, the
7. Convert to proper fractions: numerator is divided by the denominator. Divi
(a) 0.65 (b) 0.84 (c) 0.0125 (d) 0.282 and (e) 0.024 ⎡
⎤
⎢ 41 11 1
(b) Similarly, 4.285 = 4285 ⎣(a) 1 50 (b) 4 40 (c) 14 8
⎥
1000 = 457 ⎦
200 7 17
3 (d) 15 20 (e) 16 80
500 (e) 125 sion by 16 can be done by the long division method, or, more
13 21 1 simply, by dividing by 2 and then 8:
(a) 20 (b) 25 (c) 80 (d)141
9 9.00 80.5625
Problem 20. Express as decimal fractions: (a) 16 and
In Problems 9 to 12, express as decimal fractions to the
7
(b) 5 8 accuracy stated:
4.50 4.5000 4 , correct to 5 significant figures.
2 9. 9
[0.44444]
9
Thus 16 = 0.5625
17 , correct to 5 decimal places. 1.4 Percentages

10. 27 [0.62963] 11.
9 , correct to 4 significant figures.
1 16 [1.563] 12. Percentages are used to give a common standard and are
31 , correct to 2 decimal places. fractions having the number 100 as their denomina tors. For
13 37 [13.84]
13. Determine the dimension marked x in the length of example, 25 per cent means 25
shaft shown in Figure 1.1. The dimensions are in 1
millimetres. 100i.e. 4and is
[12.52 mm] written 25%.
82.92
Problem 21. Express as percentages:
27.41 8.32 x 34.67 (a) 1.875 and (b) 0.0125
A decimal fraction is converted to a percentage by

multiplying by 100. Thus,
(a) 1.875 corresponds to 1.875 × 100%, i.e. 187.5% (b)

0.0125 corresponds to 0.0125 × 100%, i.e. 1.25%
Figure 1.1 Revision of fractions, decimals and
14. A tank contains 1800 litres of oil. How many tins
percentages 9
containing 0.75 litres can be filled from this tank?
[2400] To convert fractions to percentages, they are (i) con verted
to decimal fractions and (ii) multiplied by 100 1
Alternatively, if the time is reduced by 15%, then it now
n
5 5 takes 85% of the original time, i.e. 85% of 50 = 85

(a) By division, 16 = 0.3125, hence 16 corresponds i
100 × 50 = 4250
t
100 = 42.5 minutes, as above.

S
to 0.3125 × 100%, i.e. 31.25%

2 Problem 24. Find 12.5% of £378
(b) Similarly, 1 5 = 1.4 when expressed as a decimal
fraction.
2 12.5% of £378 means12.5
Hence 1 5 = 1.4 × 100% = 140%
100 × 378, since per cent means
Problem 23. It takes 50 minutes to machine a certain ‘per hundred’.
part, Using a new type of tool, the time can be reduced
by 15%. Calculate the new time taken ✘ 1
Hence 12.5% of £378 = ✘12 .5
1
✟100✟8× 378 = 8 × 378 =
378
15% of 50 minutes = 15
8 = £47.25
100 × 50 = 750
100 Problem 25. Express 25 minutes as a percentage of 2
= 7.5 minutes. hours, correct to the nearest 1%
hence the new time taken is Working in minute units, 2 hours = 120 minutes.
Hence 25 minutes is25
50 − 7.5 = 42.5 minutes.
Problem 22. Express as percentages: 25

5 120 ths of 2 hours. By cancelling,
120 = 24
5 2 5
(a) 16 and (b) 1 5 Expressing 24 as a decimal fraction gives 0.2083˙
10 Engineering Mathematics 15% corresponds to 15 × 0.0374 = 0.561 kg
Thus, the masses of the copper, zinc and nickel are 2.244
Multiplying by 100 to convert the decimal fraction to a kg, 0.935 kg and 0.561 kg, respectively.
percentage gives:
1
(Check: 2.244 + 0.935 + 0.561 = 3.74)

n
˙
i
0.2083 × 100 = 20.83% Now try the following exercise
t
Exercise 4 Further problems percentages

Thus 25 minutes is 21% of 2 hours, correct to the nearest
1%. 1. Convert to percentages:
(a) 0.057 (b) 0.374 (c) 1.285
Problem 26. A German silver alloy consists of 60% [(a) 5.7% (b) 37.4% (c) 128.5%]
copper, 25% zinc and 15% nickel. Determine the masses 2. Express as percentages, correct to 3 signifi cant
of the copper, zinc and nickel in a 3.74 kilogram block of
figures:
the alloy
7 19 11
(a) 33 (b) 24 (c) 1 16
By direct proportion: [(a) 21.2% (b) 79.2% (c) 169%]
3. Calculate correct to 4 significant figures:
100% corresponds to 3.74 kg
(a) 18% of 2758 tonnes (b) 47% of 18.42
grams (c) 147% of 14.1 seconds
1% corresponds to3.74
[(a) 496.4 t (b) 8.657 g (c) 20.73 s]
100 = 0.0374 kg
60% corresponds to 60 × 0.0374 = 2.244 kg
25% corresponds to 25 × 0.0374 = 0.935 kg
4. When 1600 bolts are manufactured, 36 are present.
unsatisfactory. Determine the percentage [A 0.6 kg, B 0.9 kg, C 0.5 kg]
unsatisfactory. [2.25%]
9. A concrete mixture contains seven parts by volume
5. Express: (a) 140 kg as a percentage of 1 t (b) 47 s as of ballast, four parts by volume of sand and two
a percentage of 5 min (c) 13.4 cm as a percentage parts by volume of cement. Determine the
of 2.5 m percentage of each of these three constituents
[(a) 14% (b) 15.67% (c) 5.36%] correct to the nearest 1% and the mass of cement in
a two tonne dry mix, correct to 1 significant figure.
6. A block of monel alloy consists of 70% nickel and [54%, 31%, 15%, 0.3 t]
30% copper. If it contains 88.2 g of nickel,
determine the mass of copper in the block. [37.8 g] 10. In a sample of iron ore, 18% is iron. How much ore
is needed to produce 3600 kg of iron? [20 000 kg]
7. A drilling machine should be set to 250 rev/min. The
nearest speed available on the machine is 268 11. A screws’ dimension is 12.5 ± 8% mm. Cal culate
rev/min. Calculate the percentage over speed. the possible maximum and minimum length of the
[7.2%] screw.
[13.5 mm, 11.5 mm]
8. Two kilograms of a compound contains 30% of
element A, 45% of element B and 25% of element 12. The output power of an engine is 450 kW. If the
C. Determine the masses of the three elements efficiency of the engine is 75%, determine the
power input. [600 kW]
Chapter 2
Indices, standard
form and
engineering
notation
2.1 Indices called ‘seven squared’ and 93 is called ‘nine cubed’. When no
index is shown, the power is 1, i.e. 2 means 21.
The lowest factors of 2000 are 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5. These
factors are written as 24 × 53, where 2 and 5 are called bases and
the numbers 4 and 5 are called indices. Reciprocal
When an index is an integer it is called a power. Thus, 24 is The reciprocal of a number is when the index is −1 and its
called ‘two to the power of four’, and has a base of 2 and an value is given by 1, divided by the base. Thus the reciprocal of
index of 4. Similarly, 53 is called ‘five to the power of 3’ and 2 is 2−1 and its value is 12 or 0.5. Similarly, the reciprocal of 5 is
has a base of 5 and an index of 3. 5−1 which means 15 or 0.2.
Special names may be used when the indices are 2 and 3,
these being called ‘squared’and ‘cubed’, respectively. Thus 7 2 is
Square root 35
The square root of a number is when the index is 12 , and the 2
3 = 35−2 = 33
√
square root of 2 is written as 2 1/2 or 2. The value of a square
(iii) When a number which is raised to a power is raised to a
root is the value of the base which when multiplied by itself
further power, the indices are multiplied. Thus
gives the number. Since 3 × 3 = 9,
√ √
then 9 = 3. However, (−3) × (−3) = 9, so 9 = −3. There are (35)2 = 35×2 = 310
always two answers when finding the square root of a number
and this is shown by putting both a + and a − sign in front of the
answer to a square (iv) When a number has an index of 0, its value is 1. Thus 30 =
√ 1
1/2 √
root problem. Thus 9 = ±3 and 4 = 4 = ±2, and so on. (v) A number raised to a negative power is the recip rocal of
Laws of indices 4
that number raised to a positive power. Thus 3−4 = 1
3
−3
When simplifying calculations involving indices, cer tain basic Similarly, 12 = 23
rules or laws can be applied, called the laws of indices. These (vi) When a number is raised to a fractional power the
are given below. denominator of the fraction is the root of the number and
the numerator is the power.
(i) When multiplying two or more numbers having the same
3
base, the indices are added. Thus Thus 82/3 = √ 82 = (2)2 = 4
2 √
and 251/2 = √ 251 = 251 = ±5
32 × 34 = 32+4 = 36
√ 2
(Note that ≡ √ )
(ii) When a number is divided by a number having the same
base, the indices are subtracted. Thus
i
1 2.2 Worked problems on indices

2 3 4 2
Problem 5. Evaluate: (10 ) 10 × 10
n
From law (i): 10(2×3)

c
2 3 2 4
S
Problem 1. Evaluate (a) 5 × 5 , (b) 3 × 3

× 3 and (c) 2 × 22 × 25 2
From the laws of indices: 104 × 10 =
(102)3 From law (ii):
(a) 52 × 53 = 5(2+3) = 55 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 3125 (a)7

5
(b) 32 × 34 × 3 = 3(2+4+1) = 37 3
7 = 7(5−3) = 72 = 49
= 3 × 3 × ··· to 7 terms
7
(4+2) 6 (b)5
10 = 10 4
106 5 = 5(7−4) = 53 = 125
= 106−6 = 100 = 1
Problem 3. Evaluate: (a) 52 × 53 ÷ 54 and (b) (3 × 35) ÷
(32 × 33)
= 2187
2 5
(c) 2 × 2 × 2 = 2 (1+2+5) 8
= 2 = 256 From laws (i) and (ii):
(a) 52 × 53 ÷ 54 = 52 × 53
Problem 2. Find the value of: 4
5
5 = 5(2+3)
(a)7
54
3
7 and (b)57 =5
5
54 4
5 = 5(5−4) = 51 = 5
(b) (3 × 35) ÷ (32 × 33) = 3 × 35 2. (a) 23 × 2 × 22 (b) 72 × 74 × 7 × 73 [(a) 26 (b) 710]
3 3. (a)2
4
32 × 3 = 3(1+5)
3(2+3)
3
2 (b)37
=3
6 32[(a) 2 (b) 35]
5 4. (a) 56 ÷ 53 (b) 713/710
3 = 3(6−5) = 31 = 3
[(a) 53 (b) 73]
Problem 4. Simplify: (a) (23)4 (b) (32)5, expressing 5. (a) (72)3 (b) (33)2 [(a) 76 (b) 36]
the answers in index form.
From law (iii):
(a) (23)4 = 23×4 = 212 (b) (32)5 = 32×5 = 310 2 3

6. (a)2 × 2
Problem 6. Find the value of 4
3 4
2 (b)37 × 34
(a)2 × 2
35
5
27 × 2 and (b) (32)3 [(a) 2 (b) 36]
3 × 39 7. (a)5
7
3
From the laws of indices: 52 × 5 (b)135
13 × 132
3 4
(a)2 × 2 [(a) 52 (b) 132]
5
27 × 2 = 2(3+4) 2 3
8. (a) (9 × 3 )
(7+5) 7 2
2 =2 (3 × 27) (b) (16 × 4)2
12 (2 × 8)3
2 = 27−12 = 2−5
[(a) 34 (b) 1]
1 5 1 −2
= 2 = 32 9. (a)5
2 3
(b) (3 )
−4 2 −4
5 (b)3 × 3
9 Indices, standard form and engineering notation
3 × 3 = 32×3
1+9 13
6
3 =3
10
3 = 36−10 = 3−4 Problem 9. Evaluate:
1
1 4 1 (a) 41/2 (b) 163/4 (c) 272/3 (d) 9−1/2

= 3 = 81 n
Now try the following exercise

√
(a) 41/2 = 4 = ±2
e
Exercise 5 Further problems on indices

4
In Problems 1 to 10, simplify the expressions given, (b) 163/4 = √ 163 = ( ± 2)3 = ±8
expressing the answers in index form and with positive (Note that it does not matter whether the 4th root of 16 is found
indices: first or whether 16 cubed is found first — the same answer will
result).
1. (a) 33 × 34 (b) 42 × 43 ×44 3
(c) 272/3 = √ 272 = (3)2 = 9
7 9
[(a) 3 (b) 4 ]
1 1/2 1√ 1 1
(d) 9−1/2 = 9 = 9= ±3 = ± 3
1 5 2
10. (a)7 × 7
−3
(a) 52 (b) 3
33 −4 3 −4 5 −2 6
7×7 (b)2 × 2 × 2 2 × 2 × 2
22 × 32−2/5
1.5 1/3
Problem 10. Evaluate:4 × 8
√
41.5 = 43/2 = 43 = 23 = 8 2/5
2 1 32 =1
(a) 7 (b) 2 1/3 3 2
8 = √ 8 = 2, 2 = 4
and 32−2/5 = 1
2.3 Further worked problems on indices 41.5 × 81/3
The laws of indices only apply to terms having the

3 7 same base. Grouping terms having the same base, and
Problem 7. Evaluate:3 × 5
−2/5
53 × 34 22 × (25) 3
=2 ×2
1
5 2 1 2 1 2 −2
√ 32 = 2 = 4 2 × 2
1.5 = 23+1−2−(−2) = 24 = 16
Hence4 × 81/3
then applying the laws of indices to each of the groups
2 −2/5 independently gives:
2 × 32 =8×2
4 × 14=
16 4
1 = 16 53 × 3 = 33
Alternatively,
2 5 3 3 4 4
−2/5 Problem 11. Evaluate:3 × 5 + 3 × 5 3 × 5
22 × 32 2 3/2 3 1/3
= [(2) ] × (2 )
33 × 57 1 625 1 3
3 = 3 = 208 3 32 × 5 +33 × 53
4
3 = 57 Problem 8. Find the value of
3 32 × 55
5 = 3(3−4) × 5(7−3) Dividing each term by the HCF (i.e. highest 32 × 55 + 33 × 53
common factor) of the three terms, i.e. 32 ×
= 3−1 × 54 = 54 53, gives:
32 × 53
23 × 35 × (72)2 74 × 24 × 33 4 34 × 54 32 × 53
34 × 5 =
23 × 35 × (72)2 0 2 1 0
=3 ×5 +3 ×5
3 2 1
74 × 24 × 3 = 23−4 × 35−3 × 72×2−4 = 2−1 × 32 × 70 3 ×5
1 9 1 28
2 9 × 5 = 45
= 2×3 ×1= 2=4 2
=3
(2−2)
× 5(5−3) + 3(3−2) × 50 3(4−2) × 5(4−3) = 1 × 25 + 3 × 1
14 Engineering Mathematics 53
34 × 54 + 33 × 53
t
2 5
Problem 12. Find the value of 3 × 5
e
To simplify the arithmetic, each term is divided by the HCF of all

the terms, i.e. 32 × 53. Thus
3 32 × 55
=4
3 34 × 54 + 33 × 53
2
3 ×5
32 × 55
2
3 × 23 2 3 3
= (2 ) × 2
3(3+2) × 5(3−2) Now try the following exercise
9
=2 Exercise 6 Further problems on indices
35 × 5
= 34 × 54 In Problems 1 and 2, simplify the
32 × 53 expressions given, expressing the answers in
3 index form and
32 × 5 +33 × 53 32 × 53
(2−2) with positive indices:

=3 × 5(5−3)
3(4−2) × 5(4−3) + 3(3−2) × 5(3−3) = 30 × 52 3

1. (a)3 × 5
2
4
0 54 × 3 (b)7−2 × 3−2
32 × 51 + 31 × 5 = 25
35 × 74 × 7−3
25
48
2
2. (a)4 × 9
3 2
45 + 3 = 3 × 5 (b)1
73 × 37
(a)1
43 × −2 4 252 × 24 × 9−2
3
35 83 × 3 (b)8−2 × 52 × 3−4
Problem 13. Simplify: −3
(a)3
2 5
25 2 (b)1
giving the answer with positive indices 32
210 × 52
1
3. Evaluate (a) −1
(b) 810.25
A fraction raised to a power and the denominator of the (c) 16(−1/4) (d) 1/2
means that both the numer ator fraction are raised to 4
that power, i.e. 3 3 3 2

43 =4 3 ± 3
1
9 (a) 9 (b) ± 3 (c) ± 2 (d)
A fraction raised to a negative power has the same
value as the inverse of the fraction raised to a positive
power. −2 2 In Problems 4 to 8, given.
3 =1×5 evaluate the expressions
Thus, 5 2 4 4 4 4 2 −2 1 Similarly, 52 23 × 162
5 1 4.9 × 7 3 × 7 5. (2 ) − 3 × 25
2= 32 52 + 33 × 72 44
3
−3 9
=1 3 2 3 3
3 =5 3 2 2 147 148 = =5 2
Thus, 43 × 35 43 3 32 6. 3 3 2 65
3 −2
3 × 52 12 − 23 −5 72
−2
25 −3 = 53 23 5
7. 29 4 2 [64]
43
Indices, standard form numbers given in standard form.
o e
and engineering notation For

c
(2.5 × 103) × (5 × 102) = (2.5 × 5) × (103+2)

15
(ii) The laws of indices are used 1
when multiplying or dividing n
example,
2.4 Standard form 6 × 104
2 3/2 1/3 2 1 2 6
8. (3 ) × (8 ) 4 2 1.5 × 10 = 1.5 × (104−2) = 4 × 102
(3)2 × (43)1/2 × (9)−1/2
= 12.5 × 105 or 1.25 × 106
Similarly,
A number written with one digit to the left of the decimal point 2.5 Worked problems on standard
and multiplied by 10 raised to some power is said to be written
form
in standard form. Thus: 5837 is written as 5.837 × 103 in
standard form, and 0.0415 is written as 4.15 × 10−2 in standard
form. Problem 14. Express in standard form:
When a number is written in standard form, the first factor is (a) 38.71 (b) 3746 (c) 0.0124
called the mantissa and the second factor is called the
exponent. Thus the number 5.8 × 103 has a mantissa of 5.8 and
an exponent of 103. For a number to be in standard form, it is expressed with only
one digit to the left of the decimal point. Thus:
(i) Numbers having the same exponent can be added or
subtracted in standard form by adding or sub tracting the (a) 38.71 must be divided by 10 to achieve one digit to the left
mantissae and keeping the exponent the same. Thus: of the decimal point and it must also be multiplied by 10
to maintain the equality, i.e.
2.3 × 104 + 3.7 × 104
38.71 = 38.71
= (2.3 + 3.7) × 104 = 6.0 × 104
10 ×10 = 3.871 × 10 in standard form
and 5.9 × 10−2 − 4.6 × 10−2
(b) 3746 = 3746
−2 −2 form
= (5.9 − 4.6) × 10 = 1.3 × 10
3
= 1.24
1000 × 1000 = 3.746 × 10 in standard 100
When the numbers have different exponents, numbers is 100

one way of adding or subtracting the
(c) 0.0124 = 0.0124 × 100
to express one of the numbers in non-standard form, so that 104 (c) 9.84 × 100
both numbers have the same expo nent. Thus:
2.3 × 104 + 3.7 × 103

4 4
(a) 1.725 × 10−2 = 1.725
= 2.3 × 10 + 0.37 × 10
100 = 0.01725
= (2.3 + 0.37) × 104 = 2.67 × 104
(b) 5.491 × 104 = 5.491 × 10 000 = 54 910 (c) 9.84 × 100 =
Alternatively,
9.84 × 1 = 9.84 (since 100 = 1)
4 3
2.3 × 10 + 3.7 × 10
= 23 000 + 3700 = 26 700
= 2.67 × 104
Problem 16. Express in standard form, correct to
= 1.24 × 10−2 in standard form
1
Problem 15. Express the following numbers, which are in

standard form, as decimal numbers: (a) 1.725 × 10−2 (b) 5.491 ×
1 7 3 1
4. (a) 2 (b) 11 8 (c) 130 5 (d) 32
3 2 9
n
(a) 8 (b) 19 3 (c) 741 16

o
it
(c) 1.306 × 102 (d) 3.125 × 10−2

e
3 significant figures: −1
(a) 5 × 10 (b) 1.1875 × 10
3 (b) 8.3 × 103 + 5.415 × 103 and
(a) 8 = 0.375, and expressing it in standard form gives: 0.375 =
3.75 × 10−1 (c) 9.293 × 102 + 1.3 × 103
2 ˙ expressing the answers in standard form.
(b) 19 3 = 19.6 = 1.97 × 10 in standard form, correct to 3
significant figures
Numbers having the same exponent can be added or subtracted
9 2 by adding or subtracting the mantissae and keeping the
(c) 741 16 = 741.5625 = 7.42 × 10 in standard form, correct
to 3 significant figures exponent the same. Thus:
(a) 7.9 × 10−2 − 5.4 × 10−2

Problem 17. Express the following numbers, given in = (7.9 − 5.4) × 10−2 = 2.5 × 10−2
standard form, as fractions or mixed numbers: (a) 2.5 ×
10−1 (b) 6.25 × 10−2 (c) 1.354 × 102
(a) 7.39 × 10 (b) 2.84 × 10 (c) 1.9772 × 102
2.5 2. (a) 2748 (b) 33 170 (c) 274 218

(a) 2.5 × 10−1 = 10 = 25
1 (b) 8.3 × 103 + 5.415 × 103
100 = 4
(b) 6.25 × 10−2 = 6.25 = (8.3 + 5.415) × 103 = 13.715 × 103 = 1.3715 ×
100 = 625 104 in standard form

1 (a) 2.748 × 103 (b) 3.317 × 104
10 000 = 16
4 2
(c) 1.354 × 102 = 135.4 = 135 10 = 135 5 Now
(c) 2.74218 × 105
try the following exercise
Exercise 7 Further problems on standard form 3. (a) 0.2401 (b) 0.0174 (c) 0.00923 (a) 2.401 × 10−1
In Problems 1 to 4, express in standard form: 1. (a) (b) 1.74 × 10−2
73.9 (b) 28.4 (c) 197.72

(c) 9.23 × 10−3
In Problems 5 and 6, express the numbers given as
integers or decimal fractions: (c) Since only numbers having the same exponents can be added
by straight addition of the mantissae, the numbers are
converted to this form before adding. Thus:
5. (a) 1.01 × 103 (b) 9.327 × 102
9.293 × 102 + 1.3 × 103
4 0
(c) 5.41 × 10 (d) 7 × 10
= 9.293 × 102 + 13 × 102
[(a) 1010 (b) 932.7 (c) 54 100 (d) 7]
6. (a) 3.89 × 10−2 (b) 6.741 × 10−1

(c) 8 × 10−3 = (9.293 + 13) × 102
[(a) 0.0389 (b) 0.6741 (c) 0.008]
= 22.293 × 102 = 2.2293 × 103
in standard form.
Alternatively, the numbers can be expressed as decimal

2.6 Further worked problems on fractions, giving:
standard form
9.293 × 102 + 1.3 × 103
= 929.3 + 1300 = 2229.3
Problem 18. Find the value of:
= 2.2293 × 103
(a) 7.9 × 10−2 − 5.4 × 10−2
in standard form as obtained previously. This method is (4.8 × 104)
often the ‘safest’ way of doing this type of problem.
o
2 −3
[(a) 2 × 10 (b) 1.5 × 10 ]
Problem 19. Evaluate (a) (3.75 × 103)(6 × 104) and
c
5
S
(b)3.5 × 10 5. Write the following statements in standard form:

7 × 102
expressing answers in standard form (a) The density of aluminium is 2710 kg m−3 [2.71 ×
103 kg m−3]
(a) (3.75 × 103)(6 × 104) = (3.75 × 6)(103+4) = 22.50 (b) Poisson’s ratio for gold is 0.44
[4.4 × 10−1]
× 107
(c) The impedance of free space is 376.73
= 2.25 × 108 [3.7673 × 102 ]
5
(b)3.5 × 10 (d) The electron rest energy is 0.511 MeV
2 3.5 5−2
[5.11 × 10−1 MeV]
7 × 10 = 7 × 10 (e) Proton charge-mass ratio is 9 5 789 700 C kg−1
= 0.5 × 103 = 5 × 102
[9.57897 × 107 C kg−1]
(f) The normal volume of a perfect gas is 0.02241
Now try the following exercise m3 mol−1
[2.241 × 10−2 m3 mol−1]
Exercise 8 Further problems on standard
form
In Problems 1 to 4, find values of the expressions
given, stating the answers in standard form: 2.7 Engineering notation and
common prefixes
1. (a) 3.7 × 102 + 9.81 × 102
(b) 1.431 × 10−1 + 7.3 × 10−1 Engineering notation is similar to scientific notation
except that the power of ten is always a multiple of 3.
[(a) 1.351 × 103 (b) 8.731 × 10−1]
For example, 0.00035 = 3.5 × 10−4 in scientific
2. (a) 4.831 × 102 + 1.24 × 103
notation,
(b) 3.24 × 10−3 − 1.11 × 10−4
3 −3
but 0.00035 = 0.35 × 10−3 or 350 × 10−6 in
[(a) 1.7231 × 10 (b) 3.129 × 10 ] engineering notation.
3. (a) (4.5 × 10−2)(3 × 103)
Units used in engineering and science may be made larger
(b) 2 × (5.5 × 104) or smaller by using prefixes that denote multi plication or
[(a) 1.35 × 102 (b) 1.1 × 105] division by a particular amount. The eight most common
multiples, with their meaning, are listed in Table 2.1, where
Indices, standard form and engineering it is noticed that the prefixes involve powers of ten which
notation 17 are all multiples of 3:
For example,
5 MV means 5 × 1 000 000 = 5 × 106

−3
4. (a)6 × 10 = 5 000 000 volts
−5 3 −2
3 × 10 (b) (2.4 × 10 )(3 × 10 ) 1
3.6 k means 3.6 × 1000 = 3.6 × 103
n
= 3600 ohms
Table 2.1
1
n
o
Prefix Name Meaning
i
e
T tera multiply by 1 000 000 000 000 (i.e. × 1012)
S
G giga multiply by 1 000 000 000 (i.e. × 109)
M mega multiply by 1 000 000 (i.e. × 106)
k kilo multiply by 1000 (i.e. × 103)
m milli divide by 1000 (i.e. × 10−3)

−6
μ micro divide by 1 000 000 (i.e. × 10 )
n nano divide by 1 000 000 000 (i.e. × 10−9)
p pico divide by 1 000 000 000 000 (i.e. × 10−12)
(or ×10x) (g) Enter ‘−6’ (h) Press ‘=’

7.5 μC means 7.5 ÷ 1 000 000 = 7.5
6 Now try the following exercise
10 or
7.5 × 10−6 = 0.0000075 coulombs
Exercise 9 Further problems on
4
and 4 mA means 4 × 10−3 or = 103 = 4 engineering notation and
common prefixes
1000 = 0.004 amperes
Similarly, 1. Express the following in engineering notation and in
0.00006 J = 0.06 mJ or 60 μJ prefix form:
(a) 100 000 W (b) 0.00054A (c) 15 × 105 (d) 225 ×
5 620 000 N = 5620 kN or 5.62 MN
10−4 V (e) 35 000 000 000 Hz (f) 1.5 × 10−11 F (g)
47 × 104 = 470 000 = 470 k or 0.47 M and 12 × 0.000017A (h) 46200 [(a) 100 kW (b) 0.54 mA or
540 μA (c) 1.5 M (d) 22.5 mV (e) 35 GHz (f) 15 pF
10−5A = 0.00012 A = 0.12 mA or 120 μA (g) 17 μA (h) 46.2 k ]
A calculator is needed for many engineering calcula tions, and
having a calculator which has an ‘EXP’ and ‘ENG’ function is 2. Rewrite the following as indicated:
most helpful. (a) 0.025 mA = …….μA
For example, to calculate: 3 × 104 × 0.5 × 10−6 volts, input your (b) 1000 pF = …..nF
calculator in the following order: (a) Enter ‘3’ (b) Press ‘EXP’ (c) 62 × 104 V = …….kV
(or ×10x) (c) Enter ‘4’(d) Press ‘×’(e) Enter ‘0.5’(f) Press ‘EXP’ (d) 1 250 000 = …..M
[(a) 25 μA (b) 1 nF (c) 620 kV (d) 1.25 M ]
7 3. Use a calculator to evaluate the following
or 200 Now press the ‘ENG’ in
The answer is 0.015V
button, and the answer changes to 15 × 10−3 V. The ‘ENG’ or 3.1 Binary numbers
Chapter 3
‘Engineering’ button ensures that the value is stated to a power of
10 that is a multiple of 3, enabling you, in this example, to
express the answer as 15 mV.
engineering notation:
(a) 4.5 × 10−7 × 3 × 104
Computer
−5 3
(b) (1.6 × 10 )(25 × 10 )
6
(100 × 10 )
[(a) 13.5 × 10−3 (b) 4 × 103]
numbering
systems
= 0.5 + 0.125 + 0.0625
= 0.687510
Problem 3. Convert 101.01012 to a decimal number
101.01012 = 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 0 × 2−1 +
1 × 2−2
From above: 110112 = 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22
+ 0 × 2−3 + 1 × 2−4
1 0
+1×2 +1×2
= 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0.25
The system of numbers in everyday use is the denary or
decimal system of numbers, using the digits 0 to 9. It has ten + 0 + 0.0625
different digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9) and is said to have
a radix or base of 10. = 5.312510
The binary system of numbers has a radix of 2 and uses only 20 Engineering Mathematics
the digits 0 and 1.
1
3.2 Conversion of binary to decimal The o
i
2 1
t
decimal number 234.5 is equivalent to 2 × 10 + 3 × 10 + 4 c
e
conversion of binary to
0 −1
× 10 + 5 × 10
S
decimal numbers
In Problems 1 to 4, convert the binary number given to
i.e. is the sum of term comprising: (a digit) multiplied by (the
decimal numbers.
base raised to some power).
In the binary system of numbers, the base is 2, so 1101.1 is
1. (a) 110 (b) 1011 (c) 1110 (d) 1001
equivalent to:
[(a) 610 (b) 1110 (c) 1410 (d) 910]
1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 1 × 2−1
2. (a) 10101 (b) 11001 (c) 101101 (d) 110011 [(a) 2110
Thus the decimal number equivalent to the binary number
(b) 2510 (c) 4510 (d) 5110]
1101.1 is
3. (a) 0.1101 (b) 0.11001 (c) 0.00111 (d) 0.01011
1
8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 2, that is 13.5
i.e. 1101.12 = 13.510, the suffixes 2 and 10 denoting binary and
decimal systems of number respectively.
Problem 1. Convert 110112 to a decimal number For fractions, the most significant bit of the result is the top
bit obtained from the integer part of mu
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 2710
Problem 2. Convert 0.10112 to a decimal fraction
0.10112 = 1 × 2−1 + 0 × 2−2 + 1 × 2−3 + 1 × 2−4 ltiplicat

1 1 2 1 3 ion by 2. The least significant bit of the result is the bottom
=1× 2+0× 2 +1× 2 bit obtained from the integer part of multiplication by 2.
1 4
+1× 2 Thus 0.62510 = 0.1012
1 1 1
= 2 + 8 + 16
(a) 0.812510 (b) 0.7812510 (c) 0.2187510 (d) 0.3437510

Problem 4. Convert 4710 to a binary number From above,
repeatedly dividing by 2 and noting the
4. (a) 11010.11 (b) 10111.011 (c) 110101.0111 (d) remainder gives:

11010101.10111
(a) 26.7510 (b) 23.37510
(c) 53.437510 (d) 213.7187510
3.3 Conversion of decimal to binary
An integer decimal number can be converted to a cor responding

binary number by repeatedly dividing by 2 and noting the
remainder at each stage, as shown below for 3910
i.e.
04062510 = 0.011012
The result is obtained by writing the top digit of the remainder as

the least significant bit, (a bit is a binary digit and the least
significant bit is the one on the right). The bottom bit of the
Problem 6. Convert 58.312510 to a binary
remainder is the most significant bit, i.e. the bit on the left. number
Thus 3910 = 1001112
The fractional part of a decimal number can be converted to a The integer part is repeatedly divided by 2, giving:
binary number by repeatedly multiplying by 2, as shown below
for the fraction 0.625
Thus 4710 = 1011112
Problem 5. Convert 0.4062510 to a binary number
From above, repeatedly multiplying by 2 gives: The fractional part is repeatedly multiplied by 2 giving:
Thus 58.312510 = 111010.01012

Now try the following exercise (c) 0.010012 (d) 0.100112
4. (a) 47.40625 (b) 30.8125
Exercise 11 Further problems on (c) 53.90625 (d) 61.65625
conversion of decimal
to binary numbers (a) 101111.011012 (b) 11110.11012 (c) 110101.111012
In Problem 1 to 4, convert the decimal numbers given (d) 111101.101012
to binary numbers.
1. (a) 5 (b) 15 (c) 19 (d) 29

Computer numbering systems 21
For fractions, the most significant bit is the top integer
3.4 Conversion of decimal to binary 1
obtained by multiplication of the decimal fraction by 8, thus
via octal
0.437510 = 0.348
n
The natural binary code for digits 0 to 7 is shown in Table 3.1,

For decimal integers containing several digits, repeat e
and an octal number can be converted to a binary number by

S
edly dividing by 2 can be a lengthy process. In this case, it writing down the three bits corresponding to the octal digit.
is usually easier to convert a decimal number to a binary
number via the octal system of numbers. This system has a Thus 4378 = 100 011 1112
radix of 8, using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The
denary number equivalent to the octal number 43178 is and 26.358 = 010 110.011 1012
4 × 83 + 3 × 82 + 1 × 81 + 7 × 80
i.e. 4 × 512 + 3 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 7 × 1 or 225510 Table 3.1

1
An integer decimal number can be converted to a cor n

Octal digit Natural
responding octal number by repeatedly dividing by 8 and o
binary number
noting the remainder at each stage, as shown below for i
49310 c
S
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
Thus 49310 = 7558 4 100
The fractional part of a decimal number can be con verted
to an octal number by repeatedly multiplying by 8, as 5 101
shown below for the fraction 0.437510
6 110
7 111
(a) 1012 (b) 11112
The ‘0’ on the extreme left does not signify anything, thus
(c) 100112 (d) 111012 26.358 = 10 110.011 1012
Conversion of decimal to binary via octal is demon
2. (a) 31 (b) 42 (c) 57 (d) 63
strated in the following worked problems.
(a) 111112 (b) 1010102

Problem 7. Convert 371410 to a binary number, via
(c) 1110012 (d) 1111112 octal
(d) 0.59375
3. (a) 0.25 (b) 0.21875 (c) 0.28125 (a) 0.012
Dividing repeatedly by 8, and noting the remainder gives:
(b) 0.001112
0.728 = 0.111 0102
i.e. 0.9062510 = 0.111 012
Thus, 5613.9062510 = 1 010 111 101 101.111 012
Problem 10. Convert 11 110 011.100 012 to a

From Table 3.1, 72028 = 111 010 000 0102 i.e.
decimal number via octal
371410 = 111 010 000 0102
Grouping the binary number in three’s from the binary point

Problem 8. Convert 0.5937510 to a binary
gives: 011 110 011.100 0102
number, via octal
Multiplying repeatedly by 8, and noting the integer values,

gives: Using Table 3.1 to convert this binary number to an octal
number gives: 363.428 and
363.428 = 3 × 82 + 6 × 81 + 3 × 80
+ 4 × 8−1 + 2 × 8−2
= 192 + 48 + 3 + 0.5 + 0.03125

Thus 0.5937510 = 0.468 = 243.5312510
From Table 3.1. 0.468 = 0.100 1102 i.e.

0.5937510 = 0.100 112

Problem 9. Convert 5613.9062510 to a binary conversion between decimal
number, via octal and binary numbers via octal
In Problems 1 to 3, convert the decimal numbers given
The integer part is repeatedly divided by 8, noting the to binary numbers, via octal.
remainder, giving:
1. (a) 343 (b) 572 (c) 1265
3.5 Hexadecimal numbers 1
The complexity of computers requires higher order o
numbering systems such as octal (base 8) and hexadeci

This octal number is converted to a binary number, (see c
Table 3.1)
mal (base 16), which are merely extensions of the binary S
127558 = 001 010 111 101 1012 system. A hexadecimal numbering system has a radix of
16 and uses the following 16 distinct digits:
i.e. 561310 = 1 010 111 101 1012
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F
The fractional part is repeatedly multiplied by 8, and noting
the integer part, giving: ‘A’ corresponds to 10 in the denary system, B to 11, C to
12, and so on.
To convert from hexadecimal to decimal:

For example
This octal fraction is converted to a binary number, (see
1A16 = 1 × 161 + A × 160
Table 3.1)
= 1 × 161 + 10 × 1 = 16 + 10 = 26 ⎥⎥
⎦
i.e. 1A16 = 2610 (b) 1000000010.01112
⎡
(c) 11010110100.11.0012
⎤
⎣(a) 1010101112 (b) 10001111002 = 1 × 162 + 11 × 161 + 15 × 160

⎦
= 256 + 176 + 15 = 44710
(c) 100111100012
Table 3.2 compares decimal, binary, octal and hexadec imal
numbers and shows, for example, that
2. (a) 0.46875 (b) 0.6875 (c) 0.71875
Similarly, 2310 = 101112 = 278 = 1716
2E16 = 2 × 161 + E × 160

Problem 11. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers
= 2 × 161 + 14 × 160 = 32 + 14 = 4610 and 1BF16 = into their decimal equivalents: (a) 7A16 (b) 3F16
1 × 162 + B × 161 + F × 160
⎡
⎤ 4. Convert the following binary numbers to dec imal numbers
via octal:
⎣(a) 0.011112 (b) 0.10112
⎦ (a) 111.011 1 (b) 101 001.01
(c) 0.101112
(c) 1 110 011 011 010.001 1
3. (a) 247.09375 (b) 514.4375 (a) 7A16 = 7 × 161 + A × 160 = 7 × 16 + 10 × 1 = 112 + 10 =
122
(c) 1716.78125 Thus 7A16 = 12210
⎡ (b) 3F16 = 3 × 161 + F × 160 = 3 × 16 + 15 × 1 = 48 + 15 =
⎤ 63
⎢⎢ Thus, 3F16 = 6310
⎣(a) 11110111.000112
⎡ ⎦
⎤ (c) 7386.187510
Problem 12. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into
⎣(a) 7.437510 (b) 41.2510
their decimal equivalents: (a) C916 (b) BD16
24 Engineering Mathematics 12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
Table 3.2 14 1110 16 E
1
n
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal 15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
o
c
0 0000 0 0 17 10001 21 11
e
18 10010 22 12
1 0001 1 1
19 10011 23 13
2 0010 2 2
20 10100 24 14
3 0011 3 3
21 10101 25 15
4 0100 4 4
22 10110 26 16
5 0101 5 5
23 10111 27 17
6 0110 6 6
24 11000 30 18
7 0111 7 7
25 11001 31 19
8 1000 10 8
26 11010 32 1A
9 1001 11 9
27 11011 33 1B
10 1010 12 A
28 11100 34 1C
11 1011 13 B
29 11101 35 1D
30 11110 36 1E
31 11111 37 1F
(a)
32 100000 40 20 Hence 3710 = 2516
(a) C916 = C × 161 + 9 × 160 = 12 × 16 + 9 × 1 = 192

+ 9 = 201 (b)
Thus C916 = 20110 Hence 10810 = 6C16
1 0
(b) BD16 = B × 16 + D × 16 = 11 × 16 + 13 × 1 = 176
Problem 15. Convert the following decimal
+ 13 = 189
numbers into their hexadecimal equivalents: (a)
Thus, BD16 = 18910 16210 (b) 23910
Problem 13. Convert 1A4E16 into a denary

number
1A4E16 (a)
Hence 16210 =A216
= 1 × 163 + A × 162 + 4 × 161 + E × 160 = 1 × 163
+ 10 × 162 + 4 × 161 + 14 × 160 = 1 × 4096 + 10 ×

256 + 4 × 16 + 14 × 1 = 4096 + 2560 + 64 + 14 =
(b)
6734
Hence 23910 = EF16
Thus, 1A4E16 = 673410
To convert from binary to hexadecimal:
To convert from decimal to hexadecimal:
The binary bits are arranged in groups of four, start ing from
This is achieved by repeatedly dividing by 16 and noting the right to left, and a hexadecimal symbol is assigned to each
group. For example, the binary number 1110011110101001
remainder at each stage, as shown below for 2610. is initially grouped in
fours as: 1110 0111 1010 1001 and a hexadecimal

symbol
assigned to each group as E 7 A 9 from Table 3.2
Hence 11100111101010012 = E7A916

Hence 2610 = 1A16
Similarly, for 44710 To convert from hexadecimal to binary: The above

procedure is reversed, thus, for example,
6CF316 = 0110 1100 1111 0011

from Table 3.2 1
Thus 44710 = 1BF16 i.e. 6CF316 = 1101100111100112 o
Problem 14. Convert the following decimal

e
numbers into their hexadecimal equivalents: (a) Problem 16. Convert the following binary
3710 (b) 10810 numbers into their hexadecimal equivalents:
(a) 110101102 (b) 11001112
(a) Grouping bits in fours from the gives: 1010 0110 from Table 3.2
right gives: 1101 0110 and assigning hexadecimal
symbols Thus, A616 = 101001102
to each group gives: D 6 from Table 3.2
Thus, 110101102 = D616 Problem 19. Convert the following hexadecimal
numbers into their binary equivalents: (a) 7B16 (b) 17D16
(b) Grouping bits in fours from the
symbols (a) Spacing out hexadecimal
to each group gives: 6 7 from Table 3.2 digits gives: 7 B and converting each into
Thus, 11001112 = 6716 binary gives: 0111 1011 from Table 3.2
Thus, 7B16 = 11110112
Problem 17. Convert the following binary (b) Spacing out hexadecimal
numbers into their hexadecimal equivalents: digits gives: 1 7 D and converting each into
(a) 110011112 (b) 1100111102 binary gives: 0001 0111 1101 from Table 3.2
Thus, 17D16 = 1011111012
(a) Grouping bits in fours from the

symbols to each group gives: C F from Table 3.2
Thus, 110011112 = CF16
hexadecimal numbers
(b) Grouping bits in fours from
the right gives: 0001 1001 1110 and assigning In Problems 1 to 4, convert the given hexadecimal
numbers into their decimal equivalents.
hexadecimal
symbols to each group gives: 1 9 E from Table 3.2 1. E716 [23110] 2. 2C16 [4410] 3. 9816 [15210] 4. 2F116
Thus, 1100111102 = 19E16 [75310]

In Problems 5 to 8, convert the given decimal numbers
into their hexadecimal equivalents.
Problem 18. Convert the following hexadecimal
numbers into their binary equivalents: (a) 3F16 (b) A616 5. 5410 [3616] 6. 20010 [C816] 7. 9110 [5B16] 8. 23810
26 Engineering Mathematics [EE16]
In Problems 9 to 12, convert the given binary numbers
(a) Spacing out hexadecimal digits gives: 3 F into their hexadecimal equivalents.
1
and converting each into

9. 110101112 [D716] 10. 111010102 [EA16] 11.
n
binary gives: 0011 1111

100010112 [8B16] 12. 101001012 [A516]
i
e
from Table 3.2 In Problems 13 to 16, convert the given hexadeci mal
S
numbers into their binary equivalents.

Thus, 3F16 = 1111112
13. 3716 [1101112] 14. ED16 [111011012] 15. 9F16
(b) Spacing out hexadecimal digits
gives: A 6 and converting each into binary [100111112] 16. A2116 [1010001000012]
Chapter 4
Calculations and
evaluati
on of
formula
e
4.1 Errors and approximations
60 × 40 and then, by cancelling,
✟
(i) In all problems in which the measurement of dis tance, 50 × 1✚20✚×✟120 ✄21
time, mass or other quantities occurs, an exact answer × ✚ 2
1✚60✚ ✚40 ✄ 1= 50. An accurate answer
cannot be given; only an answer which is correct to a
stated degree of accuracy can be given. To take account somewhere between 45 and 55 could therefore be
of this an error due to measurement is said to exist. expected. Certainly an answer around 500 or 5 would not
be expected. Actually, by calculator
(ii) To take account of measurement errors it is usual to limit
49.1 × 18.4 × 122.1
answers so that the result given is not more than one
= 47.31, correct to 4 sig
significant figure greater than the least accurate 61.2 × 38.1 nificant figures.
number given in the data.
1
(iii) Rounding-off errors can exist with decimal frac tions. For Problem 1. The area A of a triangle is given by A = 2bh.
example, to state that π = 3.142 is not strictly correct, but The base b when measured is found to be 3.26 cm, and the
‘π = 3.142 correct to 4 sig nificant figures’ is a true perpendicular height h is 7.5 cm. Determine the area of the
statement. (Actually, π = 3.14159265...) triangle.
(iv) It is possible, through an incorrect procedure, to obtain the
wrong answer to a calculation. This type of error is 1 1
Area of triangle = 2bh = 2 × 3.26 × 7.5 = 12.225
known as a blunder. 2
cm (by calculator).
(v) An order of magnitude error is said to exist if incorrect 1 2
The approximate values is 2 × 3 × 8 = 12 cm , so there are
positioning of the decimal point occurs after a calculation
no obvious blunder or magnitude errors. How ever, it is not
has been completed.
usual in a measurement type problem to state the answer to an
(vi) Blunders and order of magnitude errors can be reduced by accuracy greater than 1 significant figure more than the least
determining approximate values of calculations. accurate number in the data: this is 7.5 cm, so the result should
Answers which do not seem feasi ble must be checked not have more than 3 significant figures
and the calculation must be repeated as necessary. Thus, area of triangle = 12.2 cm2
An engineer will often need to make a quick men tal
Problem 2. State which type of error has been made in
approximation for a calculation. For exam ple, 49.1 × the following statements:
18.4 × 122.1
(a) 72 × 31.429 = 2262.9
61.2 × 38.1 may be approximated (b) 16 × 0.08 × 7 = 89.6
to50 × 20 × 120
28 Engineering Mathematics i.e.2.19 × 203.6 × 17.91 12.1 × 8.76 ≈ 80
(c) 11.714 × 0.0088 = 0.3247 correct to 4 decimal

1
places.
12.1 × 8.76 ≈ 75.3,
n
correct to 3 significant figures.)

i
(d) 29.74 × 0.0512
t

c
11.89 = 0.12, correct to 2 significant
e
figures. Exercise 14 Further problems on errors
(a) 72 × 31.429 = 2262.888 (by calculator), hence a In Problems 1 to 5 state which type of error, or errors,
rounding-off error has occurred. The answer should have been made:
have stated:
72 × 31.429 = 2262.9, correct to 5 significant fig ures 1. 25 × 0.06 × 1.4 = 0.21
or 2262.9, correct to 1 decimal place. [order of magnitude error]
8 2. 137 × 6.842 = 937.4
(b) 16 × 0.08 × 7 = 16 × 100 × 7 = 32 × 7
⎡
25
(c) 11.714 × 0.0088 is approximately equal to ⎣
12 × 9 × 10−3, i.e. about 108 × 10−3 or 0.108.
= 224
Thus a blunder has been made.
24
25 = 8 25 = 8.96
−2
Hence an order of magnitude error has occurred.11.89 ≈ 30 × 5 × 10
⎤
Rounding-off error–should add ‘correct ⎦
(By calculator,2.19 × 203.6 × 17.91 to 4 significant figures’ or ‘correct to 1 decimal place’
(d) 29.74 × 0.0512

2 1
120 = 8or 0.125
12 × 10 = 15
12
3.24 × 0.008
= 150 12.6 = 10.42 [Blunder] 4. For a gas pV = c.
When pressure p = 1 03 400
hence no order of magnitude error has occurred. correct to 4 decimal places

However,29.74 × 0.0512
11.89 = 0.128 correct to 3 (a)11.7 × 19.1
significant figures, which equals 0.13 correct to 2 significant
figures. 9.3 × 5.7 (b)2.19 × 203.6 × 17.91
12.1 × 8.76
Hence a rounding-off error has occurred.
Problem 3. Without using a calculator, determine an (a)11.7 × 19.1

approximate value of: 9.3 × 5.7 is approximately equal to10 × 20 10 × 5
3 3.
Pa and V = 0.54 m then c = 55 836 Pa m Measured values, In Problems 6 to 8, evaluate the expressions approximately,
hence without using a calculator.
6. 4.7 × 6.3 [≈30 (29.61, by calculator)] 7.2.87 × 4.07

c = 55 800 Pa m3
i.e. about 4
5.4.6 × 0.07
(By calculator,11.7 × 19.1
52.3 × 0.274 = 0.225
⎡ 9.3 × 5.7 = 4.22, correct to 3
⎤ significant figures.)
⎢⎢ Order of magnitude error and rounding ✟×
⎣ off error–should be 20
12.1 × 8.76 ≈ 2 × ✟200 ✚20✚
2
0.0225, correct to 3
⎥⎥ (b)2.19 × 203.6 × 17.91
⎦ ×
significant figures or 0.0225, 1✚10✚ ✚10✚1
= 2 × 20 × 2 after cancelling, (c) 21.93 × 0.012981 = 0.2846733... = 0.2847, cor rect to 4
6.12 × 0.96 significant figures
≈2 (1.988, correct to 4 s.f., by
Problem 5. Evaluate the following, correct to 4

calculator) decimal places:
52.73 = 0.01896453 ... = 0.019, correct to 3

8.72.1 × 1.96 × 48.6 1
139.3 × 5.2 decimal places n
≈10 (9.481, correct to 4 s.f., by o
(b)1
calculator)
t
0.0275 = 36.3636363 ... = 36.364, correct to 3 e
decimal places
4.2 Use of calculator
Calculations and evaluation of formulae 29 (c)1
1
4.92 + 1.97 = 0.71086624 ... = 0.711, correct to 3
(a)1 decimal places
The most modern aid to calculations is the pocket-sized

electronic calculator. With one of these, calculations can be Problem 7. Evaluate the following, expressing the
quickly and accurately performed, correct to about 9 answers in standard form, correct to 4
significant figures. The scientific type of calcu lator has significant figures.
made the use of tables and logarithms largely redundant. (a) (0.00451)2 (b) 631.7 − (6.21 + 2.95)2 (c) 46.272 −
To help you to become competent at using your cal 31.792
culator check that you agree with the answers to the
following problems:
(a) (0.00451)2 = 2.03401 × 10−5 = 2.034 × 10−5, correct to 4
significant figures
Problem 4. Evaluate the following, correct to 4
significant figures:
(b) 631.7 − (6.21 + 2.95)2 = 547.7944
(a) 4.7826 + 0.02713 (b) 17.6941 − 11.8762 (c) = 5.477944 × 102 = 5.478 × 102, correct to 4
21.93 × 0.012981 significant figures
(a) 4.7826 + 0.02713 = 4.80973 = 4.810, correct to 4 (c) 46.272 − 31.792 = 1130.3088 = 1.130 × 103, correct to 4
significant figures significant figures
(b) 17.6941 − 11.8762 = 5.8179 = 5.818, correct to 4 Problem 8. Evaluate the following, correct to 3
significant figures decimal places:
1 0.01258 = 2 +
(a) 46.32 × 97.17 × (c) 2(62.49 × 0.0172) 56.6215031... 0.0526 (b) (c)15 (a) (2.37) 5.40 2.45
3.60 1.92
0.01258 (b)4.621 7.62 − 4.82 2
(a) 46.32 × 97.17 × 2
23.76 (a) (2.37) 2
= 56.6215, correct to 4 decimal places

0.0526 = 106.785171... = 106.785, correct to 3 decimal
places
(b)4.621
decimal places 1 3.60 1.92 2
23.76 = 0.19448653... = (c) 2(62.49 × 0.0172) =
2 = 8.37360084... = 8.374,
0.1945, correct to 4 0.537414 = 0.5374,
(b) correct + correct to 3 decimal places
5.40 2.45
to 4 decimal places √ √ √
(a) 5.462 (b) 54.62 (c) 546.2
Problem 6. Evaluate the following, correct to 3 decimal
places: √
(a) 5.462 = 2.3370922... = 2.337, correct to 4 sig nificant
figures
(a)1 1
√
52.73 (b)1 n
(b) 54.62 = 7.39053448... = 7.391, correct to 4
o
0.0275 (c)1
i
1 significant figures
4.92 + 1.97
c
√
(c)15 (c) 546.2 = 23.370922 ... = 23.37, correct to 4 S
2 2
7.6 − 4.8 = 0.43202764... = 0.432, correct to 3 decimal
places
Problem 9. Evaluate the following, correct to 4 significant Problem 13. Evaluate the following, expressing the
figures: answers in standard form, correct to 4 decimal places:
(a) (5.176 × 10−3)2
significant figures (b) 1.974 × 101 × 8.61 × 10−2 3.462 4
Problem 10. Evaluate the following, correct to 3 decimal √ −4

places: (c) 1.792 × 10
√ √ √ √ 4
(a) 0.007328 (b) 52.91 − 31.76 (c) 1.6291 × 10
(a) (5.176 × 10−3)2 = 2.679097... × 10−5 = 2.6791 × 10−5, correct
to 4 decimal places
√ decimal places 4
(a) 0.007328 = 0.08560373 = 0.086, 1 −2
correct to 3 (b) 1.974 × 10 × 8.61 × 10 3.462 = 0.05808887...
√ √ Exercise 15 Further problems on the use of a
(b) 52.91 − 31.76 = 1.63832491... = 1.638, correct to 3 calculator
decimal places
√ 4 √ In Problems 1 to 9, use a calculator to evaluate the
(c) 1.6291 × 10 = 16291 = 127.636201... = 127.636, quantities shown correct to 4 significant figures:
correct to 3 decimal places
1. (a) 3.2492 (b) 73.782 (c) 311.42 (d) 0.06392
Problem 11. Evaluate the following, correct to 4 significant figures
significant figures: √ 2 2
√ (c) 76.21 − 29.10 = 70.4354605... = 70.44, cor rect to 4
(a) 4.723 (b) (0.8316)4 (c) 76.212 − 29.102 significant figures
(a) 4.723 = 105.15404... = 105.2, correct to 4 signif icant Problem 12. Evaluate the following, correct to 3 significant
figures figures:
(a) 10.56 (b) 5443 (c) 96970
(b) (0.8316)4 = 0.47825324... = 0.4783, correct to 4
√
= 5.8089 × 10−2, correct to 4 decimal places (c) 1.792 × (d) 0.004083
10−4 = 0.0133865... = 1.3387 × 10−2, correct to 4 decimal √ √ √ √
places 2. (a) 4.735 (b) 35.46 (c) 73 280 (d) 0.0256
(a) 2.176 (b) 5.955 (c) 270.7

√ 3 2 (d) 0.1600
25.2 × 7(b) √ 47.291 6.09
(a)
7.768 (b)1
√ 2 3 4
(c) 7.213 + 6.418 + 3.291 3. (a)1 (d)1 48.46 (c)1 0.0816
6.092
√ (b) 15.76 ÷ 4.329
25.2 × 7= 0.74583457... = 0.746, correct [(a) 109.1 (b) 3.641] 5. (a)137.6
(a)
552.9 (b)11.82 × 1.736
to 3 significant figures 0.041
1.118 [(a) 0.2489 (b) 500.5]
(a) 0.1287 (b) 0.02064
(c) 12.25 (d) 0.8945

4. (a) 127.8 × 0.0431 × 19.8 6. (a) 13.63 (b) 3.4764 (c) 0.1245
3
(b) √ 47.291 = 3.61625876... = 3.62, correct to 3 significant Calculations and evaluation of formulae 31
figures
√ 2 3 4
(c) 7.213 + 6.418 + 3.291 = 20.8252991..., = 20.8 correct to
3 significant figures Calculate:
1
[(a) 2515 (b) 146.0 (c) 0.00002932] 0.2681 × 41.22 32.6 × 11.89 (c) the pounds sterling which can be
(a) how many French euros £27.80 will buy (b) the number of Japanese yen which can exchanged
be
o
it
3
7. (a) (b) c
bought for £23

24.68 × 0.0532 7.412 for 7114.80 Norwegian kronor
S
[(a) 0.005559 (b) 1.900] 17.332 − 15.86 × 11.6

3
(d) the number of American dollars which can be purchased
8. (a)14.32 for £90, and
2 (e) the pounds sterling which can be exchanged for 2990
21.68 (b)4.8213
Swiss francs
(15.62)2 (a) £1 = 1.46 euros, hence

[(a) 6.248 (b) 0.9630]
9. (a) √ £27.80 = 27.80 × 1.46 euros = 40.59 euros
29.21 × 10.52
√ 2 3 4 France £1 = 1.46 euros

(b) 6.921 + 4.816 − 2.161
[(a) 1.605 (b) 11.74] Japan £1 = 220 yen
10. Evaluate the following, expressing the answers in Norway £1 = 12.10 kronor
standard form, correct to 3 dec imal places: (a) (8.291
× 10−2)2 Switzerland £1 = 2.30 francs
√ −3
(b) 7.623 × 10 U.S.A. £1 = 1.95 dollars ($)
−3 −2 (b) £1 = 220 yen, hence
[(a) 6.874 × 10 (b) 8.731 × 10 ]
£23 = 23 × 220 yen = 5060 yen
(c) £1 = 12.10 kronor, hence
4.3 Conversion tables and charts 7114.80 kronor = £7114.80
It is often necessary to make calculations from var ious 12.10 = £588

conversion tables and charts. Examples include currency (d) £1 = 1.95 dollars, hence
exchange rates, imperial to metric unit con versions, train or bus £90 = 90 × 1.95 dollars = $175.50
timetables, production schedules and so on. (e) £1 = 2.30 Swiss francs, hence
2990 franc = £2990

Problem 14. Currency exchange rates for five countries
are shown in Table 4.1 2.30 = £1300
Table 4.1 Problem 15. Some approximate imperial to metric

conversions are shown in Table 4.2 in 15 lb, (f) the number of litres in 12 gallons and
(g) the number of gallons in 25 litres.
Table 4.2
length 1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 mile = 1.61 km 120 pints = 120
weight 2.2 lb = 1 kg 1.76litres = 68.18 litres

(1 lb = 16 oz) (g) 40 litres = 40 × 1.76 pints = 70.4 pints
⎡
capacity 1.76 pints = 1 litre
⎤
(8 pints = 1 gallon)
⎢⎢ ⎥⎥
⎣(a) 381 mm (b) 56.35 km/h ⎦
Use the table to determine: (c) 378.35 km (d) 52 lb 13 oz (e) 6.82 kg (f) 54.55 litre (g) 5.5
(a) the number of millimetres in 9.5 inches, (b) a speed gallons
of 50 miles per hour in kilometres per hour,
(c) the number of miles in 300 km, 70.4 pints = 70.4
(d) the number of kilograms in 30 pounds weight, (e) the
number of pounds and ounces in 42 kilograms (correct to the 8 gallons = 8.8 gallons
nearest ounce), (f) the number of litres in 15 gallons, and (g)
the number of gallons in 40 litres.
Exercise 16 Further problems conversion tables
(a) 9.5 inches = 9.5 × 2.54 cm = 24.13 cm
1 and charts
24.13 cm = 24.13 × 10 mm = 241.3 mm
n
1. Currency exchange rates listed in a newspaper included

the following:
o
c
(b) 50 m.p.h. = 50 × 1.61 km/h = 80.5 km/h Italy £1 = 1.48 euro
e
Japan £1 = 225 yen

Australia £1 = 2.50 dollars
S
(c) 300 km = 300 Canada £1 = $2.20

3. Deduce the following information from the train
1.61miles = 186.3 miles timetable shown in Table 4.3:
(d) 30 lb = 30 (a) At what time should a man catch a train at Mossley

Hill to enable him to be in Manchester Piccadilly
2.2 kg = 13.64 kg by 8.15 a.m.?
(e) 42 kg = 42 × 2.2 lb = 92.4 lb (b) A girl leaves Hunts Cross at 8.17 a.m. and travels to
Manchester Oxford Road. How long does the
0.4 lb = 0.4 × 16 oz = 6.4 oz = 6 oz, correct to the journey take? What is the average speed of the
nearest ounce journey?
Thus 42 kg = 92 lb 6 oz, correct to the nearest ounce. (c) A man living at Edge Hill has to be at work at
Trafford Park by 8.45 a.m. It takes him 10 minutes
(f) 15 gallons = 15 × 8 pints = 120 pints to walk to his work from Trafford Park station.
What time train should he catch from Edge Hill?
⎡
Sweden £1 = 13.25 kronor
2. Below is a list of some metric to imperial
conversions. ⎣
Calculate (a) how many Italian euros £32.50
Length 2.54 cm = 1 inch
will buy, (b) the number of Canadian dol
1.61 km = 1 mile
lars that can be purchased for £74.80, (c) the
Weight 1 kg = 2.2 lb (1 lb = 16 ounces) Capacity pounds sterling which can be exchanged for
1 litre = 1.76 pints ⎤
(8 pints = 1 gallon) (a) 7.09 a.m.
⎦
Use the list to determine (a) the number of (b) 52 minutes, 31.15 m.p.h. (c) 7.04 a.m.
millimetres in 15 inches, (b) a speed of 35 mph in
km/h, (c) the number of kilome tres in 235 miles, (d)
the number of pounds and ounces in 24 kg (correct
to the near est ounce), (e) the number of kilograms 14 040 yen, (d) the pounds sterling which can be
exchanged for 1754.30 Swedish kronor, and (e) the The statement v = u + at is said to be a formula for v in terms of
Australian dollars which can be bought for £55 u, a and t.
[(a) 48.10 euros (b) $164.56 v, u, a and t are called symbols.
(c) £62.40 (d) £132.40 The single term on the left-hand side of the equation, v, is called
(e) 137.50 dollars] the subject of the formulae.
4.4 Evaluation of formulae
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o
except one, the remaining symbol can be made the subject r = 4.321 cm and h = 18.35 cm, find the volume,
of the formula and may be evaluated by using a calculator.
c
correct to 4 significant figures. S
Problem 16. In an electrical circuit the voltage V is

given by Ohm’s law, i.e. V = IR. Find, correct to 4
significant figures, the voltage when I = 5.36 A and R = 1 1
2 2
14.76 . V = 3πr h = 3π(4.321) (18.35)
1
= 3π(18.671041)(18.35)
V = IR = (5.36)(14.76)
Hence volume,V = 358.8 cm3, correct to 4 significant
figures.
Hence, voltage V = 79.11V, correct to 4 significant
figures.
Problem 21. Force F newtons is given by the
formula F = Gm1m2
Problem 17. The surface area A of a hollow cone is
given by A = πrl. Determine, correct to 1 decimal place, 2
d , where m1 and m2 are masses,
the surface area when r = 3.0 cm and l = 8.5 cm.
d their distance apart and G is a constant. Find the value
of the force given that G = 6.67 × 10−11, m1 = 7.36, m2
A = πrl = π (3.0)(8.5) cm2 = 15.5 and d = 22.6. Express the answer in standard
form, correct to 3 significant figures.
Hence, surface areaA = 80.1 cm2, correct to 1 decimal
place.
2
d = (6.67 × 10−11)(7.36)(15.5)
Problem 18. Velocity v is given by v = u + at. If u =
9.86 m/s, a = 4.25 m/s2 and t = 6.84 s, find v, correct to F = Gm1m2
3 significant figures.
(22.6)2
v = u + at = 9.86 + (4.25)(6.84) = (6.67)(7.36)(15.5)

= 9.86 + 29.07 = 38.93 (1011)(510.76) = 1.490
Calculations and evaluation of formulae 35 1011
Hence force F = 1.49 × 10−11 newtons, correct to 3

3
Problem 20. The volume V cm of a right significant figures.
1
1 2
circular cone is given by V = 3πr h. Given that n
Problem 22. The time of swing t seconds, of a
Hence, velocity v = 38.9 m/s, correct to 3 significant Problem 19. The power, P watts, dissipated in an
l Determine the time, correct to 3 decimal places, given that
simple pendulum is given by t = 2π g l = 12.0 and g = 9.81
figures.
electrical circuit may be t = 2π

R . Evaluate the power, correct to
2 g = (2)π
expressed by the formula P = V 3 significant figures, given that V
l 12.0 9.81
= 17.48 V and R = 36.12 .
2 2
P=V R = (17.48)
figures.
36.12 = 305.5504
36.12
Hence power, P = 8.46 W, correct to 3 significant figures.
√
= (2)π 1.22324159
= (2)π(1.106002527) evaluation of formulae
Hence time t = 6.950 seconds, correct to 3 decimal places. 1. A formula used in connection with gases is R =
36 Engineering Mathematics (PV)/T. Evaluate R when P = 1500,
V = 5 and T = 200. [R = 37.5]
Problem 23. Resistance, R , varies with temperature

1
according to the formula R2 = 7.42 and R3 = 12.6 . [2.526 ] 9. Power =

force × distance
n
time . Find the power

when a force of 3760 N raises an object a distance
of 4.73 m in 35 s. [508.1 W]
8. Evaluate resistance RT , given
1 10. The potential difference, V volts, available at battery
1 1 1 terminals is given by V = E − Ir. Evaluate V when
RT= R1+ R2+ R3when R1 = 5.5 , E = 5.62, I = 0.70 and R = 4.30 [V = 2.61 V]
o
R = R0(1 + αt). Evaluate R, correct to 3 significant 11. Given force F = 12m(v2 − u2), find F when m = 18.3,
v = 12.7 and u = 8.24
i
figures, given R0 = 14.59, α = 0.0043 and t = 80. [F = 854.5]

c
S
e
12. The current I amperes flowing in a number of cells

is given by I = nE
R = R0(1 + αt) = 14.59[1 + (0.0043)(80)] R + nr. Evaluate the

= 14.59(1 + 0.344) current when n = 36. E = 2.20, R = 2.80 and r =
0.50 [I = 3.81A]
= 14.59(1.344)
13. The time, t seconds, of oscillation for a sim
Hence, resistance, R = 19.6 , correct to 3 significant
l
2. The velocity of a body is given by v = u + ple pendulum is given by t = 2π
at. g. Deter
The initial velocity u is measured when time t is 15 = 14.79 s]
seconds and found to be 12 m/s. If the acceleration a is
14. Energy, E joules, is given by the formula E = 12LI2.
9.81 m/s2 calculate the final velocity v. [159 m/s] Evaluate the energy when L = 5.5 and I = 1.2 [E = 3.96
3. Find the distance s, given that s = 1 gt2, time t = 0.032 J]
2
seconds and acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2. 15. The current I amperes in an a.c. circuit is given by I = V
[0.00502 m or 5.02 mm]
√ 2
4. The energy stored in a capacitor is given by E = 12CV2 R2 + X . Evaluate the current
joules. Determine the energy when capacitance C = 5 × when V = 250, R = 11.0 and X = 16.2 [I = 12.77A]
10−6 farads and voltage V = 240V. [0.144 J] 16. Distance s metres is given by the formula s = ut + 12 at2.
If u = 9.50, t = 4.60 and a = −2.50, evaluate the
5. Resistance R2 is given by R2 = R1(1 + αt). Find R2, correct distance.
to 4 significant figures, when R1 = 220, α = 0.00027 and [s = 17.25 m]
t = 75.6.
[224.5] √
17. The area, A, of any triangle is given by A = s(s − a)(s −
6. Density = mass b)(s − c) where s = a + b + c
volume . Find the density when 2 . Evaluate the area given
the mass is 2.462 kg and the volume is 173 cm3. Give a = 3.60 cm, b = 4.00 cm and c = 5.20 cm. [A = 7.184
the answer in units of kg/m3. [14 230 kg/m3] cm2]
7. Velocity = frequency × wavelength. Find the 18. Given that a = 0.290, b = 14.86, c = 0.042, d = 31.8 and e
= 0.650, evaluate v, given that
mine the time when π = 3.142, l = 54.32 and g = 9.81 [t ab
velocity when the frequency is 1825 Hz and v = d
the wavelength is 0.154 m. [281.1 m/s] c − e [v = 7.327]
Revision Test 1 1
This Revision test covers the material contained in Chapters 1 to 4. The marks for each question are shown in brackets i
at the end of each question. e
2 1 9. Convert the following binary numbers to deci mal form:

1. Simplify (a) 2 3 ÷ 3 3 1
1 (a) 1101 (b) 101101.0101 (5)
(b)1 7×2 4 ÷
4 1 7 10. Convert the following decimal number
3 + 5 + 2 24 (9) to binary form:
2. A piece of steel, 1.69 m long, is cut into three pieces in the 3 2
ratio 2 to 5 to 6. Determine, in centimetres, the lengths of (a)2 × 2 × 2
the three pieces. (4) (a) 27 (b) 44.1875 (6)
11. Convert the following decimal numbers to bin ary, via octal:
3. Evaluate576.29
19.3 (a) 479 (b) 185.2890625 (6)
(a) correct to 4 significant figures 12. Convert (a) 5F16 into its decimal equiva lent (b) 13210 into
(b) correct to 1 decimal place (2) its hexadecimal equivalent (c) 1101010112 into its hexadecimal
equivalent (6)
4. Determine, correct to 1 decimal places, 57% of 17.64 g (2)
13. Evaluate the following, each correct to 4 signifi cant figures:
5. Express 54.7 mm as a percentage of 1.15 m, cor rect to 3 √
significant figures. (3) 0.0419 (c) 0.0527 (3)
(a) 61.222 (b)1
6. Evaluate the following:
14. Evaluate the following, each correct to 2 decimal places:
4 (a) 36.22 × 0.561 3
2 (b) (23 × 16)2 (8 × 2)3
(c) 1 42 (d) (27)− 13 27.8 × 12.83

−1
3 2 (b) √
− 9 17.42 × 37.98 (7)
−2 14.692
(e) 23 15. If 1.6 km = 1 mile, miles/hour in kilometres 16. Evaluate B, correct to
2 2 (14) determine the speed of 45 per hour. (3) 3 significant figures, when
7. Express the following in both standard form and engineering 5.1 Basic operations
notation
2
(a) 1623 (b) 0.076 (c) 145 5 (3) 8. Determine the value of
the following, giving the answer in both standard form and
engineering notation
Chapter 5
(a) 5.9 × 102 + 7.31 × 102
Algebra
(b) 2.75 × 10−2 − 2.65 × 10−3 (4)
W = 7.20, υ = 10.0 and g = 9.81, given that B = Wυ2
2g . (3)
Replacing p, q and r with their numerical values gives:
Algebra is that part of mathematics in which the rela 4p2qr3 = 4(2)2 12

32 3
tions and properties of numbers are investigated by means of Each symbol must be dealt with individually. For the
general symbols. For example, the area of a rectangle is found ‘a’ terms: +4a − 2a = 2a
by multiplying the length by the breadth; this is expressed
algebraically as A = l × b, where A represents the area, l the For the ‘b’ terms: +3b − 5b = −2b
length and b the breadth. For the ‘c’ terms: +c + 6c = 7c
The basic laws introduced in arithmetic are gener alised in Thus
algebra. 4a + 3b + c + ( − 2a) + ( − 5b) + 6c
Let a, b, c and d represent any four numbers. Then:
= 4a + 3b + c − 2a − 5b + 6c
(i) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c = 2a − 2b + 7c
(ii) a(bc) = (ab)c
(iii) a + b = b + a Problem 5. Find the sum of: 5a − 2b, 2a + c, 4b − 5d
(iv) ab = ba and b − a + 3d − 4c
(v) a(b + c) = ab + ac
(vi) a + b
a bc The algebraic expressions may be tabulated as shown below,
c = c + (vii) (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd forming columns for the a’s, b’s, c’s and d’s. Thus:
Problem 1. Evaluate: 3ab − 2bc + abc when a = 1, b = +5a − 2b

3 and c = 5
Algebra 39
Replacing a, b and c with their numerical values gives:
3x − 2y2 + 4xy
2x − 5y
3ab − 2bc + abc = 3 × 1 × 3 − 2 × 3 × 5 + 1 × 3 × Multiplying 1
5 n
= 9 − 30 + 15 = −6 by 2x → 6x2 − 4xy2 + 8x2y i
Multiplying
Problem 2. Find the value of 4p2qr3, given the p = 2, q =
e
1 1
S
2and r = 1 2 +2a + c
1 3 3 3 + 4b − 5d
= 4 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 27
−a + b − 4c + 3d
Problem 3. Find the sum of: 3x, 2x, −x and −7x
Adding gives: 6a + 3b − 3c − 2d
by −5y→ − 20xy2 − 15xy + 10y3 Adding gives: 6x2 − 24xy2 + 8x2y
The sum of the positive term is: 3x + 2x = 5x The sum of the
negative terms is: x + 7x = 8x Taking the sum of the negative − 15xy + 10y3
terms from the sum of the positive terms gives:
5x − 8x = −3x Problem 9. Simplify: 2p ÷ 8pq
Alternatively
3x + 2x + (−x) + (−7x) = 3x + 2x − x − 7x = −3x 2p ÷ 8pq means2p
Problem 4. Find the sum of 4a, 3b, c, −2a, −5b and 6c

Problem 6. Subtract 2x + 3y − 4z from x − 2y + 5z
Thus:2p 8pq =
as in arithmetic. 12 × 1
x − 2y + 5z ✁ ✁p
8pq. This can be reduced by cancelling × 1
✁84 ✁p1 × q = 4q
2x + 3y − 4z (Note that +5z −−4z = +5z + 4z = 9z)
Subtracting gives: −x − 5y + 9z An alternative method of subtracting algebraic expressions is
to ‘change the signs of the bottom line and add’. Hence:
x − 2y + 5z and r = −1 [−8]
−2x − 3y + 4z 3. Find the sum of 3a, −2a, −6a, 5a and 4a [4a]
Adding gives: −x − 5y + 9z 4. Add together 2a + 3b + 4c, −5a − 2b + c, 4a − 5b − 6c
[a − 4b − c]
5. Add together 3d + 4e, −2e + f , 2d − 3f , 4d − e + 2f −
Problem 7. Multiply 2a + 3b by a + b 3e [9d − 2e]
6. From 4x − 3y + 2z subtract x + 2y − 3z [3x − 5y + 5z]
Each term in the first expression is multiplied by a, then each 3 b b − 4a − 3c 1 5
term in the first expression is multiplied by b, and the two results 7. Subtract 2a − 3 + c from 2 −5 2a + 6b −
are added. The usual layout is shown below.
4c
2a + 3b 8. Multiply 3x + 2y by x − y
a+b [3x2 − xy − 2y2]
Multiplying by a→ 2a2 + 3ab 9. Multiply 2a − 5b + c by 3a + b

[6a2 − 13ab + 3ac − 5b2 + bc]
Multiplying by b→ + 2ab + 3b2
b ÷ 2a 1
10. Simplify (i) 3a ÷ 9ab (ii) 4a2 (i) 3b (ii) 2ab
Adding gives: 2a2 + 5ab + 3b2
2
Problem 8. Multiply 3x − 2y + 4xy by 2x − 5y

5.2 Laws of Indices
1 n
Exercise 18 Further problems on basic

operations
1. Find the value of 2xy + 3yz − xyz, when x = 2, y = −2 Problem 13. Simplify: p1/2q2r2/3
2
and z = 4 [−16] 2. Evaluate 3pq3r3 when p = 3, q = −2 1/4 1/2 1/6
p q r and evaluate
1/2 2 −2 (1/6) (1/2)
o
it
a bc ×a b c 4 √ 3 √
= (√ 16)( 9 )( 4)
c
= a(1/2)+(1/6) × b2+(1/2) × c−2+1

S
The laws of indices are: = (2)(33)(2) = 108

(i) am × an = am+n (ii)am = a2/3b5/2c−1
2 3 2
Problem 14. Simplify: x y + xy
n 3 2 4
a = am−n Problem 12. Simplify: a b c
n
(iii) (am)n = amn (iv) am/n = √ am (v) a−n = abc
−2
and evaluate
1 n 0 1
a (vi) a = 1 when a = 3, b = 8and c = 2
Problem 10. Simplify: a3b2c × ab3c5 Using the second law of indices,
a3
Grouping like terms gives: 3−1
a=a = a2, b2b = b2−1 = b
3 2 3 5
a ×a×b ×b ×c×c
when p = 16, q = 9 and r = 4, taking
Using the first law of indices gives: positive roots only
a3+1 × b2+3 × c1+5

Using the second law of indices gives:
i.e. a4 × b5 × c6 = a4b5c6
p(1/2)−(1/4)q2−(1/2)r(2/3)−(1/6) = p1/4q3/2r1/2 When xy
Problem 11. Simplify: p = 16, q = 9 and r = 4,

Algebraic expressions of the form a + b
a1/2b2c−2 × a1/6b1/2c p1/4q3/2r1/2 = (16)1/4(9)3/2(4)1/2
Using the first law of indices,

xy2 − xy x2y
c can be split
a b
into c + c. Thus The highest common factor (HCF) of each
x2y3 + xy2 of the three terms comprising the numerator
and denominator is xy. Dividing each term
by xy gives:
2 3
xy = x y
2
xy+ xy
xy
= x2−1y3−1 + x1−1y2−1
= xy2 + y
(since x0 = 1, from the sixth law of indices)
2
Problem 15. Simplify: x y
4 xy 3 2 4
and c xy − xy= x xy Thus a b c
x2y
xy2
2 −2 y−1
xy − xy = c = c4−(−2) = c6
−2 Problem 16. Simplify: (p3)1/2(q2)4

abc = a2bc6
1
When a = 3, b = 8and c = 2,
a2bc6 = (3)2 (2)6 = (9) Using the third law of p3×(1/2)q2×4 = p(3/2)q8
18 18 (64) = 72 indices gives:
2 3 (m1/2n1/4)4
Problem 17. Simplify: (mn )
The brackets indicate that each letter in the bracket must be d2e2f 1/2
raised to the power outside. Using the third law of indices
n
gives: i
3 2 5
Algebra 41 def t
Using the third law of indices gives: Using the second law of indices gives:
1
2 d2−3e2−2f (1/2)−5 = d−1e0f −9/2

(d3/2ef 5/2) = d2e2f 1/2
4 = d−1f (−9/2) since e0 = 1

(m1/2n1/4) = m1×3n2×3
(mn2)3 ×4 from the sixth law of indices
m(1/2)×4n(1/4) 3 6 2 1
=m n m n
Using the second law of indices gives: df 9/2
m3n6 from the fifth law of indices

1 2 1/2 √ 3 2
m2n = m3−2n6−1 = mn5 5 3 1/2
Problem 20. Simplify: (x y )( x y ) (x y )
Problem 18. Simplify: Using the third and fourth laws of indices gives: (x2y1/2)
3√ √ √ 3 1
(a b c5)( a√ b2 c3) and evaluate when a = 4, b = 6 and √ 3 2
c=1 ( x y)
1/2
Using the fourth law of indices, the expression can be written as: (x5y3) 2 1/2 1/2 2/3
= (x y )(x y )
x5/2y3/2
(a3b1/2c5/2)(a1/2b2/3c3)
Using the first and second laws of indices gives:
Using the first law of indices gives: x2+(1/2)−(5/2)y(1/2)+(2/3)−(3/2) = x0y−1/3 = y−1/3
a3+(1/2)b(1/2)+(2/3)c(5/2)+3 = a7/2b7/6c11/2 or1

1/3 1 3
It is usual to express the answer in the same form as the question. y or √ y
Hence
from the fifth and sixth law of indices.
6 7
a7/2b7/6c11/2 = a7 b c11
1
When a = 4, b = 64 and c = 1,
√ 7 7√ 1 7 √ 11 Exercise 19 Further problems on laws of
6 6
a √ b c11 = 4 7 √ 64 1 indices
=1 1. Simplify (x2y3z)(x3yz2) and evaluate when
= 7 (2)7(1) = 1 1 , y = 2 and z = 3 1
x5y4z3, 13 2
12 x= 2
2. Simplify (a3/2bc−3)(a1/2bc−1/2c) and evalu ate
when a = 3, b = 4 and c = 2
2 2 1/2
Problem 19. Simplify:d e f
2
(d3/2ef 5/2) expressing 5 3
the answer with positive indices only 3. Simplify: a bc
1 2 3
a2b1/2c−2, ±4 2 a2b3c and evaluate when a = 2,
1
Both b and c in the second bracket have to be multiplied by
n
2, and c and d in the third bracket by −4 when the brackets

i
1 2 3 −2
t
b = 2and c = 3 [a b c, 9] are removed. Thus:
(3a + b) + 2(b + c) − 4(c + d)
c
= 3a + b + 2b + 2c − 4c − 4d
In Problems 4 to 10, simplify the given expressions: Collecting similar terms together gives:
1/5 1/2 1/3
4. x y z 3a + 3b − 2c − 4d
−1/6
x−1/2y1/3z [x7/10y1/6z1/2]
2 3 2 2 p2q q − p
5. a b + a b a b
Problem 22. Simplify:
When the brackets are removed, both 2a and
3 2 2 2
6. p q pq − p q −ab in the first bracket must be multiplied
a2 − (2a − ab) − a(3b + a) by −1 and both 3b and
1+ab
7. (a2)1/2(b2)3(c1/2)3 [ab6c3/2] 8. (abc)2 3 1/2 −1/2
10. (a b c )(ab)
1/3
a in the second bracket by −a. Thus

3 √ 3 3 √ 3√ a2 − (2a − ab) − a(3b + a)
(a2b−1c−3) [a−4b5c11] 9. ( x y √ z2)( x y z3)
3 = a2 − 2a + ab − 3ab − a2
6 13
[xy √ z ] Collecting similar terms together gives: −2a − 2ab Since −2a is a
common factor, the answer can be expressed as: −2a(1 + b)
√ 3√bc) 6 11 3 √ Each term in the second bracket has to be

( a √ a √ b c3 multiplied by each term in the first bracket.
Thus:
a11/6b1/3c−3/2 or
Problem 23. Simplify: (a + b)(a − b) (a + b)(a − b) = a(a − b) + b(a − b)
5.3 Brackets and factorisation Problem 24. Simplify: (3x − 3y)2
When two or more terms in an algebraic expression con tain a

common factor, then this factor can be shown outside of a (2x − 3y)2 = (2x − 3y)(2x − 3y)
bracket. For example
= 2x(2x − 3y) − 3y(2x − 3y)
ab + ac = a(b + c)
= 4x2 − 6xy − 6xy + 9y2
which is simply the reverse of law (v) of algebra on page 34, and = 4x2 − 12xy + 9y2
6px + 2py − 4pz = 2p(3x + y − 2z)
This process is called factorisation.

Alternatively, 2x − 3y
2x − 3y
Problem 21. Remove the brackets and simplify the
expression: Multiplying by 2x → 4x2 − 6xy Multiplying by −3y→ − 6xy + 9y2
(3a + b) + 2(b + c) − 4(c + d) Adding gives: 4x2 − 12xy + 9y2 Problem 25. Remove the brackets
= a2 − ab + ab − b2
from the
= a2 − b2
Alternatively a + b
a−b Algebra 43
Multiplying by a→ a2 + ab
Collecting together similar terms gives:
Multiplying by −b→ − ab − b2 Adding gives: a2 1
−6x2 − 6xy
− b2
n
Factorising gives:
t
(b) 4a2 + 16ab3 (c) 3a2b − 6ab2 + 15ab
c
−6x(x + y)
S
For each part of this problem, the HCF of the terms will become
since −6x is common to both terms one of the factors. Thus:
(a) xy − 3xz = x(y − 3z)

Problem 28. Factorise: (a) xy − 3xz
expression: 2[p2 − 3(q + r) + q2] (b) 4a2 + 16ab3 = 4a(a + 4b3)
(c) 3a2b − 6ab2 + 15ab = 3ab(a − 2b + 5) Problem
In this problem there are two brackets and the ‘inner’ one is
removed first. 29. Factorise: ax − ay + bx − by
2 2
Hence, 2[p − 3(q + r) + q ]
The first two terms have a common factor of a and the last two
= 2[p2 − 3q − 3r + q2] terms a common factor of b. Thus:
= 2p2 − 6q − 6r + 2q2 ax − ay + bx − by = a(x − y) + b(x − y)

The two newly formed terms have a common factor of (x − y).
Problem 26. Remove the brackets and simplify the Thus:
expression:
a(x − y) + b(x − y) = (x − y)(a + b)
2a − [3{2(4a − b) − 5(a + 2b)} + 4a]
Problem 30. Factorise:
2ax − 3ay + 2bx − 3by
Removing the innermost brackets gives:
2a − [3{8a − 2b − 5a − 10b} + 4a]
a is a common factor of the first two terms and b a common
Collecting together similar terms gives: factor of the last two terms. Thus:
2a − [3{3a − 12b} + 4a] 2ax − 3ay + 2bx − 3by
Removing the ‘curly’ brackets gives: = a(2x − 3y) + b(2x − 3y)
2a − [9a − 36b + 4a] (2x − 3y) is now a common factor thus:
Collecting together similar terms gives: a(2x − 3y) + b(2x − 3y)

= (2x − 3y)(a + b)
2a − [13a − 36b]
Alternatively, 2x is a common factor of the original first and
Removing the outer brackets gives: third terms and −3y is a common factor of the second and fourth
2a − 13a − 36b terms. Thus:
2ax − 3ay + 2bx − 3by
i.e. −11a + 36b or 36b − 11a
(see law (iii), page 38) = 2x(a + b) − 3y(a + b)
x(2x − 4y) − 2x(4x + y) (a + b) is now a common factor thus: 1
Removing brackets gives:
2x2 − 4xy − 8x2 − 2xy 11. (i) 21a2b2 − 28ab (ii) 2xy2 + 6x2y + 8x3y
2x(a + b) − 3y(a + b) = (a + b)(2x − 3y) as
n
it
(i) 7ab(3ab − 4) (ii) 2xy(y + 3x + 4x2

c
before
e
Problem 31. Factorise x3 + 3x2 − x − 3 x − 3 = x2(x + 3) − x − 3 −1 is a common factor of the last

12. (i) ay + by + a + b (ii) px + qx + py + qy (iii) 2ax + 3ay
− 4bx − 6by two terms, thus: x2(x + 3) − x − 3 = x2(x + 3) − 1(x + 3) (x +
3) is now a common factor, thus:
x2 is a common factor of the first two terms, thus: x3 + 3x2 −
⎡
⎤ 3. 2(p + 3q − r) − 4(r − q + 2p) + p
⎢ [−5p + 10q − 6r]
⎣(i) (a + b)(y + 1)
⎥ 4. (a + b)(a + 2b) [a2 + 3ab + 2b2] 5. (p + q)(3p − 2q)
⎦
(ii) (p + q)(x + y)
[3p2 + pq − 2q2] 6. (i) (x − 2y)2 (ii) (3a − b)2
(iii) (a − 2b)(2x + 3y)
The laws of precedence which apply to arithmetic also apply to
algebraic expressions. The order is Brackets, Of, Division,
Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction (i.e. BODMAS).
5.4 Fundamental laws and
precedence Problem 32. Simplify: 2a + 5a × 3a − a
x2(x + 3) − 1(x + 3) = (x + 3)(x2 − 1) Now try Multiplication is performed before addition and sub traction
thus:
the following exercise 2a + 5a × 3a − a = 2a + 15a2 − a
= a + 15a2 or a(1 + 15a)
Exercise 20 Further problems on brackets and
factorisation
Problem 33. Simplify: (a + 5a) × 2a − 3a
In Problems 1 to 9, remove the brackets and simplify
where possible: The order of precedence is brackets, multiplication, then
subtraction. Hence
1. (x + 2y) + (2x − y) [3x + y] 2. 2(x − y) − 3(y − x) [5(x
(a + 5a) × 2a − 3a = 6a × 2a − 3a
− y)]
= 12a2 − 3a
2 2 or 3a(4a − 1)
(i) x − 4xy + 4y
Problem 34. Simplify: a + 5a × (2a − 3a)

(ii) 9a2 − 6ab + b2
7. 3a + 2[a − (3a − 2)] [4 − a] 8. 2 − 5[a(a − 2b) − (a − Hence:
1
2 2 c
b) ] [2 + 5b ] 3c + 2c × 4c + −3c n
9. 24p − [2{3(5p − q) − 2(p + 2q)} + 3q] [11q − 2p] t
In Problem 10 to 12, factorise: 1

= 3c + 2c × 4c − 3 c
2
e
10. (i) pb + 2pc (ii) 2q + 8qn S
[(i) p(b + 2c) (ii) 2q(q + 4n)]
The order of precedence is brackets, multiplication, then

subtraction. Hence Problem 36. Simplify:
a + 5a × (2a − 3a) = a + 5a × −a a ÷ (5a + 2a) − 3a
= a + −5a2
The order of precedence is brackets, division and subtraction.
= a − 5a2 or a(1 − 5a) Hence
a ÷ (5a + 2a) − 3a = a ÷ 7a − 3a
Problem 35. Simplify: a ÷ 5a + 2a − 3a
a 1
= 7a − 3a = 7 − 3a
The order of precedence is division, then addition and
subtraction. Hence 3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ 5c − 8c
a
a ÷ 5a + 2a − 3a = 5a + 2a − 3a
1 1 The order of precedence is division, multiplication, addition and
= 5 + 2a − 3a = 5 − a subtraction. Hence:
Algebra 45
3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ 5c − 8c
c −3c
= 3c + 2c × 4c + 5c − 8c
5 25
1 = 5c × − 3 = − 3c
= 3c + 8c2 + 5 − 8c
1 1 Problem 40. Simplify:
= 8c2 − 5c + 5or c(8c − 5) + 5
(2a − 3) ÷ 4a + 5 × 6 − 3a
3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ (5c − 8c) The bracket around the (2a − 3) shows that both 2a and −3 have
to be divided by 4a, and to remove the bracket the expression is
The order of precedence is brackets, division, multipli cation written in fraction form.
and addition. Hence,
Hence, (2a − 3) ÷ 4a + 5 × 6 − 3a = 2a − 3
3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ (5c − 8c)
= 3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ −3c 4a + 5 × 6 − 3a
c
= 3c + 2c × 4c + −3c = 2a − 3
c 1
Now −3c = −3 4a + 30 − 3a
Multiplying numerator and denominator by −1 gives: 1 × −1 2a 3
= 4a − 4a + 30 − 3a
1 1 3
−3 × −1i.e. − 3 = 2 − 4a + 30 − 3a
1 1 1 3
= 3c + 8c2 − 3or c(3 + 8c) − 3 = 30 2 − 4a − 3a
Problem 39. Simplify: Problem 41. Simplify:
(3c + 2c)(4c + c) ÷ (5c − 8c) 1
3of 3p + 4p(3p − p)
The order of precedence is brackets, division and
multiplication. Hence
Applying BODMAS, the expression becomes
(3c + 2c)(4c + c) ÷ (5c − 8c)
1
= 5c × 5c ÷ −3c = 5c × 5c 3of 3p + 4p × 2p
Simplify the following: 1 1

1
proportional to x then y α x or y
n
= k/x. Alternatively, k = xy, that

o
2 + 6x 1
it
S
1. 2x ÷ 4x + 6x 5 is, for inverse proportionality the
46 Engineering product of the variable is
constant.
Mathematics Examples of laws involving
2. 2x ÷ (4x + 6x)
When an increase or decrease in direct and inverse pro portional
and changing ‘of’ to ‘×’ gives: an independent variable leads to in science include:
an increase or decrease of the
1 same pro portion in the (i) Hooke’s law, which states
dependent variable this is termed that within the elastic limit of a
3 × 3p + 4p × 2p direct proportion. If y = 3x then material, the strain ε produced is
y is directly proportional to x, directly
i.e. p + 8p2 or p(1 + 8p) which may be written as y α x or
y = kx, where k is called the
coefficient of proportionality
Now try the following exercise (in this case, k being equal to 3).
When an increase in an
independent variable leads to a
Exercise 21 Further decrease of the same proportion
problems on fundamental in the dependent vari able (or
laws and vice versa) this is termed inverse
precedence
proportion. If y is inversely
proportional to the stress, σ, producing it, i.e. εασ or ε = kσ.
3. 3a − 2a × 4a + a [4a(1 − 2a)] 4. 3a − 2a(4a + a) [a(3 − (ii) Charles’s law, which states that for a given mass of gas at
constant pressure the volume V is directly proportional to
10a)] its thermodynamic temperature T,
5. 2y + 4 ÷ 6y + 3 × 4 − 5y 6. 2y + 4 ÷ 6y + at constant temperature, the volume V of a

y+ 1 fixed mass of a gas
i.e. V α T or V = kT.
is inversely proportional to its absolute
3(4 − 5y) 7. 3 ÷ y + 2 ÷ y + 1 pressure p, i.e. p α (1/V) or p = k/V, i.e. pV =
(iii) Ohm’s law, which states that the k
current I flowing through a fixed resistor is
2 directly proportional to
the applied voltage V, i.e. I α V or I = kV.
3y − 3y + 12 2
(iv) Boyle’s law, which states that for a gas
3y+ 12 − 13y 5
8. p2 − 3pq × 2p ÷ 6q + pq [pq] Problem 42. If y is directly proportional to x and
9. (x + 1)(x − 4) ÷ (2x + 2) y = 2.48 when x = 0.4, determine (a) the

1 2(x − 4) coefficient of proportionality and (b) the
value of y when
1 1
10. 4of 2y + 3y(2y − y) y 2 + 3y 0.4 = 6.2
(b) y = kx, hence, when x = 0.65,
y = (6.2)(0.65) = 4.03
Problem 43. Hooke’s law states that stress σ is directly

5.5 Direct and inverse proportional to strain ε within the elastic limit of a material.
proportionality When, for mild steel, the stress is
An expression such as y = 3x contains two variables. For every

value of x there is a corresponding value of y. The variable x is
called the independent variable and y is called the dependent
variable. 25 × 106 Pascals, the strain is 0.000125. Determine (a)
x = 0.65 the coefficient of proportionality and (b) the
Algebra 47
(a) y α x, i.e. y = kx. If y = 2.48 when x = 0.4, 2.48 = k(0.4)
Hence the coefficient of proportionality, Now try the following exercise
1
k = 2.48 n
value of strain when the stress is 18 × 106 9 constant of proportionality and (b) the value
Pascals 200 × 10 = 0.00009 of p when q is 5.2 [(a) 15 (b) 78]
Problem 44. The electrical resistance R of a 2. Charles’s law states that for a given mass
(a) σαε, i.e. σ = kε, from which k = σ/ε. piece of wire is inversely proportional to the of gas at constant pressure the volume is
Hence the coefficient of proportionality,
cross sectional area A. When A = 5 mm2, R directly proportional to its thermodynamic
6 = 7.02 ohms. Determine (a) the coefficient tempera ture. A gas occupies a volume of
k = 25 × 10 of proportionality and (b) the cross-sectional 2.25 litres at 300 K. Determine (a) the
9 area when the resistance is 4 ohms constant of propor tionality, (b) the volume
0.000125 = 200 × 10 pascals
(The coefficient of proportionality k in this at 420 K, and (c) the temperature when the
case is called Young’s Modulus of 1 volume is 2.625 litres.
(a) R α A, i.e. R = k/A or k = RA. Hence, [(a) 0.0075 (b) 3.15 litres (c) 350 K]
Elasticity) when R = 7.2 and A = 5, the coefficient of
(b) Since σ = kε, ε = σ/k proportional ity, k = (7.2)(5) = 36
Hence when σ = 18 × 106, Exercise 22 Further problems on 3. Ohm’s law states that the current flowing
direct and inverse proportionality in a fixed resistor is directly proportional to
strain ε = 18 × 10
6 the applied voltage. When 30 volts is
1. If p is directly proportional to q and p = applied across a resistor the current flowing
37.5 when q = 2.5, determine (a) the through the resistor is 2.4 × 10−3 amperes.
Deter mine (a) the constant of voltage is 52 volts and (c) the voltage when
it
proportionality, (b) the current when the the current is 3.6 × 10−3 S
(b) Since k = RA then A = k/R When R = 4, the a volume of 1.5 m 3 at a pressure of 200 × 103 Pascals,
cross-sectional area, determine (a) the constant of proportionality, (b) the
amperes. volume when the pressure is 800 × 103 Pascals and (c)
(a) 0.00008 (b) 4.16 × 10−3 A
k 6 6 3
(c) 45 V (b) Volume V = p = 0.12 × 10 4 × 10 = 0.03 m
36 2
A= 4 = 9 mm .
the pressure when the volume is 1.25 m3 (a) 300 × 103 (b) 0.375
Problem 45. Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, m2
the volume V of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional
to its absolute pressure p. If a gas occupies a volume of 0.08
m3 at a pressure of 1.5 × 106 Pascals determine (a) the
coefficient of proportionality and (b) the volume if the (c) 240 × 103 Pa
pressure is changed to 4 × 106 Pascals
1
(a) V α pi.e. V = k/p or k = pV
Hence the coefficient of proportionality,
k = (1.5 × 106)(0.08) = 0.12 × 106
4. If y is inversely proportional to x and y = 15.3 when x =

0.6, determine (a) the coefficient of proportionality, (b)
the value of y when x is 1.5, and (c) the value of x when
y is 27.2
[(a) 9.18 (b) 6.12 (c) 0.3375]
5. Boyle’s law states that for a gas at constant temperature,

the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely 6.1 Polynominal division
proportional to its absolute pres sure. If a gas occupies
Before looking at long division in algebra let us revise long
algebra
division with numbers (we may have forgotten, since
calculators do the job for us!)
For example,208
16is achieved as follows:
Chapter 6 7 7
15 = 11 remainder 7 or 11 + 15 = 11 15
Further
Hence175
Below are some examples of division in algebra, which in some

respects, is similar to long division with numbers.
(Note that a polynomial is an expression of the form f (x) = a
+ bx + cx2 + dx3 + ···
48 required when resolving into partial
16 48__. . fractions — see Chapter 7).
__
13
208
16
__
and polynomial division is sometimes Problem 1. Divide 2x2 + x − 3 by x − 1
(1) 16 divided into 2 won’t go (2) 16 divided into 20 goes 1 (3) Put layout is shown below with the dividend and divisor both arranged
1 above the zero (4) Multiply 16 by 1 giving 16 in descending powers of the symbols.
2x2 + x − 3 is called the dividend and x − 1 the divi sor. The usual
(5) Subtract 16 from 20 giving 4 (6) Bring 3x − 3

down the 8 x−1 3x − 3
(7) 16 divided into 48 goes 3 times (8) Put _____
2x + 3
the 3 above the 8
− 2x _____ . .
(9) 3 × 16 = 48 2x2 + x − 3 2x2 _______
(10) 48 − 48 = 0
Hence208 Dividing the first term of the dividend by the first term of the
2
16 = 13 exactly divisor, i.e.2x
x gives 2x, which is put above the first
Similarly,172 term of the dividend as shown. The divisor is then mul tiplied by
15is laid out as follows: 2x, i.e. 2x(x − 1) = 2x2 − 2x, which is placed
15 into 3x, giving +3, which is placed above the

__ dividend as shown. Then 3(x − 1) = 3x − 3
15
11 which is placed under the 3x − 3. The
__7
remainder, on subtraction, is zero, which
15 under the dividend as shown. Subtracting
172 __ completes the process.
gives 3x − 3. The process is then repeated,
22 i.e. the first term of the divisor, x, is divided Thus (2x2 + x − 3) ÷ (x − 1) = (2x + 3)
[A check can be made on this answer by multiplying (2x + Further algebra 49

3) by (x − 1) which equals 2x2 + x − 3]
(7) x into xy2 goes y2. Put y2 above divided

3 2
Problem 2. Divide 3x + x + 3x + 5 by x + 1 (1) (4) (8) y2(x + y) = xy2 + y3 1
(9) Subtract
(7) n
t
c S
3 3
Thus x + y e
2 2 The zero’s shown in the dividend are not normally

x + y = x − xy + y
3x3 + x2 + 3x + 5 3x3 + 3x2 subtraction process and to keep similar
x+1 ________ terms in their respective columns.
3x2 − 2x + 5 − 2x
− 2x2 + 3x + 5 − 2x2 _________
shown, but are included to clarify the Problem 4. Divide (x2 + 3x − 2) by (x − 2)
5x + 5 (3) Subtract − 2x
x2 + 3x − 2 x2 ______
(4) x into −2x2 goes −2x. Put −2x above the
_____ 5x + 5 5x − 2
dividend
5x − 10
_____ . . ______
(1) x into 3x3 goes 3x2. Put 3x2 above 3x3 (2) x − 2 ______8
3x2(x + 1) = 3x3 + 3x2 x+5
2
(5) −2x(x + 1) = −2x − 2x 2a2 − 2ab − b2
(6) Subtract
(7) x into 5x goes 5. Put 5 above the dividend (8) 5(x + 1) 2a − b
= 5x + 5
(9) Subtract
3 3
Problem 3. Simplify x + y
3 2 x+y
Thus3x + x + 3x + 5
2
x + 1 = 3x − 2x + 5
(1) (4) (7)
2 b
Hence x + 3x − 2 4a3 − 6a2b + 5b3 4a3 − 2a2 _________
x − 2 = x + 5 +8 − 4a2b + 5b3 − 4a2b + 2ab2
x−2 ____________
−2ab2 + 5b3
2 3
Problem 5. Divided 4a3 − 6a2b + 5b3 by 2a − b−2ab + b
___________
xy2 + y3 _______ 2a − b
x+y
x2 − xy + y2 _______ . .
4b3 ___________ Now try the following exercise
3 3 3 2y
x + 0 + 0 + y x + x ________ Thus
− x2y + y3 − x2y − xy2
2 2 3
__________ 2a − b = 2a − 2ab − b +4b
xy2 + y3 4a3 − 6a2b + 5b3
(1) x into x3 goes x2. Put x2 above x3 of dividend (2) x2(x + y) 5x − 2) by (x + 2) [3x − 1]
= x3 + x2y
(3) Subtract
(4) x into −x2y goes −xy. Put −xy above dividend (5) −xy(x + y)
= −x2y − xy2
(6) Subtract 3. Determine (10x2 + 11x − 6) ÷ (2x + 3)
1
Exercise 23 Further problem on polynomial

division
1. Divide (2x2 + xy − y2) by (x + y) [2x − y] 2. Divide (3x2 + we could deduce at once that (x − 2) is a factor of the
expression x2 + 2x − 8. We wouldn’t normally solve
5. Divide (x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3) by (x + y)
n
2
4. Find:14x − 19x − 3
o
[x2 + 2xy + y2]

it
[5x − 2] 2x − 3 [7x + 1] quadratic equations this way — but suppose

we have to factorise a cubic expression (i.e.
one in which the highest power of the theorem. This is just a generalised version the quadratic expression. The factor theorem
variable is 3). A cubic equation might have of what we established above for provides a
three simple linear factors and the diffi culty 2 − x + 4) ÷ (x − 1)
of discovering all these factors by trial and 6. Find (5x method of factorising any polynomial, f (x),
error would be considerable. It is to deal which has simple factors.
with this kind of case that we use the factor A statement of the factor theorem says:
5x + 4 +8 x − 1
7. Divide (3x3 + 2x2 − 5x + 4) by (x + 2)
‘if x = a is a root of the equation f(x) = 0,
3x3 − 4x + 3 − 2 x + 2
then (x − a) is a factor of f(x)’
4 3 expression and the roots of the equation obtained by equating

8. Determine:5x + 3x − 2x + 1 the expression to zero. For example, consider the quadratic
x−3 equation x2 + 2x − 8 = 0
To solve this we may factorise the quadratic expression x2 + 2x
5x3 + 18x2 + 54x + 160 +481 − 8 giving (x − 2)(x + 4)
x−3 Hence (x − 2)(x + 4) = 0
Then, if the product of two number is zero, one or both of those
numbers must equal zero. Therefore,
either (x − 2) = 0, from which, x = 2
or (x + 4) = 0, from which, x = −4
6.2 The factor theorem If x = 2, then f (2) = 23 − 7(2) − 6 = −12 If x = 3,
The following worked problems show the use of the factor
theorem. then f (3) = 33 − 7(3) − 6 = 0
If f (3) = 0, then (x − 3) is a factor — from the factor theorem.

Problem 6. Factorise x3 − 7x − 6 and use it to solve the We have a choice now. We can divide x3 − 7x − 6 by (x − 3)
cubic equation: x3 − 7x − 6 = 0 or we could continue our ‘trial and error’by sub stituting further
values for x in the given expression — and hope to arrive at f
(x) = 0.
Let f (x) = x3 − 7x − 6 Let us do both ways. Firstly, dividing out gives:
If x = 1, then f (1) = 13 − 7(1) − 6 = −12 x2 + 3x + 2

There is a simple relationship between the factors of a quadratic
It is clear then that a factor of (x − 2) example. However, we could 3
indicates a root of +2, while a factor of (x + x − 3 Hence x − 7x − 6
4) indicates a root of −4. In general, we can x3 + 0 − 7x − 6 x3 − 3x2
therefore say that: _______
3x2 − 7x − 6
a factor of (x − a) corresponds to a root of − 9x
x=a 3x2 ___________
2x − 6
In practice, we always deduce the roots of a 2x − 6
sim ple quadratic equation from the factors ______
of the quadratic expression, as in the above
______ . .
reverse this process. If, by trial and error, we could deter mine that 2
x = 2 is a root of the equation x2 + 2x − 8 = 0 x − 3 = x + 3x + 2
i.e. x3 − 7x − 6 = (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 2) divide this into (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) as follows:

1
3
x + 3x + 2 factorises ‘on sight’ as (x + 1)(x + 2) Therefore
n
Further algebra 51 x2 − x − 6
i
Alternatively, having obtained one factor, i.e. (x − 1) we could c
x3 − 7x − 6 = (x − 3)(x + 1)( x + A second method is to continue 7(3) − 6. We can see that if we such that f (x) will not be zero.
2) to substitute values of x into f (x). continue with positive values of Therefore let us try some
Our expression for f (3) was 33 − x the first term will predominate negative values for x: f (−1) =
(−1)3 − 7(−1) − 6 = 0; hence (x + x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x3 − x2 +x − 6x + 6
− x2 − 5x + 6 − x2 ______
1) is a fac _______ ___________ − 6x + 6
x−1 ______ . .
S
tor (as shown above). Use the factor theorem to factorise the expressions given
Also, f (−2) = (−2)3 − 7(−2) − 6 = 0; hence (x + 2) is a factor in problems 1 to 4.
(also as shown above).
To solve x3 − 7x − 6 = 0, we substitute the factors, i.e. (x − 3)(x 1. x2 + 2x − 3 [(x − 1)(x + 3)] 2. x3 + x2 − 4x − 4 [(x + 1)(x
+ 2)(x − 2)]
+ 1)(x + 2) = 0
3. 2x3 + 5x2 − 4x − 7
from which, x = 3, x = −1 and x = −2 [(x + 1)(2x2 + 3x − 7)]
Note that the values of x, i.e. 3, −1 and −2, are all factors of 4. 2x3 − x2 − 16x + 15
the constant term, i.e. the 6. This can give us a clue as to what
[(x − 1)(x + 3)(2x − 5)]
values of x we should consider.
5. Use the factor theorem to factorise x3 + 4x2 + x − 6 and
hence solve the cubic equation x3 + 4x2 + x − 6 = 0
Problem 7. Solve the cubic equation
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 by using the factor theorem
Hence, x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2) Therefore if
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = 0
Let f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 and let us substitute simple values
of x like 1, 2, 3, −1, −2, and so on. then (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2) = 0
⎤
3 2 ⎡
f (1) = 1 − 2(1) − 5(1) + 6 = 0,
3 2
hence (x − 1) is a factor ⎣x + 4x + x − 6
⎦
f (2) = 23 − 2(2)2 − 5(2) + 6 = 0 = (x − 1)(x + 3)(x + 2);
x = 1, x = −3 and x = −2
f (3) = 33 − 2(3)2 − 5(3) + 6 = 0,
6. Solve the equation x3 − 2x2 −x + 2 = 0
hence (x − 3) is a factor
from which, x = 1, x = 3 and x = −2
f (−1) = (−1)3 − 2(−1)2 − 5( − 1) + 6 = 0 f (−2) = (−2)3
[x = 1, x = 2 and x = −1]
− 2(−2)2 − 5( − 2) + 6 = 0, hence (x + 2) is a factor 52 Engineering Mathematics
Hence x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
1 6.3 The remainder theorem n
= (x − 1)(x2 − x − 6)
= (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2)
In this case the other factor is (2x + 3), i.e. (2x2 + x −
Summarising, the factor theorem provides us with a method of 3) = (x − 1)(2x − 3).

factorising simple expressions, and an alternative, in certain
circumstances, to polynomial division. o
Dividing a general quadratic expression (ax2 + bx + c)
i
by (x − p), where p is any whole number, by long

e
division (see Section 6.1) gives:
Exercise 24 Further problems on the factor The remainder theorem may also be stated for a cubic
theorem equation as:
(b + ap)x + c d’
x−p (b + ap)x − (b + ap)p
__________________
ax + (b + ap) As before, the remainder may be obtained
c + (b + ap)p by substitut ing p for x in the dividend.
2 __________________
ax + bx + c For example, when (3x3 + 2x2 − x + 4) is
− apx 3 2
‘if (ax + bx + cx + d) is divided by (x − divided by (x − 1), the remainder is: ap3 +
ax2 ________
2
p), the remainder will be ap3 + bp2 + cp + bp + cp + d (where
The remainder, c + (b + ap)p = c + bp + ap2 or ap2 + bp + c. a = 3, b = 2, c = −1, d = 4 and p = 1), i.e. the remain der is:
This is, in fact, what the remainder theorem states, i.e. 3(1)3 + 2(1)2 + (−1)(1) + 4 = 3 + 2 − 1 + 4 = 8. Similarly, when
(x3 − 7x − 6) is divided by (x − 3), the remainder is: 1(3)3 +
‘if (ax2 + bx + c) is divided by (x − p),
0(3)2 −7(3) − 6 = 0, which
the remainder will be ap2 + bp + c’ 3
mean that (x − 3) is a factor of (x − 7x − 6). Here are some
2
If, in the dividend (ax + bx + c), we substitute p for x we get more examples on the remainder theorem.
the remainder ap2 + bp + c
For example, when (3x2 − 4x + 5) is divided by (x − 2) the Problem 8. Without dividing out, find the remainder when
remainder is ap2 + bp + c, (where a = 3, b = −4, c = 5 and p = 2x2 − 3x + 4 is divided by (x − 2)
2),
i.e. the remainder is:
By the remainder theorem, the remainder is given by: ap2 + bp
3(2)2 + (−4)(2) + 5 = 12 − 8 + 5 = 9 + c, where a = 2, b = −3, c = 4 and p = 2.
We can check this by dividing (3x2 − 4x + 5) by (x − 2) by Hence the remainder is:
long division:
2x + 5 Problem 9. Use the remainder theorem to

x−2 2x − 4 determine the remainder when (3x3 − 2x2 +
______
3x + 2 x − 5) is divided by (x + 2)
9
− 6x ______
3x2 − 4x + 5 3x2 _______
2(2)2 + (−3)(2) + 4 = 8 − 6 + 4 = 6
3 2
Similarly, when (4x2 − 7x + 9) is divided by (x + 3), the (a) When (x − 2x − 5x + 6) is divided by (x − 1), the
2
remainder is ap + bp + c, (where a = 4, b = −7, c = 9 and p = remainder is given by ap3 + bp2 + cp + d,
2
−3) i.e. the remainder is: 4(−3) + (−7)(−3) + 9 = 36 + 21 + 9 = Further algebra 53
66
Also, when (x2 + 3x − 2) is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is
1(1)2 + 3(1) − 2 = 2 Hence (x − 3) is a factor.
1
It is not particularly useful, on its own, to know the remainder

where a = 1, b = −2, c = −5, d = 6 and p = 1, i.e. the
of an algebraic division. However, if the remainder should be
zero then (x − p) is a factor. This is very useful therefore when remainder = (1)(1)3 + (−2)(1)2 + (−5)(1) + 6
factorising expressions.
For example, when (2x2 + x − 3) is divided by (x − 1), the =1−2−5+6=0
remainder is 2(1)2 + 1(1) − 3 = 0, which means that (x − 1) is a
factor of (2x2 + x − 3). Hence (x − 1) is a factor of (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6)
By the remainder theorem, the remainder is given by: ap3 + bp2 (b) When (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) is divided by (x + 2), the
+ cp + d, where a = 3, b = −2, c = 1, d = −5 and p = −2
remainder is given by
Hence the remainder is:
(1)(−2)3 + (−2)(−2)2 + (−5)(−2) + 6
3(−2)3 + (−2)(−2)2 + (1)(−2) + (−5) = −8 − 8 + 10 + 6 = 0
= −24 − 8 − 2 − 5 = −39
Hence (x + 2) is also a factor of (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6)
Therefore (x − 1)(x + 2)( ) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 To determine

Problem 10. Determine the remainder when (x3 − 2x2 −
5x + 6) is divided by (a) (x − 1) and (b) (x + 2). Hence the third factor (shown blank) we could
factorise the cubic expression
(i) divide (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) by (x − 1) (x + 2)
or (ii) use the factor theorem where f (x) = x3 − 2x2 −
5x + 6 and hoping to choose a
value of x which makes f (x) = 0 Hence (x − 3) is a factor.
or (iii) use the remainder theorem, again hoping to
Thus (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6)
choose a factor (x − p) which makes
the remainder zero = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
(i) Dividing (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) by (x2 + x − 2) gives:

(iii) Using the remainder theorem, when (x3 − 2x2 −
n
5x + 6) is divided by (x − 3), the remainder is t
Exercise 25 Further problems on the

given by ap3 + bp2 + cp + d, where a = 1, b = −2, e
remainder theorem
S
c = −5, d = 6 and p = 3. 1. Find the remainder when 3x2 − 4x + 2 is divided by:

(a) (x − 2) (b) (x + 1) [(a) 6 (b) 9]
Hence the remainder is:
2. Determine the remainder when
1(3)3 + (−2)(3)2 + (−5)(3) + 6
x3 − 6x2 + x − 5 is divided by:
= 27 − 18 − 15 + 6 = 0 (a) (x + 2) (b) (x − 3)
[(a) −39 (b) −29]
− 3x + 6 [(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)]
− 3x2 − 3x + 6 − 3x2
2
x +x−2 _____________ . ..
x−3 _____________ 4. Determine the factors of x3 + 7x2 + 14x +
− 2x 8 and hence solve the cubic equation:
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x3 + x2 ___________ 3. Use the remainder theorem to find the
x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8 = 0
factors of x3 − 6x2 +11x − 6
Thus (x3− 2x2− 5x + 6) algebraic addition,

= (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
1
(ii) Using the factor theorem, we let
x − 2 +3
3 2
f (x) = x − 2x − 5x + 6
x + 1 = (x + 1) + 3(x − 2)
Then f (3) = 33 − 2(3)2 − 5(3) + 6 (x − 2)(x + 1)
= 27 − 18 − 15 + 6 = 0 = 4x − 5
[x = −1, x = −2 and x = −4]
x2 − x − 2
5. Determine the value of ‘a’ if (x + 2) is a factor of (x3

−ax2 + 7x + 10) [a = −3] The reverse process of moving from4x − 5
6. Using the remainder theorem, solve the equa tion: 2x3 −

x2 − 7x + 6 = 0
[x = 1, x = −2 and x = 1.5]
Chapter 7
Partial
fractions
7.1 Introduction to partial fractions By must be divided by the denominator (see Problems 3 and 4).
There are basically three types of partial fraction and the
form of partial fraction used is summarised in Table 7.1 where f degree of the denominator, the numerator
(x) is assumed to be of less degree than the relevant
denominator and A, B and C are constants to be determined.
Table 7.1
(In the latter type in Table 7.1, ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic Resolving an algebraic expression into partial frac tions is
expression which does not factorise without containing surds or used as a preliminary to integrating certain functions (see
imaginary terms.) Chapter 51).
x2 − x − 2to
1
7.2 Worked problems on partial
x − 2 +3
fractions with linear factors
x + 1 is called resolving into partial fractions. In
order to resolve an algebraic expression into partial fractions:
(i) the denominator must factorise (in the above example, x2 − Problem 1. Resolve11 − 3x
x − 2 factorises as (x − 2)(x + 1), and x2 + 2x − 3 into partial
(ii) the numerator must be at least one degree less than the
denominator (in the above example (4x − 5) is of degree 1 fractions
since the highest powered x term is x1 and (x2 − x − 2) is of
degree 2) The denominator factorises as (x − 1)(x + 3) and the numerator
is of less degree than the denominator.
When the degree of the numerator is equal to or higher than the
Type Denominator containing Expression Form of partial fraction

1 Linear factors (see Problems 1 to 4) f (x) (x + a)(x − b)(x + c) (x − b)+C
(x + c)
2 Repeated linear factors (see Problems 5 to 7) f (x)
A (x + a)+B
(x + a)+B
A 2
(x + a) +C (x + a)3
(x + a)3
3 Quadratic factors (see Problems 8 and 9) f (x) (ax2 + bx + c)(x + (x − 1)(x + 3) ≡ A

d) Partial fractions 55
Ax + B
(ax2 + bx + c)+C (x + d)
2
Let2x − 9x − 35 1
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) n
Thus11 − 3x ≡A
2
x + 2x − 3 may be resolved into partial fractions. Let (x + 1) +B
(x − 2) +C
x2 + 2x − 3 ≡ 11 − 3x i
11 − 3x (x + 3) A(x − 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3)

(x − 1) +B (x + 3), c
where A and B are constants to be determined, (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
≡ by algebraic addition
by algebraic addition.
i.e.11 − 3x
(x − 1)(x + 3) ≡ A(x + 3) + B(x − 1) Since the denominators are the same on each side of the identity
(x − 1)(x + 3) then the numerators are equal to each other.
+ C(x + 1)(x − 2)
Thus, 11 − 3x ≡ A(x + 3) + B(x − 1) (x − 2)
To determine constants A and B, values of x are chosen to make Let x = −1. Then
the term in A or B equal to zero.
2(−1)2 − 9(−1) − 35 ≡ A(−3)(2)+B(0)(2) + C(0)(−3)
When x = 1, then 11 − 3(1) ≡ A(1 + 3) + B(0) i.e. 8 = i.e. −24 = −6A
4A
i.e. A = −24
i.e. A = 2 −6 = 4
Let x = 2. Then
When x = −3, then 11 − 3(−3) ≡A(0) + B(−3 − 1) i.e. 20 =
2(2)2 − 9(2) − 35 ≡ A(0)(5) + B(3)(5)
−4B
+ C(3)(0)
i.e. B = −5 i.e. −45 = 15B
Equating the numerators gives:
i.e. B = −45
2x2 − 9x − 35 ≡ A(x − 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 1)
(x + 3)
Thus11 − 3x
Let x = −3. Then Check:2
(x − 1) + −5
2(−3)2 − 9(−3) − 35 ≡ A(−5)(0) + B(−2)(0) + C(−2)(−5)
15 = −3
(x − 1) − 5 i.e. 10 = 10C
x2 + 2x − 3 ≡ 2 ≡ 2
(x + 3)
i.e. C = 1
(x − 1) − 5
(x + 3)
2
Thus2x − 9x − 35 (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
= 2(x + 3) − 5(x − 1)
(x − 1)(x + 3)
The denominator is of the same degree as the numerator.
Thus dividing out gives:
= 11 − 3x
1
x2 + 2x − 3
n
1
i
x2 + 1
2
t
Problem 2. Convert2x − 9x − 35 c
e
x2 − 3x + 2
S
≡4 − 3x + 2
x2 __________
(x + 1)− 3
(x − 2) +1
(x + 3) 3 2
Thus x − 2x − 4x − 4
x2 + x − 2 ≡ x − 3 + x − 10
2
Problem 3. Resolve x + 1 x2 + x − 2
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)into ≡ x − 3 + x − 10
the sum of three partial fractions (x + 2)(x − 1)
x2 − 3x + 2 into partial (x + 2)(x − 1) ≡ A

fractions
3x − 1 (x − 1)
Let x − 10
For more on polynomial division, see ≡ A(x − 1) + B(x + 2) (x + 2)(x − 1)
Section 6.1, page 48. (x + 2) +B
2
Hence x + 1 (x − 1)(x − 2) ≡ A
2 Equating the numerators gives:
x − 3x + 2 ≡ 1 +3x − 1
x2 − 3x + 2 x − 10 ≡ A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)
≡ 1 +3x − 1 Let x = −2. Then −12 = −3A i.e. A = 4

(x − 1)(x − 2)
Let3x − 1 ≡ A(x − 2) + B(x − 1) (x − 1)(x − 2) (x + 2)(x − 1) ≡ 4

Let x = 1. Then −9 = 3B
(x − 1) +B (x + 2) − 3
i.e. B = − 3 Hence x − 10 (x − 1)
(x − 2)
Equating numerators gives:
x2 − 3x + 2 ≡ 1 − 2
3x − 1 ≡ A(x − 2) + B(x − 1) 3 2
Thusx − 2x − 4x − 4
x2 + x − 2
Let x = 1. Then 2 = −A
≡ x − 3 +4
i.e. A = −2
(x + 2)− 3
Let x = 2. Then 5 = B (x − 1)
Hence3x − 1
(x − 1)(x − 2) ≡ −2
(x − 1) +5 Exercise 26 Further problems on partial
(x − 2) fractions with linear factors
Resolve the following into partial fractions:
2
Thusx + 1
2 2
(x − 1) +5 (x − 2) 1.12 x − 9
(x − 3) − 2
5 (x + 3)
3 2 The numerator is of higher degree than the x2 + x − 2
Problem 4. Express x − 2x − 4x − 4 denomi nator. Thus dividing out gives: x−3
x2 + x − 2 in partial − 2x
x3 − 2x2 − 4x − 4 x3 + x2 __________
fractions x(x − 2)(x − 1)
(x + 4)(x + 1)(2x − 1)
2
2. 4(x − 4) x − 2x − 3 2
4. 3(2x − 8x − 1) 7
2
3. x − 3x + 6 x +2
(x + 4) − 3
(x + 1) − 1 (x − 2) − 4
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 1) − 2
3 (2x − 1)
−3x2 − 2x − 4 2
5. x + 9x + 8 (x + 3) +6
− 3x + 6 2 (x − 2)
−3x2 ______________ x x + x − 6 1 +2
− 10
2 2
6. x − x − 14 x − 2x − 3 (x − 3) +3
The denominator is a
1 c
1−2
n
combination of a linear factor o
(x + 1)
i
and a repeated linear factor. t
Partial fractions 57 2
Let5x − 2x − 19
3 2
7.3x − 2x − 16x + 20 (x + 3) +B
(x − 2)(x + 2)
(x − 1) +C
x − 1)2
3x − 2 +1 2
≡ A(x − 1) + B(x + 3)(x − 1) + C(x + 3)
(x − 2) − 5 (x + 3)(x − 1)2
(x + 2) by algebraic addition
7.3 Worked problems on partial 5x2 − 2x − 19 ≡ A(x − 1)2 + B(x + 3)(x − 1) + C(x + 3)
fractions with repeated linear (1)
factors 2
(x − 2) into partial fractions
Problem 5. Resolve2x + 3 The denominator contains a repeated linear factor, (x − 2)2

e
Let x = −3. Then

(x + 3)(x − 1)2
5(−3)2 − 2(−3) − 19 ≡ A(−4)2 + B(0)(−4) + C(0) i.e. 32 = 16A
≡A
i.e. A = 2 (x − 2)2
Let2x + 3
2
(x − 2) ≡ A
(x − 2) +B Let x = 1. Then
2
≡ A(x − 2) + B Problem 6. Express5x − 2x − 19
(x − 2)2
5(1)2 − 2(1) − 19 ≡ A(0)2 + B(4)(0) + C(4) i.e. −16 =
Equating the numerators gives: 4C
2x + 3 ≡ A(x − 2) + B i.e. C = −4
Let x = 2. Then 7 = A(0) + B Without expanding the RHS of equation (1) it can be seen that
equating the coefficients of x2 gives: 5 =A + B, and since A = 2,
i.e. B = 7
B=3
2x + 3 ≡ A(x − 2) + B [Check: Identity (1) may be expressed as: 5x2 −
≡ Ax − 2A + B
2x − 19 ≡ A(x2 − 2x + 1)
Since an identity is true for all values of the unknown, the
coefficients of similar terms may be equated. + B(x2 + 2x − 3) + C(x + 3)
Hence, equating the coefficients of x gives: 2 =A [Also, as a i.e. 5x2 − 2x − 19 ≡ Ax2 − 2Ax + A + Bx2 + 2Bx − 3B +
check, equating the constant terms gives: 3 = −2A + B. When A Cx + 3C
= 2 and B = 7,
RHS = −2(2) + 7 = 3 = LHS] Equating the x term coefficients gives:
−2 ≡ −2A + 2B + C
Hence2x + 3
2 When A = 2, B = 3 and C = −4 then −2A + 2B + C = −2(2) +
(x − 2) ≡ 2 2(3) − 4 = −2 = LHS
Equating the constant term gives:
(x − 2) +7
−19 ≡ A − 3B + 3C
(x − 2)2
three partial fractions

2 RHS = 2 − 3(3) + 3(−4) = 2 − 9 − 12 = −19 = LHS]
(x + 3)(x − 1) as the sum of
58 Engineering Mathematics (x + 3)+3
2
Hence5x − 2x − 19
1
(x + 3)(x − 1)2
n
Exercise 27 Further linear

o
it
≡2
c
problems on partial factors

e
2 fractions with repeated

(x − 1)− 4 (x − 1)
2
Problem 7. Resolve3x + 16x + 15 1.4x − 3 (x + 1) − 7
3 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
(x + 3) into partial
1
fractions 2 2
2. x + 7x + 3 x (x + 3)
4 2 2
Let x + x−1
3x2 + 16x + 15 (x + 3)
3 2
(x + 3) ≡ A (x + 3) +C
(x + 3)3 2
(x + 3) +B 3.5x − 30x + 44
2
≡ A(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + C
2
(x − 2) +4
(x + 3)3 (x − 2)3
2
3x2 + 16x + 15 ≡ A(x + 3)2 + B(x + 3) + C (1) Let x = −3. 4.18 + 21x − x
(x − 5)(x + 2)2
Then
2
3(−3)2 + 16(−3) + 15 ≡ A(0)2 + B(0) + C i.e. −6 = C
Identity (1) may be expanded as: (x − 5) − 3
3x2 + 16x + 15 ≡ A(x2 + 6x + 9) + B(x + 3) + C (x + 2) +4

(x + 2)2
i.e. 3x2 + 16x + 15 ≡ Ax2 + 6Ax + 9A
+ Bx + 3B + C
Equating the coefficients of x2 terms gives: 3 = A
(x − 2)3
7.4 Worked problems on partial fractions
5
with quadratic factors
(x − 2) − 10
2
Problem 8. Express7x + 5x + 13
Equating the coefficients of x terms gives: fractions
(x2 + 2)(x + 1) in partial
16 = 6A + B
Since A = 3, B = −2 2
Thus3x + 16x + 15
[Check: equating the constant terms gives: 15 = (x + 3)3
9A + 3B + C The denominator is a combination of a quadratic factor, (x2 +
2), which does not factorise without introducing imaginary surd
When A = 3, B = −2 and C = −6, 9A + 3B + C = 9(3) + terms, and a linear factor, (x + 1). Let
3(−2) + (−6) = 27 − 6 − 6 = 15 = LHS]
7x2 + 5x + 13 2
≡ (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C(x + 2)
2 2
(x + 2)(x + 1) ≡ Ax + B (x + 2)(x + 1)
(x2 + 2) +C Equating numerators gives:
(x + 1)
7x2 + 5x + 13 ≡ (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C(x2 + 2) (1)
≡3
2
(x + 3) − 6
(x + 3)3 7(−1)2 + 5(−1) + 13 ≡ (Ax + B)(0) + C(1 +
(x + 3)− 2
2)
Let x = −1. Then
i.e. 15 = 3C Equating the coefficients of x2 terms gives:

1
i.e. C = 5 4=B+D n
Identity (1) may be expanded as:

o
2 2 2 Since B = 1, D = 3
7x + 5x + 13 ≡ Ax + Ax + Bx + B + Cx + 2C Equating c
2 Equating the coefficients of x terms gives:

the coefficients of x terms gives: 7 = A + C, and since C =
S
5, A = 2 6 = 3A
Equating the coefficients of x terms gives: 5 = A + i.e. A = 2
B, and since A = 2, B = 3 From equation (1), since A = 2, C = −4

2 3
[Check: equating the constant terms gives: 13 Hence3 + 6x + 4x − 2x
x2(x2 + 3)
= B + 2C
2 1 2
When B = 3 and C = 5, B + 2C = 3 + 10 = 13 = LHS] ≡ x + x + −4x + 3
x2 + 3
2
Hence7x + 5x + 13 2 1 2
≡ x+ x +3 − 4x
x2 + 3
(x2 + 2)(x + 1)≡ 2x + 3
(x2 + 2) +5 Now try the following exercise

(x + 1)
2 3 2 2
Exercise 28 Further problems on partial
Problem 9. Resolve3 + 6x + 4x − 2x x (x + 3)into fractions with quadratic factors
Partial fractions 59
partial fractions 2x + 3 Terms such as x2 may be treated 1
(x − 2)
2 2 (x2 + 7) − 1 as (x + 0)2, i.e. they
1. x − x − 13 (x + 7)(x − 2)
are repeated linear factors 2 2
2.6x − 5 (x − 4)(x + 3) (x − 4) +2 − x (x + 3)
2
Let3 + 6x + 4x − 2x
3 2 2
≡ Ax(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + (Cx + 1
3 2
(x − 1) +1 − 2x
x2(x2 + 3) D)x2
3 2 2
x + x +2 − 5x (x + 5)
A B 2 2 3 2 2
3.15 + 5x + 5x − 4x x (x + 5)
≡ x + x +Cx + D
(x2 + 3) 3 2 2 2
4. x + 4x + 20x − 7 (x − 1) (x +
8)
x2(x2 + 3) (x2 + 8)
(x − 1) +2
Equating the numerators gives: 5. When solving the differential equation d2θ
2 dθ
3 + 6x + 4x2 − 2x3 ≡ Ax(x2 + 3) dt − 6 dt − 10θ = 20 − e2t by Laplace transforms,
+ B(x2 + 3) + (Cx + D)x2 for given boundary conditions, the following
expression for L{θ} results:
≡ Ax3 + 3Ax + Bx2 + 3B 39
3 2 4s3 − 2
2s + 42s − 40
+ Cx + Dx
L{θ} = s(s − 2)(s2 − 6s + 10)
equations
Let x = 0. Then 3 = 3B
i.e. B = 1
Equating the coefficients of x3 terms gives: −2 = A + C (1)
Show that the expression can be resolved into partial

fractions to give:
2
L{θ} = s − 1
2(s − 2) +5s − 3
2(s2 − 6s + 10)
Solutions to simple equations should always be checked and this is

accomplished by substituting the solution into the original
equation. In this case,
(3x − 5) is an example of an algebraic expression, whereas 3x
− 5 = 1 is an example of an equation (i.e. it contains an
‘equals’ sign).
An equation is simply a statement that two quantities are equal.
8.1 Expressions, equations and identities 9
For example, 1 m = 1000 mm or F = 5C + 32 or y = mx + c.
Chapter 8
LHS = 4(5) = 20 = RHS.
2x
Problem 2. Solve: 5 = 6
Simple
The LHS is a fraction and this can be removed by multiplying
both sides of the equation by 5.
An identity is a relationship that only true for par ticular values of Hence, 5
is true for all values of the the unknown. For example, 3x − = 5(6)
unknown, whereas an equation is 5 = 1 2x 5
is an equation, since it is only true when x = 2, whereas 3x ≡ 8x Any arithmetic operation may be applied to an equation as long
− 5x is an identity since it is true for all values of x. (Note ‘≡’ as the equality of the equation is maintained.
means ‘is identical to’).
Simple linear equations (or equations of the first degree) are
those in which an unknown quantity is raised only to the power
1. 8.2 Worked problems on simple
To ‘solve an equation’ means ‘to find the value of the equations
unknown’.
Problem 1. Solve the equation: 4x = 20 Problem 6. Solve: 4 − 3p = 2p − 11
4x 20
Dividing each side of the equation by 4 gives: 4 = 4 (Note In order to keep the p term positive the terms in p are moved
that the same operation has been applied to both the left-hand to the RHS and the constant terms to the LHS.
side (LHS) and the right-hand side (RHS)
of the equation so the equality has been maintained). Cancelling Hence 4 + 11 = 2p + 3p
gives: x = 5, which is the solution to the equation. 15 = 5p
Cancelling gives: 2x = 30 15
5p
Dividing both sides of the equation by 2 gives: 2x 5= 5
30 Hence 3 = p or p = 3
2= 2i.e. x = 15
Check: LHS = 4 − 3(3) = 4 − 9 = −5
Problem 3. Solve: a − 5 = 8 RHS = 2(3) − 11 = 6 − 11 = −5
Hence the solution p = 3 is correct.
If, in this example, the unknown quantities had been
Adding 5 to both sides of the equation gives: a − 5 + grouped initially on the LHS instead of the RHS then:
5=8+5
−3p − 2p = −11 − 4
i.e. a = 13
i.e. −5p = −15
The result of the above procedure is to move the ‘−5’ from the Simple equations 61
LHS of the original equation, across the equals sign, to the
RHS, but the sign is changed to +.
It is often easier, however, to work with positive values
where possible.
Problem 4. Solve: x + 3 = 7 1
Subtracting 3 from both sides of the equation gives: x + 3 − Problem 7. Solve: 3(x − 2) = 9 t
3=7−3
c
i.e. x = 4
Removing the bracket gives: 3x − 6 = 9
Rearranging gives: 3x = 9 + 6 3x = 15
The result of the above procedure is to move the ‘+3’ from 3x
the LHS of the original equation, across the equals sign, to 15
the RHS, but the sign is changed to −. Thus a term can be 3= 3
moved from one side of an equation to the other as long as a i.e. x = 5
change in sign is made.
Check: LHS = 3(5 − 2) = 3(3) = 9 = RHS
Hence the solution x = 5 is correct.
Problem 5. Solve: 6x + 1 = 2x + 9
Problem 8. Solve:
In such equations the terms containing x are grouped on one
4(2r − 3) − 2(r − 4) = 3(r − 3) − 1
side of the equation and the remaining terms grouped on the
other side of the equation. As in Prob lems 3 and 4,
changing from one side of an equation to the other must be Removing brackets gives:
accompanied by a change of sign.
8r − 12 − 2r + 8 = 3r − 9 − 1
Thus since 6x + 1 = 2x + 9
Rearranging gives:
then 6x − 2x = 9 − 1
8r − 2r − 3r = −9 − 1 + 12 − 8
4x = 8
4x i.e. 3r = −6
8 −6
4= 4 r= 3 = −2
i.e. x = 2 Check:
Check: LHS of original equation = 6(2) + 1 = 13 RHS LHS = 4(−4 − 3) − 2(−2 − 4) = −28 + 12 = −16 RHS =
of original equation = 2(2) + 9 = 13 Hence the 3(−2 − 3) − 1 = −15 − 1 = −16
solution x = 2 is correct. Hence the solution r = −2 is correct.
Now try the following exercise Solve the following equations:
1. 2x + 5 = 7 [1] 2. 8 − 3t = 2 [2] 3. 2x − 1 = 5x + 11
Exercise 29 Further problems on simple
[−4]
equations
−5p −5 4. 7 − 4p = 2p − 3
and p = 3, as before 2
−5 = −15 1 3
62 Engineering Mathematics 3 4
example, if x = 5 then (3)(5) = 4x, which is a quicker
1
5. 2a + 6 − 5a = 0 [2]
6. 3x − 2 − 5x = 2x − 4 above.)
n
o
2y 3
Problem 10. Solve: 5 + 4 + 5
it
12
c
1 3y
e
way of arriving at equation (1) = 20 − 2

7. 20d − 3 + 3d = 11d + 5 − 8 [0] 8. 5(f − 2) − 3(2f + 5) + The LCM of the denominators is 20. Multiplying each term by
20 gives:
15 = 0 [−10] 9. 2x = 4(x − 3) [6] 10. 6(2 − 3y) − 42 = −2(y −
1) [−2]
11. 2(3g − 5) − 1 20 + 20 + 20(5)

5=0 2 2 2y 5 34
12. 4(3x + 1) = 7(x + 4) − 2(x + 5) [2] = 20 − 20

1 3y
1 2
6 4
13. 10 + 3(r − 7) = 16 − (r + 2) Cancelling gives:
20
14. 8 + 4(x − 1) − 5(x − 3) = 2(5 − 2x) [−3] i.e. 8y + 15 + 100 = 1 − 30y Rearranging gives:
8y + 30y = 1 − 15 − 100
38y = −114
8.3 Further worked problems on simple
equations
y = −114
38 = −3
3 4
Problem 9. Solve: x = 5
Check: LHS = 2(−3)
3 −6 3
The lowest common multiple (LCM) of the denomina tors, i.e. the 5+ 4+5= 5+ 4+5
lowest algebraic expression that both x and 5 will divide into, is 5x.
= −9
Multiplying both sides by 5x gives: 11
4(2y) + 5(3) + 100 = 1 − 10(3y) 20 + 5 = 4 20
Cancelling gives: 3x 45 1 9 11 = −3 is correct.
2 = 20 + 2 = 4 20
1
5x = 5x RHS = 20 − 3(−3) Hence the solution y
15 = 4x (1) (Note that when there is only one fraction on each side of an
equation ‘cross-multiplication’can be applied. In this
15
4x
4= 4 Problem 11. Solve:3
15 3
i.e. x = 4or 3 4 t−2=4
Check: 3t + 4
3 315 4 12 4
3 4= 4= 3 15 = 15 = 5 = RHS
By ‘cross-multiplication’: 3(3t + 4) = 4(t − 2) Removing
LHS = 3
brackets gives: 9t + 12 = 4t − 8 Rearranging gives: 9t − 4t = (−5) × (−5) = +25. Therefore, whenever the
Simple equations 63
−8 − 12 i.e. 5t = −20 t = −20
square root of a number is required there are always two
answers, one positive, the other negative.
5 = −4
1
The solution of x2 = 25 is thus written as x = ±5 o
Check: LHS = 3
e
3 1
−4 − 2 = −6 = − 2 Problem 15. Solve:15
2 2
RHS = 4 4t = 3
3(−4) + 4 = 4
−12 + 4 ‘Cross-multiplying’ gives: 15(3) = 2(4t2)
4 1 i.e. 45 = 8t2
= −8 = − 2
45
Hence the solution t = −4 is correct. 2
8=t
√ i.e. t2 = 5.625
Problem 12. Solve: x = 2
√
Hence t = 5.625 = ±2.372, correct to 4 significant figures.
√ 1
[ x = 2 is not a ‘simple equation’ since the power of x is 2
√ (1/2)
i.e x = x ; however, it is included here since it occurs Now try the following exercise
often in practise].
Wherever square root signs are involved with the
unknown quantity, both sides of the equation must be Exercise 30 Further problems on simple
squared. Hence equations
√ 2 2 Solve the following equations:
( x) = (2)
i.e. x = 4 3 2 5 1 1
1. 2 + 4y = 1 + 3y + 6 [−2] 2. 4(2x − 1) + 3 = 2
√ 1 1 1 2 1
Problem 13. Solve: 2 2 = 8 −4 2 3. 5(2f − 3) + 6(f − 4) + 15 = 0 [2] 4. 3(3m −
1 1
6) − 4(5m + 4) + 5(2m − 9) = −3 [12]
To avoid possible errors it is usually best to arrange the term x x y y y 1
√ 5. 3 − 5 = 2 [15] 6. 1 − 3 = 3 + 3 − 6 [−4] 7. 3n
containing the square root on its own. Thus 2 d 1 7
8 + 4n = 24 [2] 8. x + 3
2= 2
√ 4=x−3
i.e. d = 4
5 + 2 [13]
Squaring both sides gives: d = 16, which may be checked in y 7
the original equation 9. 5 + 20 = 5 − y
4 [2]
Problem 14. Solve: x2 = 25
10.v − 2
1
This problem involves a square term and thus is not a simple 2v − 3 = 3 [3]
equation (it is, in fact, a quadratic equa tion). However the 64 Engineering Mathematics
solution of such an equation is often required and is
therefore included here for complete ness. Whenever a
square of the unknown is involved, the square root of both
sides of the equation is taken. Hence
√ 2 √ a−3=3
x = 25
11.2
i.e. x = 5 1
2a + 1 [−11]
However, x = −5 is also a solution of the equation because n
Problem 17. The temperature coefficient of resistance α
o
x may be calculated from the formula Rt = R0(1 + αt). Find

12. 4 − x + 6 α given Rt = 0.928, R0 = 0.8 and t = 40
c
5=x+3
2 [−6] Since Rt = R0(1 + αt) then

e
0.928 = 0.8[1 + α(40)]

S
√ √
13. 3 t = 9 [9] 14.3 x 0.928 = 0.8 + (0.8)(α)(40)
√
1 − x = −6 [4]
x
15. 10 = 5 0.928 − 0.8 = 32α
2 − 1 [10]
2
16. 16 = t 9 [±12] y + 2 Hence α = 0.128
0.128 = 32α
17. 1 1
y − 2 = 2 −3 3 32 = 0.004
11 8 2 168 − 60 = 18a
18. 2 = 5 + x [±4]
108 = 18a
a = 108
8.4 Practical problems involving
18 = 6
simple equations
Hence the acceleration of the body is 6 m/s2
Problem 16. A copper wire has a length l of 1.5 km, a
resistance R of 5 and a resistivity of 17.2 × 10−6 mm. Find
Problem 19. When three resistors in an electrical circuit are
the cross-sectional area, a, of the wire, given that R = ρl/a
connected in parallel the total resistance RT is given by:
Since R = ρl/a 1
1 1 1
then RT= R1+ R2+ R3.
−6
mm)(1500 × 103 mm) a Find the total resistance when R1 = 5 , R2 = 10 and R3 = 30
5 = (17.2 × 10
From the units given, a is measured in mm2. Thus 5a =
17.2 × 10−6 × 1500 × 103 and a = 17.2 × 10−6 × 1500 × 1 1 1

RT= 5 + 10 + 30
3
10 5 1
3
= 17.2 × 1500 × 10
106 × 5 =6+3+1
10 1
= 17.2 × 15 30 = 30 = 3
10 × 5 = 5.16 Taking the reciprocal of both sides gives: RT = 3

1 1 1 1
Hence the cross-sectional area of the wire is 5.16 mm2 Alternatively, if RT= 5 + 10 + 30the LCM of the
Problem 18. The distance s metres travelled in time t denominators is 30RT
seconds is given by the formula:
Hence
s = ut + 12 at2, where u is the initial velocity in m/s and a is
the acceleration in m/s2. Find the acceleration of the body if
Simple equations 65
it travels 168 m in 6 s, with an initial velocity of 10 m/s
(b) Find the value of R3 given that

1 2 1
s = ut + 2at , and s = 168, u = 10 and t = 6 Hence

RT = 3 , R1 = 5 and R2 = 10 .
1 2
n
168 = (10)(6) + 2a(6) 168 = 60 + 18a o
i
[(a) 1.8 (b) 30 ] is the current in amperes, V is the volt age in volts
and R is the resistance in ohms. A soldering iron
t
takes a current of 0.30A from a 240V supply. Find

e
5. Ohm’s law may be represented by I = V/R, where I the resistance of the element. [800 ]
30RT = 30RT 1 10 1 practical problems

1 RT 15 + 30RT 8.5 Further
+ 30RT (0.1 m2)(x)

30
(the unit of x is thus metres)
Cancelling gives:
70 × 109 × 0.1 × x = 20 × 106 × 1.4
30 = 6RT + 3RT + RT
30 = 10RT 6
x = 20 × 10 × 1.4
involving simple equations 70 × 109 × 0.1
Problem 20. The extension x m of an aluminium tie bar of Cancelling gives: x = 2 × 1.4
length l m and cross-sectional area A m2 when carrying a load
of F newtons is given by the modulus of elasticity E = Fl/Ax. 7 × 100m
Find the extension
30 = 2 × 1.4
RT = 10 = 3 , as above
7 × 100 × 1000 mm
Hence the extension of the tie bar, x = 4 mm
Exercise 31 Practical problems involving

simple equations Problem 21. Power in a d.c. circuit is given by P = V2
1. A formula used for calculating resistance of a cable is R Rwhere V is the supply voltage and R is the circuit
resistance. Find the supply voltage if the circuit resistance is
= (ρl)/a. Given R = 1.25, l = 2500 and a = 2 × 10−4
1.25 and the power measured is 320 W
find the value of ρ.
[10−7]
2. Force F newtons is given by F = ma, where m is the

mass in kilograms and a is the acceler ation in metres
per second squared. Find the acceleration when a force
of 4 kN is applied to a mass of 500 kg. [8 m/s2]
3. PV = mRT is the characteristic gas equation. Find the

value of m when P = 100 × 103, V = 3.00, R = 288 and T =
300. [3.472]
4. When three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are con nected in

1
parallel the total resistance RT is determined from RT=
1 1 1
R1+ R2+ R3
(a) Find the total resistance when
R1 = 3 , R2 = 6 and R3 = 18 .
of the tie bar (in mm) if E = 70 × 109 N/m2, F = 20 ×
106 N, A = 0.1 m2 and l = 1.4 m
E = Fl/Ax, hence
9N 2
70 × 10 m = (20 × 106 N)(1.4 m)

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Engineering Mathematics

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

For information on all Newnes publications

Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India

Preface xii Section 1 Number and Algebra 1

1 Revision of fractions, decimals

2 Indices, standard form and engineering notation 11 2.1 Indices 11

13 Logarithms 97 13.1 Introduction to logarithms 97 13.2 Laws of

6 Further algebra 48 6.1 Polynominal division 48 6.2 The factor

7 Partial fractions 54 7.1 Introduction to partial

15 Number sequences 114 15.1 Arithmetic progressions 114 15.2

27 Compound angles 231 27.1 Compound angle formulae 231 27.2

Revision Test 7 241

Revision Test 10 359

Revision Test 11 374

34.3 Determining resultant

35 Complex numbers 313 35.1 Cartesian complex numbers 313 35.2

36 De Moivre’s theorem 325 36.1 Introduction 325 36.2 Powers of

Revision Test 12 415 Revision Test 14 454

57 Volumes of solids of revolution 491 57.1 Introduction 491 57.2

Section 10 Further Number and

Each topic considered in the text is presented in a way that

Additional material on statistics

In addition, a suite of support material is available to

Number and Algebra

4 Engineering Mathematics 5×1×1

Problem 9. Determine the value of

tity is inversely proportional to another, then as one

Evaluate the following:

Problem 10. A piece of timber 273 cm long is cut

i.e. the lengths of the three pieces are 39 cm, 91 cm and

Problem 12. An alloy is made up of metals A and B in

Problem 13. If 3 people can complete a task in 4 hours,

(i) correct to a number of significant figures, that is,

23.4 + 32.68 = 56.08

The sum of the negative decimal fractions is S

digits to the right of it as the sum of the digits to the right of

the decimal points of the two numbers being multiplied

17 , correct to 5 decimal places. 1.4 Percentages

A decimal fraction is converted to a percentage by

(a) 1.875 corresponds to 1.875 × 100%, i.e. 187.5% (b)

5 5 takes 85% of the original time, i.e. 85% of 50 = 85

100 = 42.5 minutes, as above.

to 0.3125 × 100%, i.e. 31.25%

Problem 22. Express as percentages: 25

(Check: 2.244 + 0.935 + 0.561 = 3.74)

Exercise 4 Further problems percentages

1 2.2 Worked problems on indices

From law (i): 10(2×3)

Problem 1. Evaluate (a) 5 × 5 , (b) 3 × 3

(102)3 From law (ii):

(a) 52 × 53 = 5(2+3) = 55 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 3125 (a)7

From law (iii):

(a) (23)4 = 23×4 = 212 (b) (32)5 = 32×5 = 310 2 3

1 4 1 (a) 41/2 (b) 163/4 (c) 272/3 (d) 9−1/2

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 5 Further problems on indices

The laws of indices only apply to terms having the