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UP-E - Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

Systems

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Short Description
Supplying reliable electric power for critical systems is an essential part of
modern industrial installations. Uninterrupted DC emergency power supply
systems are used in various installations ranging from power generating stations
to consumer-end substations and various applications such as control power to
emergency lighting and small but critical motive loads. AC uninterrupted supply
equipment find wide use in critical applications such as control, instrumentation,
computer and communication systems as well as other types of installations.

Description
Supplying reliable electric power for critical systems is an essential part of
modern industrial installations. Uninterrupted DC emergency power supply
systems are used in various installations ranging from power generating stations
to consumer-end substations and various applications such as control power to
emergency lighting and small but critical motive loads. AC uninterrupted supply
equipment find wide use in critical applications such as control, instrumentation,
computer and communication systems as well as other types of installations.

Electrical engineers in any industry or other large facilities in diverse areas such
as commercial buildings, transportation systems such as railways, airports etc.
are bound to come across AC or DC uninterrupted power supply systems. This
manual covers the basic understanding of various options of UPS systems
available, the principle of operation and of the main energy source in most of the
modern UPS installations, viz., the battery.

Table of Contents
Download Chapter List

Table of Contents

First Chapter
Overview - Maintenance and Troubleshooting of Uninterruptible Power
Supply (UPS) Systems & Batteries

1 Overview

In this chapter, we introduce the subject of uninterrupted power supply (UPS)

systems and storage batteries which are used to power most UPS systems. The
various issues, which we will discuss in detail in this course, will be covered
briefly in this chapter.

Learning objectives

Power quality issues and improvement measures

Continuity of power-planning for continuity
UPS systems-alternatives
Solid state devices, rectifiers and inverters
Static UPS systems
Different types of batteries-charging and discharging characteristics of
batteries
Selection and sizing of batteries for DC and UPS systems
Maintenance and disposal of batteries

1.1 Introduction

This course is about uninterrupted power supply systems (UPS) and storage
batteries. In industrial applications, there are always certain critical electrically
operated loads whose stoppage may have widespread repercussions on the
operation of other equipment and on the production process itself. In some
cases, even equipment damage can result, or the safety of plant personnel can
be compromised. Such loads must receive power supply from sources, which
provide extremely high reliability. Use of UPS systems is one of the ways of
supplying reliable electric power to critical loads. We will mainly deal with static
UPS systems in this course though other options will also be discussed in some
detail. Static UPS systems are deployed to ensure electric supply under
conditions of failure of normal power supplies and are mainly powered by storage
batteries that provide the required backup power. We will also discuss the subject
of storage batteries in detail in the latter part.

The term Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS) is sometimes used in the context
of systems that give uninterrupted AC output and also those that give
uninterrupted DC output. In this text, however, the term UPS has been used for
systems which work using AC input and deliver uninterrupted AC output.
Systems that require uninterrupted DC output are commonly used in electrical
and communication installations. In this case, batteries supply the load directly in
the event of a power failure and under normal conditions load is fed through
rectifier equipment powered by AC mains. In addition to feeding the loads, these
rectifiers are also used to keep the battery in fully-charged condition. These
rectifiers are therefore known as chargers. We will discuss in detail such DC
uninterrupted systems also and the different types of charger configurations.

1.2 Power quality

The need for providing UPS systems is influenced at least in part, by the quality
of power that is normally available to a facility. Power quality has many different
connotations. Some of the factors, which can be taken as contributing to poor
power quality, are:

Voltage variations
Interruptions in supply
Occurrence of surges and presence of noise
Presence of harmonics in the power supply system
Frequency disturbances

While no system will be totally free of these disturbances, the number of

instances of the occurrence of such disturbances and the extent of deviations
from the acceptable range of the relevant parameter decides whether the
electrical system can be considered as supplying quality power or otherwise.
Poor power quality will necessitate measures for improvement to be taken by the
power consumer, thus adding to the cost of the installation. As far as UPS
systems are concerned, they are mainly provided to protect the loads from power
interruptions, though some of the more advanced UPS systems do address the
other quality issues as well; this includes voltage and frequency improvements,
control of harmonics and blocking the surges and noise emanating from the
supply system from reaching the critical loads. However, other independent
measures are also available to address each specific aspect of power quality.

1.3 Power quality improvement

As discussed in the previous section, UPS systems represent one of the methods
of improving power quality but they are not the only method. In fact, UPS
systems are mainly used for ensuring continuity of electric power without any
break to loads that need such continuity but can also effect improvements in
some of the other power quality aspects as well. However, other methods of
power quality improvement may provide improvements to the system as a whole
and not just for the critical load segment. In fact, it would be quite impractical to
have an UPS system to provide quality power to the entire distribution system,
whereas the other methods result in power quality improvements to the overall
system.

Some examples are:

Voltage regulation
Standby source(s)
Surge protection devices
Noise control measures
Harmonic filters
In-plant source for independent frequency/voltage control

These techniques will be discussed in some detail in a later chapter. What needs
to be stressed here is that an UPS system is a solution that has to be applied
very selectively and not for effecting overall improvements of power quality.
Usually, improvement of power quality aspects other than interruptions is just a
by-product of UPS systems whose main purpose is to address the issue of
continuity of power.

1.4 Importance of continuity of electric power supply

It will be clear from the foregoing discussion that the emphasis of this course is
on the continuity of electric power. Why is it important to have continuity of power
supply? A power failure can throw the entire operation of an industrial facility (or
for that matter any facility) into jeopardy. Widespread disruptions of power in a
whole geographical area are always a grave emergency and become headline
news. While failure is confined to a particular facility that does not receive so
much public attention, the damage potential can be just as great and can even
affect persons not directly connected with the facility.
A power failure can have the following effects:

Directly affect human safety

Cause serious equipment damage
Create potentially hazardous conditions (e.g. loss of safety devices,
control power)
Result in disruption of production

Power interruptions have a considerable monetary impact as well. The impact

can be:

Direct (loss of production, equipment damage, accidents) and/or

Indirect (legal liabilities, loss of goodwill)

Like every other thing, power quality too has its price. The cost of ensuring
reliability of power can however be easily justified by the economic/monetary
parameters when one takes into account the cost of an interruption (both direct
and indirect).

1.5 Planning for reliability

Ensuring continuity of power has to be built into the design and should not be the
result of ‘getting wise after the event’. In fact, providing an UPS system is only
one way of ensuring continuity of power or overcoming the effect of an
unscheduled interruption. There are other equally important measures that can
improve the continuity of power and that too for an entire system. Some of these
measures are:

Providing duplicate feeders to vital installations

Providing an emergency source operating in parallel with the normal
power source
Providing a standby power source
Direct prime movers for ultra-critical loads (e.g., engine driven equipment
such as pumps)
DC systems with battery backup
Non-electrical backup systems to prevent adverse effects of a power
failure
Providing UPS systems

Thus, it may be seen that a host of options are available to ensure continuity of
power or at least, to minimize the instances of interruptions and reduce their
duration, should an interruption occur. UPS is an option that is to be adopted for
a very specific segment of loads that are so critical in nature that there should be
no interruption of power to them under any circumstances whatsoever.

1.6 UPS system options

Though the term UPS is associated by most users with static systems, it is by no
means the only kind of uninterrupted power supply system. Primarily, UPS
systems can be categorized under the following broad categories.

Rotary UPS systems

Static (Electronic) UPS systems
Hybrid UPS systems (having a mix of rotary and static components)

In fact, under certain specific situations, it may be impossible to use the static
option. We will discuss the details of each of these categories in detail in a later
chapter. The point to remember is that, one should explore all possibilities of
UPS systems that are available for a given situation and evaluate the most
suitable option. That said, in many small power applications – there isn’t a
viable alternative to the static variety of UPS.

1.7 Static UPS systems

Static UPS systems do have a number of sub-categories, each suitable for a

specific application segment. We will discuss the various options of static UPS
systems in a separate chapter. Before doing so, we will also discuss by way of a
refresher, the basics of the solid-state devices which form the core of any static
UPS system. We will also discuss the important subsystems of any static UPS
system, viz., the rectifier and inverter subsystems.

We will also discuss in detail the role of UPS in improving power quality. It should
however be stated here that power quality improvement is possible in only certain
UPS configurations while the others merely provide backup power during an
actual failure while allowing the mains power to flow directly to the load under
normal conditions. We will discuss various possible types and configurations of
UPS systems, particularly in the context of power supply to computer systems,
which is one of the main application segments of static UPS equipment, be it a
process industry involving computerized control systems or an office environment
using computer equipment in day-to-day working. The peculiarity of computer
loads and how the switched mode power supply of a computer system behaves
will be discussed in some detail so that the suitability of specific UPS
configurations for feeding power to computer equipment can be better
appreciated.
We will touch upon the issue of redundant UPS systems; remember that UPS is
just another electronic circuit, which is just as likely to fail as any other circuit with
similar components. Absolute reliability of a static UPS system can therefore
necessitate redundant modules. We will also discuss the issue of grounding UPS
derived power supplies, mainly in the context of controlling the noise emanating
from the mains power supply from passing into the UPS output. The advantage
of galvanically isolating the input and output UPS systems will also be discussed.

1.8 Batteries

We have seen that UPS systems are meant to ensure reliable power to critical
loads under mains failure situations. It therefore follows that they would require
some form of energy source to do that. A storage battery is the component,
which provides the required input power to the UPS to enable it to produce output
AC power. Batteries are of two basic types. The first type is the Primary battery,
which converts chemical energy into electrical energy by an irreversible chemical
reaction. The other category known as Secondary batteries, also convert
chemical energy into electrical energy but the resulting chemical reaction can be
reversed and the reactants restored to their earlier state, by the use of electrical
energy. In other words, they store electrical energy, which can be released as
and when required with both storage and release of electrical power being
accompanied by an appropriate chemical reaction. These batteries are therefore
commonly called as Storage batteries.

Storage batteries for high-energy applications are mainly of two kinds; the first is
the lead acid type and the other is the alkaline type of which the nickel-cadmium
is the most common variety. Both these types have several subtypes based on
the materials/construction/application etc. But the main variants are the flooded
type and the sealed type. The flooded type has the electrolyte in liquid form
whereas the sealed type has the electrolyte in gel form or as liquid held in an
absorbent separator. We will discuss the details of these batteries in a later
chapter. Lead acid is the most common variety of battery used in UPS systems.
While sealed batteries are the norm in small capacity UPS units, the flooded type
is almost universally used for higher ratings. Nickel-cadmium batteries have their
specific application segments too but the high cost of this type of battery often
becomes a constraint in their widespread use.

1.9 Charging and discharging performance

Batteries, by the very nature of their application are subject to repeated cycles of
charging and discharging. While in most standby applications such as UPS
systems the rate of cycling is far less, in other situations such as traction
applications the cycling duty is far more severe. Even in a battery that is idle (that
is, not supplying any load), a small compensating current has to be supplied to
the battery continuously for keeping the battery fully charged. This is called as
trickle charging. It is however the usual practice in stationary applications (such
as electrical substations) to simultaneously keep the battery on trickle charging
and also supply the load at the same time. In this approach, the battery floats on
the system and takes over the DC loads in the event of power failure (or failure of
charging equipment). This approach is known as float charging. The other type of
charging where a high rate of charging current has to be used to bring up the
battery to full charge after it has been completely discharged is called Boost or
equalizing charge. Charging equipment is normally designed for performing a
specific type of charging and is called either as float charger or as boost charger
depending on the function. In some cases, a charger can be designed to perform
either function (one at a time). Redundant battery and charger configurations with
single function chargers are normally used in DC supply systems to provide
reliable power output. In UPS systems, it is usual however, to have a single
charger perform both types of charging. The actual current and voltage for
carrying out battery charging will depend on the type and construction of the
battery and has to be done in accordance with the manufacturer'’
recommendations.

The discharging of a battery can be done at different rates. The higher the rate,
the lower will be the output energy from the battery. In other words, the energy
output from the battery during its discharge cycle starting from the fully charged
to the fully discharged state is a function of the discharge rate. The maximum
value of output is when a battery is discharged at constant rates for a period of
10 hours or more. The electrolyte temperature too has an effect on the output of
the battery during the discharge cycle. We will cover these issues in a separate
chapter on charging and discharging requirements of batteries.

1.10 Selection and sizing of batteries

A battery has to be selected based on the load it is expected to supply and the
environment in which it functions. Certain batteries may be more suitable for a
given application (say standby service) than others. In some cases, site
requirements may be a predominant factor. For example, in a location where
acidic fumes are not desirable, one will have to select a battery that is fully
sealed. In some cases, long battery life would be a decisive selection factor,
whereas in others it could be predictability of failure that is important. Certain
batteries which can perform well under frequent charging and discharging
conditions may be best suited for traction applications (such as platform/forklift
trucks).
Having selected the type of battery, the next step will be to select the rating of the
battery. Rating is expressed in different ways, such as ampere-hour (Ah) or
kW/cell by different manufacturers.

The battery rating depends mainly on the following factors:

DC voltage required
Load requirements
Backup load cycle
End cell voltage
De-rating factors for ambient conditions

Rating calculations are to be carried out based on well-known standards such as

IEEE: 485 or manufacturer’s recommendations for sizing using the criteria cited
above. The standards indicate the values for derating under different ambient
and design conditions. The calculations are done using battery data in the form of
battery characteristic curves or rating charts supplied by the manufacturers for
each specific type of battery in their manufacturing range. We will review the
methods of calculation of battery rating with examples in a separate chapter.

1.11 Maintenance and disposal of batteries

A battery needs proper upkeep like any other system. This includes the sealed
type of batteries (which are often referred to as ‘Maintenance free’ quite
erroneously). Regular inspection and preventive maintenance will go a long way
in ensuring that a battery can last its specified life and can function to its full
capacity. Since battery is usually the last line of defense against power
interruptions, any unexpected failure of a battery can prove catastrophic. We will
discuss in the concluding chapter, the reasons and modes of failure of batteries
and how we can perform tests to predict the remaining life of a battery so that,
timely replacement can be done without waiting till failure occurs.

In particularly critical applications, continuous on-line monitoring of batteries can

provide an excellent solution to obtain an indication of problems as they develop.
Such systems are now available and can be used to advantage in not only
predicting but also avoiding failures by timely corrective measures.

Once the useful life of a battery is over, it should be properly disposed. Batteries
contain toxic metals such as lead or cadmium and cannot be treated as other
general industrial scrap. It is therefore a normal practice to hand over the spent
battery back to the manufacturer (or other specialized agencies), who can
recycle/recover usable material from the battery
 1.12 Summary

In this chapter, we had a quick overview of the contents of this manual and will
now go on to a more detailed discussion on the various aspects outlined in the
above sections.

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