Chapter 1 Introduction to Research

Intended Learning outcomes

 explained research and the different definitions of research;
 discussed the objectives of research;
 descused the research process;
 identify and define the key stages of the generalised research process
 discussed the criteria of good research
 differentiate the types of research

 Values:
 set the motivation in research; and
 Developed consciousness on the ethical principles of research

Lesson 1. Definition, Importance and Purpose of Research

1. Meaning of Research
Research seeks the answer of certain questions which have not been answered so far, and the
answers depend upon human efforts. In common parlance, it refers to a search for knowledge. The
Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of current English lays down the meaning of research as a careful
investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. In this
sense, it is a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the
unknown confronts us, we wonder our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller
understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the
method that we employ to obtain the knowledge that can be termed research (Kothari, 1990).

2. Definition of Research
The term ‘research’ consists of two words:
Research: Re+ search
‘Re’ means again and again and ‘search’ means to find out something. The following is the process:

Observes Collection of data

Person --------------------------> Phenomena ------------------------> Conclusions
Again and again Analysis of data

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different dimensions.
It is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and again and collects data on the
basis of data s/he draws some conclusions.

Research is oriented towards the discovery of relationship that exists among phenomena of the
world in which we live. The fundamental assumption is that invariant relationship exists between
antecedents and certain consequents so that under a specific set of conditions a certain
consequences can be expected to follow the introduction of a given antecedent:

• According to Rusk
"Research is a point of a view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks questions which
have hitherto not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure.
It is not a mere theorizing, but rather an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have
been assembled. Research is likewise not an attempt to bolster up pre-conceived opinions, and
 implies a readiness to accept the conclusions to which an inquiry leads, no matter how unwelcome
they may prove. When successful, research adds to the scientific knowledge of the subject”.

• According to George J. Mouly

"Research is the systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method interpreted in its
broadest sense, to the solution of social […] problems; conversely, any systematic study designed
to promote the development of social studies as a science can be considered research”.

• According to Francis G. Cornell

“To be sure the best research is that which is reliable, verifiable, and exhaustive, so that it provides
information in which we have confidence. The main point here is that research is, literally
speaking, a kind of human behaviour, an activity in which people engage”.

• According to C. Woody
“Research is a carefully inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; a diligent
investigation to ascertain something; and this definition makes clear the fact that research is not
merely a search for truth, but a prolonged, intensive, purposeful search. It constitutes a method
for the discovery of truth which is really a method of critical thinking; it is comprising defining
and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing
and evaluating data; making decisions and reaching conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypotheses”.

• According to C.C. Crawdford

“Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools,
instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would
be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analyses these
critically and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of
mere exercise of personal. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove
something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only what but how much, and measurement is
therefore, a central feature for it”.

• According to P.M. Cook

"Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for fact and their meanings or
implications with reference to a given problem. The product of findings of a given piece of research
should be an authentic, verifiable, and contribution to knowledge in the field studied”.

He has emphasised the following characteristics of research in his description:

− It is an honest and exhaustive process.
− The facts are studied with understanding.
− The facts are discovered in the light of a problem. Research is problem- centred.
− The findings are valid and verifiable.
− Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field (Cited in Singh, 2006).

• According to P.D. Leedy

“Research is the manner in which we solve knotty problems in an attempt to push back the
frontiers of human ignorance. Research is ultimately a way of thinking. It is a way of looking at
accumulated fact so that a collection of data speaks to the mind of the researcher”.

She has insisted on that research has many discrete characteristics. These characteristics
comprise the particular approach to a probing for truth. These latter include the following:
 • Research begins with a question in the mind of the researcher.
• Research demands the identification of a problem, stated in clear, unambiguous terms.
• Research requires a plan.
• Research deals with the main problem through appropriate sub-problems.
• Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses and is based upon obvious
assumption.
• Research deals with facts.
• Research is circular (Cited in Leeds, 1980).

3. Importance of research
What makes people to undertake research is a question of fundamental importance. The possible
motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
• Desire to get a research degree with its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face challenge in solving unsolved problems;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing more creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society; and
• Desire to get respectability (Kothari, 1990).

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors, such as: directives of government, employment conditions; curiosity
about new things; desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and
the like may as well motivate people to perform research operation.

4. Objectives of research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered yet. Kothari (1990) sees that each research study has its own specific purposes.
These objectives often fall under a number of broad groupings. Some examples of these are as
follows:
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. Studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else. Studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies.
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. Studies with this object are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies.

On the same issue, Singh (2006) provides a different classification of objectives. For him, there are
three fundamental objectives of research. These are:
• Theoretical Objectives
Those researches whose objectives are theoretical aim to formulate new theories, principles, or
laws. Such type of research is exploratory because it explains the relationships of certain variables.
The researches contribute some basic knowledge to the human knowledge.

• Factual Objectives

These researches whose objectives are factual aim to find out new facts. This objective by nature is
descriptive. These researches describe facts or events which happened previously. Such type of
research is done in history.

• Application objectives

The research having application objectives does not contribute a new knowledge in the field
of human knowledge but suggests new applications. By application, we mean improvement
and modification.

Lesson 2. The Research Process

Research as a process

Research can be seen as a series of linked activities moving from a beginning to an end. Research
usually begins with the identification of a problem followed by formulation of research questions or
objectives. Proceeding from this the researcher determines how best to answer these questions and
so decides what information to collect, how it will be collected, and how it will be analysed in order
to answer the research question.

1. Research process — linear representation

Define problem

Specify research questions or hypotheses

Design research
(sampling, data collection techniques, data processing and analysis)

Select units of study

Collect data

Analyse data to answer questions or test hypotheses

Write report
Described in this way the research process is given the impression of linearity, yet research
investigation is often an iterative process whereby the process of conducting the research will give
rise to new ideas which, in turn, feed back into the data collection and analysis stage. Decisions made
early in the research process are often revisited in the light of new insights or practical problems
encountered along the way.

2. Cyclical or iterative research process

Define problem

2
4 Specify research questions or hypotheses 1 3

3 Design research 4
(sampling, data collection techniques, data 2
processing and analysis)

4 Select units of study

Collect data 4

Analyse data to answer questions or

test hypotheses

Write report

(1) Through the process of designing your research, consideration of both practical and
conceptual issues may force you to reconsider your original research question.

(2) Difficulties with access to research sites or participants may cause you to reconsider your
questions or your methods.

(3) Issues arising during data collection may suggest that additional data are required or reveal
problems with the original research question.

(4) Problems or new questions arising from analysis of data collected so far may result in a need
to collect more data, sample elsewhere or employ a different technique.
(5) Finally you progress to the report writing stage.

Regardless of the route taken subsequently, research should start with the problem and the
research questions. If the intention of research is to answer your questions, it follows that choice of
method should develop from your question: choose the method that can best provide the
 information you need to answer your research question given the resources available to you. This
is one reason why it is very important to be clear as to what you are asking.
As you can see there are numerous choices to be made within the research process. Planning your
research involves the consideration of four overlapping themes.
• The conceptual approach – the philosophical underpinnings of research

• Research design – how data collection is organized

• Data collection techniques – how data are collected

• Sampling – from whom data are collected.

These aspects of research planning can be represented as forming different layers of a research
‘onion’.

3. The ‘onion’ diagram of research choices

Each layer of the onion presents a different set of choices regarding research philosophy, research
approach, method and so on. All research involves choices at all these levels, though these choices
are not always made explicit. Choices further into the centre of the onion are often, but not always,
contingent on those made further out.

Other considerations
Choices in research planning must also take into account the following:

• the types of information outputs required – who needs the information and for what purposes
 • research resources – time, funds, facilities, staff, and access

• ethical considerations – for example, within the research plan is it possible to obtain informed
consent from all participants, does the plan involve any risks to the safety of the researcher, can
the researchers assure the confidentiality of all information given?

Clarifying terminology
Terms commonly encounter, some of which may seem somewhat interchangeable.

• ‘Research topic’ often used interchangeably or to mean the same thing as others’ use of the
terms research problem’ and ‘research situation’.

• ‘Research strategy’ often used interchangeably or to mean the same thing as others’ use of the
term ‘research approach’.
• ‘Method’ can refer to a broad strategy of data collection or a specific tool for collecting data.
For example ‘survey’ or ‘ethnography’ are sometimes defined as methods, as are ‘interview’
and ‘observation’. For this reason we will limit the use of the word method.

Research process terminology, module definitions

• Plan

General plan of how research questions will be answered, this includes the approach and
design

• Research approach
This is the theoretical or conceptual basis for the research. For example: positivist,
interpretivist, realist etc.

• Research design
How data collection is organised in order to answer the research question. Basic design types
are: (1) Situation, ‘snap-shot’ or Baseline (sometimes called case-study); (2) Cross- sectional
comparison; (3) Longitudinal; (4) Longitudinal comparison; (5) Experiment.

• Research strategy
Refers to a methodological practice or tradition: For example: experiment, survey research, or
case studies.

• Data collection techniques

How data are collected: questionnaire; interview; observation; documentary analysis. S
Generalized summary of the research process

Whatever approach or strategy is followed, the research process can usually be summarized as
follows:

• Identify and formulate the research topic or problem

Select, narrow and formulate the topic or problem to be studied and conduct preliminary
literature search.

• Literature search and review

Read around the subject to help clarify your research topic, questions, and methods. Critically
review literature to compare your research with what has already been done, and to give
context. This stage interacts with other stages.

• Research objectives, questions, and hypotheses

Define clear questions and/or hypotheses.

• Research approach, design, and strategy

Select a research approach and design that will make it possible to answer research questions
and plan the overall research strategy.

Identify the data you want to record and from whom/where you are going to collect it
(sampling).

• Data collection

• Data analysis
The data collected are prepared in such a way that they describe and highlight what was found
in the research. Analytical tools are used to describe the data and measure or explore
relationships between the subjects or items of interest.

• Generalization and write-up

The researcher relates the evidence collected to the research question(s), draws conclusions
about the question(s) or hypotheses, and acknowledges limitations of the research.
Lesson 3. General Characteristics of Research and Criteria of Good Research
General Characteristics of Research
The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of “research”:
• It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
• It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
• It is an extent systematic and accurate investigation.
• It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
• It is logical and exact.
• The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
• Research is patient and unhurried activity
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
• Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously (Singh,2006).

Criteria of a Good Research

Whatever may be research is, one can state the qualities of good research should be as under:
• Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in
specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking but certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition
in arriving at conclusions.

• Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and
the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Introduction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole; whereas, deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.

• Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating
the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions (Kothari, 1990).

Lesson 4 Types and Methods of Research

Types of Research

The basic types of research are:

1. Description Vs. Analytical

The major aim of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exits at present. In
analytical research, on the other hand, researcher has to use facts or information already available,
and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the materials.

2. Applied Vs. Fundamental

Research can either be applied or (action) research or fundamental (basic or pure) research. Applied
research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an organisation;
whereas, fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation
of the theory

3. Conceptual Vs. Empirical

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or reinterpret new ideas. On the other hand,
empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system or
theory.

4. Other types of research

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above examples. Generally, these types
of research are based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research,
or the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some similar factor.

From the point of time, we can think of research as one-time research or longitudinal research.
Depending on the environment, research can be field-self research or laboratory research. The
research may be exploratory or it may be formalised. The objectives of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than testing these hypotheses; whereas, formulised research
studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
Historical research is that which utilises historical sources likes documents. It is concerned with the
study of ideas, or events of the past. Research can also be classified as conclusions-oriented and
decision-oriented. A research in doing conclusion oriented research is free to pick-up a problem, re-
design the enquiry as s/he proceeds, and is prepared to conceptualise as s/he wishes. On the other
hand, decision-oriented research is always for the need of decision maker and the researcher. In this
case, the researcher is not free to embark upon research according to his/her inclination.

Lesson 5. Research Ethics

Research ethics

As a concept, ‘research ethics’ refers to a complex set of values, standards and institutional schemes
that help constitute and regulate scientific activity. Ultimately, research ethics is a codification of
ethics of science in practice. In other words, it is based on general ethics of science, just as general
ethics is based on common sense morality.

The ethical responsibilities inherent in research are partly associated with standards related to the
research process, including relationships between researchers, and partly with respect for the
individuals and institutions being studied, including responsibility for the use and dissemination of
the research.

Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics
involving scientific research.

The application of fundamental ethical principles to a topics like

1. The design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal
experimentation
 2. Various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconducts (such as fraud,
fabrication of data and plagiarism),
3. Whistle blowing (wrongdoing within an organization to the public or to those in positions of
authority); regulation of research, etc. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in all the
scientific research.
4. Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research.

Objectives in research ethics

1. The first and broadest objective is to protect human participants.
2. The second objective is to ensure that research is conducted in a way that serves interests of
individuals, groups and/or society as a whole.
3. Finally, the third objective is to examine specific research activities and projects for their
ethical soundness, looking at issues such as the management of risk, protection of
confidentiality and the process of informed consent

Important areas of educational research

Ethical norms (BERA, 2011; Hammersley and Traianou, 2012; Smith, 2002) guide the Educational
researchers to account responsibilities towards Participants, Users, area and Research community:

a. Responsibility towards Participants.

a. Autonomy of participant should be respected.
b. Protection of privacy.
c. Reciprocity to the respondents.
d. People to be treated Equitably.
e. Informed Consent. Conflict of interest.
b. Responsibility towards Users.

c. Responsibility towards the Area.

d. Responsibility towards the Research Community.

Note: Read the attachment of Lesson 5 (BERA, 2011; Hammersley and Traianou, 2012; Smith,
2002) guide the Educational researchers.