CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

STRUCTURE OF CNC MACHINE TOOL

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar

Professor and Head, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

The design and construction of CNC machines differs greatly from that of conventional
machine tools. The quality and reliability of these machines depends on the various
machine elements. Following are the important constituent parts of CNC machine

❖ Machine structure
❖ Guide ways
❖ Feed drives
❖ Spindle & spindle bearings
❖ Measuring systems
❖ Controls, software & operator Interface
❖ Gauging
❖ Tool Monitoring

CNC MACHINE STRUCTURE – Structural details, Configuration and

Design:

The machine structure is the load carrying and supporting member of the machine tool. All
motors, drive mechanisms and other functional assemblies of the machine tools are
aligned to each other and rigidly fixed to the machine structure. The machine structure is
subjected to static and dynamic forces and it should not deform or vibrate beyond the
permissible limits under the action of these forces. All components of the machine must
remain in correct relative positions to maintain the geometric accuracy, regardless of the
magnitude and direction of these forces. The machine structure configuration is also
influenced by the considerations of manufacture, assembly and operation.

The basic design factors involved in the design of a machine structure is based on the
following:

1. Static Load
2. Dynamic load
3. Thermal Load

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Static Load:

It results from the weights of slides and the workpiece, and the forces due to cutting. The
structure should have adequate stiffness and a proper structural configuration to keep the
deformation under static loading within the permissible limits. Generally there are two basic
configurations of machine tools as shown in figure.

Dynamic Load:

It is a term used for the constantly changing forces acting on the structure while movement
is taking place. These forces cause the machine system to vibrate. The origin of such
vibration is;

✓ Unbalanced rotating parts

✓ Improper meshing of gears
✓ Bearing irregularities o Interrupted cuts while machining

The effect of these vibrations can be reduced by;

❖ Reducing the mass of the structure

❖ Increasing the stiffness of the structure
❖ Improving the damping properties

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Thermal Load:

In a machine tool there are a number of local heat sources which set up thermal gradient
in machine tools. Some of these are:

❖ Electric motor
❖ Friction in mechanical drives and gear boxes
❖ Friction in bearings and guideways
❖ Machining process
❖ Temperature of surrounding objects

These heat sources may cause localised deformation, resulting in considerable

inaccuracies in machine performance. The following steps are generally followed to reduce
thermal deformation;

❖ External mounting of drives, i.e. motors and gear boxes

❖ Removing frictional heat from bearings and guideways by a proper lubricating
system.
❖ Efficient cooling and swarf removal system for the dissipation of heat generated
from the machining process
❖ Thermo – symmetric designing of the structure.
❖ Reducing ambient temperature by installing air conditioning units.

GUIDEWAYS:

Guideways (slide ways) are linear bearings for translatory motion between two members
of a machine tool such as carriage and bed in lathe.

Guideways are used in machine tools to;

❖ Control the direction or line of action of the carriage or the table on which a tool or
a workpiece is held.
❖ To absorb all the static and dynamic forces.
❖ The shape and size of the work produced depends on the accuracy of the
movement and on the geometric and kinematic accuracy of the guideway.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

❖ The geometric relationship of the slide (moving part) and the guideway (stationary
part) to the machine base determines the geometric accuracy of the machine.
❖ Kinematic accuracy depends up on the straightness, flatness and parallelism
errors in guideways.

Factors considered while designing guideways;

❖ Rigidity
❖ Damping capability
❖ Geometric and kinematic accuracy
❖ Velocity of slide
❖ Friction characteristics
❖ Wear resistance
❖ Provision for adjustment of play
❖ Position in relation to work area
❖ Protection against swarf and damage.

Types of Guideways:

Primarily two types;

❖ Friction guideways
❖ Antifriction linear motion (LM) guideways

FRICTION GUIDEWAYS

Friction guideways are most widely used because of their low manufacturing cost and good
damping properties. These guideways operate under conditions of sliding friction and do
not have a constant coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction is very high when the
movement commences and as the speed of the slide increases, it rapidly falls and beyond
a certain critical velocity it remains almost constant.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Stick – slip phenomenon:

To start the movement, the force to overcome friction has to be correspondingly high. This
force results in the drive mechanism, such as a screw, being elastically deformed. The
energy thus stored in the screw, together with the applied force, causes the carriage to slip
and move at a faster rate. As the speed increases the friction decreases and a greater
amount of movement than that intended for the slide takes place.

There is a possibility of this cycle of events repeating itself and resulting in errors in
positioning and consequently in jerky motion. This phenomenon is known as stick – slip
phenomenon. To reduce the possibility of stick-slip, there should be a minimum but
constant friction between the surfaces in contact. It is achieved by using strips of materials
such as Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFE) or Turcite lining at the guideway interface.
Turcite is a special type of plastic with particles of graphite embedded on its surface. These
materials will have a low and constant coefficient of friction.

Types of friction guideways:

❖ Vee Guideways
❖ Flat and Dovetail Guideways
❖ Cylindrical Guideways

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

VEE GUIDEWAYS

The vee or inverted vee is widely used on machine tools, especially on lathe beds. One
of the advantages of vee or inverted vee is that the parallel alignment of the guideway
with the spindle axis is not affected by wear.

There is a closing action as the upper member settles on the lower member, and this
automatically maintains the alignment. Jibs are, therefore, not required with the vee
guideway to take up the clearance caused by wear. On some machines, the angles of the
vee are different so as to reduce the possibility of uneven wearing of vee sides. The
majority of lathes have a combination of vee and flat guideways to prevent the carriage
from lifting of the guideway.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

FLAT and DOVETAIL GUIDEWAYS

Flat or dovetail forms are commonly used in CNC machine tools. The flat guideways have
better load – bearing capabilities than the other guideways. Jibs are used to ensure
accurate fitting of the slide to both the flat and dovetail guideways. The jibs are tapered
and can be adjusted to reduce excessive clearance caused by wear. The metal to metal
contact on the vee, flat and dovetail types of guideway is normally cast iron to cast iron.
The cast iron may be heat treated to increase its hardness and the surfaces ground to
obtain the required accuracy.

CYLINDRICAL GUIDEWAYS

In cylindrical guideways, the bore in the carriage housing provides support all around the
guideway. For relatively short traverse and light loads, cylindrical guideways are very
efficient. A limitation on the use of these guideways for long traverse is that if the guide
bar is supported only at each end, it may sag or bend in the centre of the span under a
load.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

ANTIFRICTION LINEAR MOTION (LM) GUIDEWAYS:

These are used on CNC machine tools to;

❖ Reduce the amount of wear

❖ Improve the smoothness of the movement
❖ Reduce friction
❖ Reduce heat generation

Antifriction guideways are used to overcome the relatively high coefficient of friction in
metal to metal contacts and the resulting limitations addressed in the above list. They
use rolling elements in between the moving and stationary elements of the machine.

Advantages of LM guideways:

❖ Low frictional resistance

❖ No stick – slip
❖ Ease of assembly
❖ Commercially available in ready to fit condition
❖ High load carrying capacity
❖ Heavier preloading possibility high traverse speed

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Disadvantages of LM guideways:

❖ Lower damping capacity

TYPES OF ANTIFRICTION GUIDEWAYS

❖ Linear bearing with balls.

❖ Linear bearing with rollers

Linear bearing with balls:

A linear ball bush uses recirculating balls within a bush type of bearing. These are designed
to run along precision ground shafts and offer frictionless movement over varying strokes
of length with high linear precision.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Linear bearing with Rollers:

The recirculating linear roller bearings are used for movement along a flat plane. Their
main characteristic feature is that there is continuous roller circulation which allows
unlimited linear movement. It consists of hardened and precision ground supporting
elements and a number of cylindrical rollers.

OTHER TYPES OF GUIDE WAYS:

❖ Hydrostatic Guideways
❖ Aerostatic Guideways

Hydrostatic Guideways:

The surface of the slide is separated from the guideway by a very thin film of fluid supplied
at pressures as high as 300 bar. Frictional wear and stick slip are entirely eliminated. A
high degree of dynamic stiffness and damping is obtained with these guideways. Their
application is limited due to high cost and difficulty in assembly.

Aerostatic Guideways:

The slide is raised on a cushion of compressed air which entirely separates the slide and
the guideway surfaces. The major limitation is the lower stiffness, which limits their
application to positioning only (Coordinate Measuring Machine)

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

The selection of guideways for a particular application basically depends on the

requirements of the load carrying capacity, damping and the transverse speed. In order to
get the maximum benefit, most of the machine tool manufacturers make use of a
combination of antifriction and friction guideways with PTFE lining. Such a combination
improves the load carrying capacity through the use of antifriction guideways and the
damping property through the use of friction guideways.

MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:

The mechanical transmission system comprises of all the components which are in the
force and motion transmission paths from drive motor to the slide. they are:

1. Elements to convert the rotary motion to the linear motion

2. Torque transmission elements

The main criterions to be considered in the design of a mechanical transmission system

is to keep the transmission errors to a minimum. The essential requirements for this are:

❖ High natural frequency

❖ High stiffness
❖ Sufficient damping
❖ Low friction
❖ Backlash free operation

ELEMENTS USED TO CONVERT THE ROTARY MOTION TO A LINEAR

MOTION:

Several actuating mechanisms are used in CNC machines to convert the rotational
movements to a translational movement. they are as follows:

Screw and Nut:

The screw and Nut system is effective for medium traverses. With longer traverses the
screw lags under its own weight. Conventionl vee, trapezoidal or square thread forms are
not suitable for CNC machines because the sliding action results in the rapid wear and the
friction is high. The efficiency of these scres is only of the order of 40%.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Recirculating ball screw:

In ball screws, the sliding friction encountered in conventional screws and nuts is replaced
by rolling friction in a manner analogous to the replacement of simple journal bearings by
ball bearings. Two types of thread forms are used on these screws. They are gothic arc
and circular arc

The efficiency of the recirculating ball screw is of the order of 90% and is obtained by the
balls providing rolling motion between the screw and the nut.

Recirculating arrangements:

The balls rotate between the screw and the nut, and at some point are returned to the
start of the thread in the nut.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Two types of arrangements are there;

1. Recirculation through an external tube

2. Recirculation through an insert channel

Recirculation through an external tube:

Here, the balls are returned through an external tube. The balls at the end of the thread
will be picked up by a return tube which recirculates the balls to the beginning of the load
zone by providing continuous rolling motion.

Recirculation through an insert channel:

Here, the balls are returned to the start through a channel inside the nut.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Advantages:

The recirculating ball screws are widely used in the CNC machine tools because of the
following advantages.

• Low frictional resistance

• Low drive power requirement
• Little temperature rise
• Less wear and longer life
• No stick – slip effect
• High traverse speed
• High efficiency

Roller Screws:

They provide backlash free movement and their efficiency is of the same order as of ball
screws. They will provide more accurate positional control. Roller screws are much costlier
than the ball screws. Rollers are positioned between the nut and the screw and engage
with the thread form inside the nut and on the outside of the screw.

Generally two types of roller screws are used:

❖ Planetary roller screws

❖ Recirculating roller screws

Planetary roller screws:

In planetary roller screw the rollers are threaded and gear teeth are cut on each end of
the rollers. The gear teeth mesh with an internally toothed ring on the nut which drives
the roller to provide a rolling motion between the nut and the screw. Rollers are equally
spaced and positioned using spigots which engage themselves in the locating rings at
each end of the nut. There is no axial movement of the rollers relative to the nut. They
are capable of transmitting high loads at fast speeds.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Recirculating roller screws:

In recirculating type, the rollers are not threaded but have circular grooves of thread form
along their length. The rollers are equally spaced around the shaft and are kept in their
circumferential position by a cage. The rollers move axially relative to the nut at a distance
equal to the pitch of the screw for each rotation of the screw or nut.

There is an axial recess cut along the inside of the nut. After one rotation of the drive screw,
the rollers pass into this recess and disengage from the thread on the screw and the nut.
While they are in the recess, the edge cam on a ring inside the nut causes them to move
back to their starting positions. While one roller is disengaged, other rollers provide the
driving power. They are slower in operation than the planetary type but are capable of
taking high loads with greater accuracy.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

1. Shaft
2. Nut
3. Rollers
4. Cage
5. Axial recess
6. An edge cam

Rack and Pinion:

For longer strokes, a ball screw needs to be supported at intermediate points to minimise
deflections due to its own weight. In addition, there is a limitation on the operating speed
of a ball screw. These factors restrict the use of ball screws for machines with longer
strokes. Rack and Pinion drives are particularly suitable for longer strokes.

Rack and pinion, consists of a bar of rectangular cross section (the rack), having teeth on
one side that mesh with teeth on a small gear (the pinion). The pinion may have straight
teeth.

If the pinion rotates about a fixed axis, the rack will translate; i.e., move on a straight path,
as shown by the arrow AB. If the rack is fixed and the pinion is carried in bearings on a
table guided on tracks parallel to the rack, rotation of the pinion shaft will move the table

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

parallel to the rack as shown by the arrow CD in the Figure. On machine tools tools, rack-
and-pinion mechanisms are used in this way to obtain rapid movements of worktables;

SPINDLE ASSEMBLY:

CNC spindles play a crucial role in machining. These components are fundamental to a
fast and efficient process, while also ensuring that produced elements are as precise as
possible.

A machine spindle is a critical component, and is needed in a wide array of industries,

including the automotive and aerospace sectors. Spindles are electrically or air-powered
devices that come in numerous sizes. Typically, there is a shaft that holds the tool together,
a motor, and a taper used to control various tools. Then, the spindle rotates on an axis.
The axis is controlled by commands coming from either a person or a computer. As the
machine rotates the tool, the spindle cuts, slices, refines, and more.

CNC spindles come in many shapes and forms, but they are typically divided into two
categories, each of which has its own set of benefits.
• Integral Motor Spindle: This device comes with an internal motor that can reach
a maximum speed of 60,000 RPMs. Because this machine can spin so quickly,
it can be used in a variety of applications. On the other hand, because it rotates
so quickly, it also burns out quickly. Its power and torque might be limited
depending on the motor housing.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

• Belt-Driven Spindle: This machine spindle can rotate up to 15,000 RPMs.

Although it is not as quick as an integral motor spindle, it has an external motor
that allows it to deliver more power and torque. It is also not as expensive as
an internal motor spindle.

TORQUE TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS:

The Torque is transmitted from a prime mover shaft to an output shaft through torque
transmission elements. The various torque transmission elements are:

❖ Gears
❖ Timing belts
❖ Flexible couplings

GEARS:

Gears are toothed, mechanical transmission elements used to transfer motion and power
between machine components, Operating in mated pairs, gears mesh their teeth with the
teeth of another corresponding gear or toothed component which prevents slippage during
the transmission process. Each gear or toothed component is attached to a machine shaft
or base component, therefore when the driving gear (i.e., the gear that provides the initial
rotational input) rotates along with its shaft component, the driven gear (i.e., the gear or
toothed component which is impacted by the driving gear and exhibits the final output)
rotates or translates its shaft component.

Depending on the design and construction of the gear pair, the transference of motion
between the driving shaft and the driven shaft can result in a change of the direction of
rotation or movement. Additionally, if the gears are not of equal sizes, the machine or
system experiences a mechanical advantage which allows for a change in the output
speed and torque (i.e., the force which causes an object to rotate).

Gears and their mechanical characteristics are widely employed throughout industry to
transmit motion and power in a variety of mechanical devices, such as clocks,
instrumentation, and equipment, and to reduce or increase speed and torque in a variety
of motorized devices, including automobiles, motorcycles, and machines. Other design
characteristics, including construction material, gear shape, tooth construction and design,

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

and gear pair configuration, help to classify and categorize the various types of gears
available. Each of these gears offers different behaviors and advantages, but the
requirements and specifications demanded by a particular motion or power transmission
application determine the type of gear most suitable for use.

There are several different types of gears available. Some of the more common types of
gears employed throughout industry include:

• Spur gears
• Helical gears
• Bevel gears
• Worm gears
• Rack and pinion

TIMING BELTS:

These are endless toothed belts. The teeth engage with a timing pulley having teeth on its
periphery. The teeth profiles on the belt and the pulley are compatible with each other.
They are becoming more popular due to their inherent advantages low cost, less noise,
elimination of lubrication, less maintenance and higher efficiency. It is a positive
transmission system. It has a steel wire reinforcement

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS:

Flexible couplings are one of the major types of couplings. Flexible couplings are the
coupling device used for the flexible connection. It is the type of coupling used to join shafts
having misalignment in lateral or angular directions. It has flexible connection allowing the
misalignments.

The elements used have the capacity to absorb the shock loads and the vibrations.They
find use to connect two shafts, end-to-end in the same line to transmit power that is torque
from one shaft to another, thereby causing both to rotate in unison, at the same rpm. The
other purpose is to compensate for small amounts of misalignment and random movement
between the two shafts. Several factors should always be taken into consideration when
looking to specify flexible couplings.

SPINDLE BEARINGS:

The rotational accuracy of the spindle is dependent on the quality and design of the
bearings used and the preloading. The bearings should support the spindle radially and
axially. The accuracy and the quality of the work produced depends directly on the
geometrical accuracy, running accuracy and stiffness of the spindle assembly.

Various types of spindle bearings used in the design of a spindle for machine tools are;

➢ Hydrodynamic bearings
➢ Hydrostatic bearings
➢ Antifriction bearings

HYDRODYNAMIC BEARINGS

Hydrodynamic bearings are journal bearings with a thin film of oil between the spindle
and journal. These are used where the load carrying capacities are low and frequent
starting and stopping of the spindle is not required. The essential features are;

➢ Simplicity
➢ Good damping properties
➢ Good running accuracy

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

The pressure of the oil is created within the bearings by the rotation of the spindle. As the
spindle rotates, the oil in contact with the spindle is carried into wedge shaped cavities
between the spindle and the bearing. The oil pressure is increased as the oil is forced
through the small clearances between the bearing and the spindle. The main limitation of
hydrodynamic bearing is that a definite clearance (50μm to 200μm) must be provided for
the oil film to be maintained between the spindle and the bearing.

HYDROSTATIC BEARINGS:

For a hydrostatic bearings, the spindle is supported by a relatively thick film of oil supplied
under pressure. The oil is pressurized by a pump external to the bearing. The load carrying
capacity of this type of bearing is independent of the rotational speed. These are used only
where temperature effects cause problems in the part accuracy. They are very expensive.

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M

CNC Machine Tools 18ME821 Module 2

Advantages are;

➢ High damping properties

➢ High running accuracy
➢ High wear resistance

ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS:

These are suitable for high speeds and high loads. They are used in preference to
hydrodynamic bearings because of their Low friction, moderate dimensions, lesser liability,
ease of replacement and high reliability. For efficient service, it is essential that all the
components of the ball and roller bearings, particularly the rolling elements, and the inner
and outer bearing tracks are of the highest accuracy. The selection of a particular type of
bearing for the spindle depends on the requirements of the particular machines like speed
of operation, accuracy of the spindle and stiffness of the spindle. Different types of ball and
roller bearings used in CNC machines are;

• Ball bearings
• Deep groove ball bearings
• Angular contact ball bearings
• Roller bearings
• Cylindrical roller bearings
• Cylindrical roller bearings (double row) with tapered bore
• Tapered roller bearings

***************

Dr. K. M. Sathish Kumar, Dept. of ME, BMSIT&M