INTRODUCTION

1. Meaning of Research

The word ‘Research’ is comprises of two words = Re+ Search. It means to search again. So
research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the already
existing facts. Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for bringing to light new
knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes, removing existing
misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund of knowledge. Researchers are
considered as a combination of those activities which are removed from day to day life and are
pursued by those persons who are gifted in intellect and sincere in pursuit of knowledge. But it is
not correct to say that the research is restricted to such type of persons, however, it is correct to
say that major contribution of research comes from highly gifted and committed workers. Thus
the research is not at all mysterious and is carried on by hundreds of thousands of average
individuals. Research is also considered as the application of scientific method in solving the
problems. It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of
analysis. There are many ways of obtaining knowledge. They are intuition, revelation, and
authority, logical manipulation of basic assumptions, informed guesses, observation, and
reasoning by analogy. One of the branches of research known as empirical research is highly
goal-oriented technique.

1.1. What scholars say about research?

The following are the important definitions of research:

“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an
intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose and form
and always researching to truth.”
J. Francis Rummel
“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or
implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of
research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the field studied.”
P.M. Cook
“Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived
partly or wholly from facts.”
W.S. Monroes

“Research comprises defining and redefining problems ,formulating hypothesis or suggested

solutions, collecting ,organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypothesis.”
Clifford Woody
“Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
Redman & Mori
“Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and
systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts, analyze their
sequences, inter-relationships and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate
theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would
facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.”
P.V. Younge

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” (Oxford, 1952, p. 1069) Redman and Mory define
research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”( L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory,
1923). Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness
for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and
attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all
knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the
unknown, can be termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social
Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.” Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing
stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for
some theoretical formulation. Generally, Research is:
1. The collecting of information about a particular subject
2. To study (something) carefully
3. To collect information about or for (something)
4. Careful or diligent search
5. Studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new
facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws. And it consists of: Asking
a question that nobody has asked before; Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and
communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.
1.2. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, some general
objectives of research below:
  To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else. (Studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies).
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variable
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulate research studies);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.3. SCOPE OF RESEARCH

1. To know the Business Competition – Environment

a. To know the Customers:- Know about customers needs,
b. To know the Product – Design, Price, Expectations
2. To know the Industry Competition:
3. Maturing of Management as a group of disciplines
4 Stakeholders demanding greater influence
5. To know the Global Competition
6. Government Intervention
7. Economical Data Collection

1.4. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

1.5. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

It is clear that research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to
answer questions. But to quality as research, the process must have certain characteristics. It
must, as far as possible, be controlled rigorous, systematic, valid, verifiable, empirical and
critical. Let us briefly examine these characteristics for proper understanding.

A) Controlled: There are many factors that affect on outcome. In a study of cause and effect
relationships it is important to be able to link the effect (s) with the cause (s) and vice versa.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring set up your study in a way that minimizes
the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This is possible in physical sciences,
where as in social sciences such controls as impossible, therefore attempts are made to
quantity their impact.
B) Rigorous: You must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answer to
questions are relevant; appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies between
the physical and the social sciences.
C) Systematic: This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logic sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
D) Valid and Verifiable: This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
E) Empirical: This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
F) Critical: Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research inquiry. The process of investigation must be fool proof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Generally, the characteristics of research are;
 Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.
 Research requires expertise.
 Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will
be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
 Research demands accurate observation and description.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
 Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
 Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
 Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions reached.
 Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
 Research is carefully recorded and collected.
 Research sometimes requires courage.
RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process contains a series of closely related activities which has to carry out by a
researcher.
Research process requires patients. There is no measure that shows your research is the best. It is
an art rather than a science. Following are the main steps in social research process.

1. Selection of Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Survey
3. Making Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Sampling
6. Data collection
7. Data Analysis
8. Hypothesis Testing
9. Generalization and Interpretation
10. Preparation of Report

1.1. SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

The selection of topic for research is a difficult job. When we select a title or research statement,
then other activities would be easy to perform. So, for the understanding thoroughly the problem
it must have to discuss with colleagues, friend, experts and teachers. The research topic or
problem should be practical, relatively important, feasible, ethically and politically acceptable.

The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in our backyards.
Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual may still exist for
another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/ situation/ system/time etc.,
still remains a problem for another class/ school/ teacher/ situation/system/time or a problem
solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse of time. We become habitual of living in the
age of problems i.e. we are so much surrounded by the problem that we suffers from ,”problem
blindness”. But in order to solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the problem.
Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem is the first
step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is wrong to think that
identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or statement of the problem.

A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms but they are
inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of field studied,
whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement of the problem. The
topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the task of a researcher. It is
the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study from different sources
especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem, but a problem is made on
the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active involvement in their research activities,
whatever, they do, do mechanically.
1.1.1. DEFINITIONS OF THE PROBLEM

The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different definitions of the
problem are given below;
“Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.”
John Geoffery
“Problem is a question which is to be solved.”
John. G. Tornsand
“To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful distinctions from
like questions found in related situations of need.”
Whitney
“A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem exists when there
is a no available answer to same question.”
J.C. Townsend
“A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation exists between two
or more variables?”
F.N. Kerlinger
“To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question and
subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation must be
determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to determine just what
is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of view or educational theory on
which the investigation is to be based. If certain assumptions are made, they must be explicitly
noted.”
Monero and Engelhart
1.1.2. IDENTIFICATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;

Step I Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the research work.
Step II The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his
specialization.
Step III He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend and studies
are being conducted in the area.
Step IV On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.
Step V He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal
experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expert of the
field.
Step VI He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.

1.1.3. THE SOURCES OF THE PROBLEM

(i) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are obvious
sources.

(ii) Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new problems
and opportunities for research.

(iii) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of educational,
research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of researches, dissertations and
many similar publications are rich sources of research problems.

(iv)Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest additional
areas of needed research.

(v) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty members
and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be solved, close
professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive academic climate are
especially advantageous opportunities.
(vi) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and research
oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness.

(vii) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most
experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant problems of the area. He can
discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.
1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements;

1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables.

2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.

3. It should be amenable to empirical testing. Meeting these criteria in his problem statement
will result, in a clear and concise idea of what the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for
further planning.

1.2.1. OBJECTIVES OF ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE PROBLEM

1. To make the research work feasible.
2. To delimit the scope of the problem.
3. To establish the proper frame of reference.
1.2.2. ASPECTS OF DELIMITING A PROBLEM

1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem.

2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, and college or university level.

3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.

4. Delimited to the best method only.

5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.

6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.

7. Other delimitations particular to a problem.

As the above delimitations help the researcher for conducting the study, the findings of studies
also confine to these delimitations.

1.2.3. EVALUATION OF THE PROBLEM

When considering a problem a researcher is required to ask himself a series of questions about it.
These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the basis of personal suitability of the
researcher and social value of the problem. The following questions must be answered
affirmatively before the study is under taken:
1. Is the Problem Researchable?
2. Is the Problem New?
3. Is the Problem Significant?
4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?
In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:
a) Research competencies of the Researcher
b) Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher
c) Financial consideration in the Project
d) Time requirement for the Project
e) Administrative considerations in the Project.

1.2.4. FIVE WAYS TO FORMULATE THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Specify the Research Objectives: A clear statement of objectives will help you develop
effective research. It will help the decision makers evaluate your project. It’s critical that you
have manageable objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep your research project
focused and relevant.)
2. Review the Environment or Context of the Research Problem: As a marketing researcher, you
must work closely with your team. This will help you determine whether the findings of your
project will produce enough information to be worth the cost.
In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the research
project.
3. Explore the Nature of the Problem: Research problems range from simple to complex,
depending on the number of variables and the nature of their relationship. If you understand the
nature of the problem as a researcher, you will be able to better develop a solution for the
problem.
To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider focus groups of consumers,
sales people, managers, or professionals to provide what is sometimes much needed insight.
4. Define the Variable Relationships: Marketing plans often focus on creating a sequence of
behaviors that occur over time, as in the adoption of a new package design, or the introduction of
a new product. Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern in the
future. Studying such a process involves:
 Determining which variables affect the solution to the problem.
 Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled.
 Determining the functional relationships between the variables and which variables are
critical to the solution of the problem. During the problem formulation stage, you will want
to generate and consider as many courses of action and variable relationships as possible.
5. The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action: There are always consequences to any
course of action. Anticipating and communicating the possible outcomes of various courses of
action is a primary responsibility in the research process.

1.3. LITERATURE REVIEW OR EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY

After the selection of research problem, the second step is that of literature mostly connected
with the topics. The availability of the literature may bring ease in the research. For this purpose
academic journals, conference and govt. reports and library must be studied.

1.3.1. A LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is a compilation, classification, and evaluation of what other researchers have
written on a particular topic.
A literature review normally forms part of a research thesis but it can also stand alone as a self-
contained review of writings on a subject. In either case, its purpose is to:
􀂃 Place each work in the context of its contribution to the subject under review;
􀂃 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration;
􀂃 Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research;
􀂃 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies;
􀂃 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort;
􀂃 Point the way forward for further research;
􀂃 Place an original piece of research in the context of existing literature.
You can think of the above points as goals to be achieved in the process of writing a literature
review. Before you can achieve any of these goals, however, you need to narrow down the
possible subject areas into a relatively well-defined problem/issue, research question, or research
objective.

1.3.2. PURPOSES OF REVIEWING LITERATURE

Some (mis-)conceptions: To what extent does the ff represents your view (not)?
• Easier than data analysis
• Done to show that I know the area
• Done before data collection/analysis
• About what others wrote than my views
• Focuses on theoretical information than empirical data
• considers whether the topic can and should be researched or not
• Done in “Chapter Two”
• Descriptive i.e., +ve presentation of others’ views
• Critical, i.e., critique (both +vely & -vely ) others’ views
• Reflective, i.e., presentation of own positions, theories, hypothesis

1.3.3. SELECTING THE TOPIC AND THE LITERATURE

A. Pick a topic:- Picking a topic for the project tends to be a daunting task for many students
because it is difficult to pick a topic in an area that you don’t know much about. A common
mistake is spending too much time trying to pick the perfect topic. It is therefore best to do some
exploring, than pick a topic and go with it. In the end, the worst that can happen is that you have
picked up some valuable research skills, but realize the topic you chose is not one you wish to
pursue in the future. That is information you did not have at the beginning of the semester, so it
is not a loss at all! To help yourself with the topic selection here are some things you should
definitely do before the first midterm:
1. Think about topics you have found interesting while taking economics elective courses. This
will be a good starting place but keep in mind that topics in discussed in your economics classes
are very broad and within each there is likely to be a wealth of literature to pick from. If you can
think of something that interested you at this stage, you will have to narrow down your topic
further.
2. Go to the library and look at the main field journal (for example, in International Trade, the
main field journal is Journal of international Economics). Each issue of the main field journal
will have several articles in potential areas of interest.
3. Browse through some websites that deal with the issue of interest and look at any data sources
they may reference (for example, the World bank or the WTO websites have extensive databases
with useful articles and data).
4. Once you have selected a topic, your main challenge is to formulate a research question or
thesis statement that will help guide you through the process of writing the literature review. This
is the part where you really narrow down your topic. The more well-defined your research
question (topic, problem/issue) is, the easier it will be to select the papers or texts to be reviewed.
In the end, a well-defined topic will allow you to write a literature review that forms a focused
and carefully structured outline of what others have done in the area. Without a well-defined
topic your literature review is in danger of becoming a useless “shopping list” of previous
research.
5. After you have gone through the above steps, schedule a 30 minute appointment with me
during which we can discuss your topic, your research question, and any other questions you
may have.
This needs to happen within the first three weeks of this class.

B. Selecting the literature; - The literature review itself does not constitute new primary
scholarship. However, it will constitute an important part of your final project. In the literature
review section of your project you need to demonstrate that you are able to:
􀂃 determine what has already been written on a topic
􀂃 identify previous approaches to the topic
􀂃 identify central issues in the field
􀂃 integrate what previous researchers have found
􀂃 identify important issues still unresolved
Carefully selecting your papers for review will both necessitate and demonstrate the first three
skills mentioned above. Once you have a topic the main way to find related papers is to follow
references in the papers you already have.
At this point it may be useful to have a checklist of the steps you must take in preparing to write
a literature review. You need to:
􀂃 formulate a problem in your field of study
􀂃 familiarize yourself with a broad range of texts that deal with that problem
􀂃 decide on the texts you wish to include in your review
􀂃 decide on the most appropriate way to classify the texts
􀂃 identify the key issues
􀂃 critically analyze what you have read
􀂃 identify important issues that are still unresolved
􀂃 write a draft of the review
􀂃 read and think about what you have written and then rewrite.

1.3.4. WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW?

In writing a literature review you need to demonstrate your intellectual ability to recognize
relevant information and to synthesize and evaluate it according to the tentative guiding research
question/thesis statement you have developed. Your reader wants to know: a) what literature
exists, but also b) your informed evaluation of the literature. While reviewing the literature, you
need to be answering questions such as:
1. What are the main ideas and contributions that form the core of the literature?
2. Which papers are important and which ones are not?
3. Have there been controversies and how have they been resolved?
4. What are the common assumptions made in the papers you are reviewing?
5. What are the current deficiencies/mistakes and unresolved issues as you see them?
6. Are there important connections to other topics?
7. Has the emphasis been more empirical or theoretical? Why?

1.3.4.1. PURPOSES OF REVIEWING LITERATURE

Some (mis-)conceptions: To what extent does the ff represents your view (not)?
 • Easier than data analysis
• Done to show that I know the area
• Done before data collection/analysis
• About what others wrote than my views
• Focuses on theoretical information than empirical data
• considers whether the topic can and should be researched or not
• Done in “Chapter Two”
• Descriptive i.e., +ve presentation of others’ views
• Critical, i.e., critique (both +vely & -vely ) others’ views
• Reflective, i.e., presentation of own positions, theories, hypotheses.

1.3.4.2. REASON FOR REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Process of production and interpretation of text (spoken or written language) is:
• Discourse practice i.e., produced and presented according to particular conventions and in
conversation with the ‘challenging man’
• Socio cultural practice, i.e., the paper and your actions in writing and presenting it is
shaped by a particular kind of academic public with particular ways of being (a scholar)
and doing (researching) scholarship that were developed over time, within the discipline of
education.

1.3.4.3. Contents of literature review/ How should I structure my Review of the

Literature?

Literature Review chapter can be outlined based on either or some of the ff:
• Your variables/themes (& interrelationships)
• Your research questions/objectives
• Your own inventive ways through reflective questioning:
1. What are the seminal works on my topic? Do I need to mention these?
2. What progress has been made since these seminal works?
3. What are the most relevant recent works? What is the best order to mention these works?
4. What are the achievements and limitations of these recent works?
5. What gap do these limitations reveal?
6. How does my work intend to fill this gap

1.3.4.4. STRUCTURE OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW OUTLINE

1. FIRST LEVEL HEADING

1.1. Second Level Heading
1.2. Second Level Heading
1.2.1. Third level heading
1.2.2. Third level heading
2. FIRST LEVEL HEADING…….

1.4. 4.5. STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENTATIONS UNDER EACH HEADING

Usually (but not the only) writers’ structures:

1. introduction to topicè
2. Ideas from the literatureè
3. Mini summaryè
4. Introduction to next topic. And so on.

6.4.4.6. THE CONTENTS OF THE TEXTS

Signposts – elements in the main text which point forward to the structure of a chapter or a main
section--brief and indicate strictly the sequence of topics to be handled.

Lead-in materials – text which provides a frame for what is to come next, for instance, which
gives set-up information, a context, a back-ground description, or other elements necessary for
understanding a core piece of analysis

Lead-out materials – text which puts a piece of analysis into clearer focus, drawing out
conclusions and implications, and setting them in the wider context of a body of literature, a
subfield or a discipline Once you start to see your literature review as dialogic rather than a
mere replication of other people’s writing, you are going in the right direction.

A literature review should contain answers to the following questions:

 What do we already know about the topic?
  What do you have to say critically about what is already known?
 Has anyone else ever done anything exactly the same?
 Has anyone else done anything that is related?
 Where does your work fit in with what has gone before?
 Why is your research worth doing in the light of what has already been done?
6.4.5. IN YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW YOU SHOULD

􀂃 group research studies and other relevant literature according to a common theme
􀂃 summarize each item of the literature appropriately according to its significance
􀂃 compare and evaluate each item of the literature
􀂃 provide topic sentences at the beginning of paragraphs and summary sentences at the end of
sections to help the reader understand what the main issues are.
Some students find that the most difficult part at this stage is to group the papers they have
chosen for review so that their analysis weaves a logical story of how the literature fits together
and has progressed over time. For this reason, I have provided below some general guidelines on
how you might classify different writings on your topic. You may use the following sub-
headings to classify what you have read, or you may narrow the focus of your review to deal
with some of these categories only. Or there may be still other categories that are more
appropriate for your research. For example:
􀂃 research outcomes
􀂃 research methods
􀂃 theories
􀂃 applications
􀂃 integration of the works of others
􀂃 criticism of previous work
􀂃 building of bridges between related topics
􀂃 identification of central issue(s).

6.4.6. AVOID THESE MISTAKES

􀂃 Remember that your literature review is a highly considered list and that you make reference
to published literature only where necessary. Therefore, your objective in writing a literature
review is NOT to do the following:
 list as many articles and names as possible;
 try to refer to every piece of literature in the area (this is not possible anyway).
􀂃 Remember that, when writing the literature review, you need to demonstrate that you can scan
the literature efficiently and appraise information critically. It is, therefore, a bad sign when
every paragraph begins with the manes of the researchers: “Smith (1992) said…”, “Jones (1995)
claims…” etc. Instead, organize your review into useful, informative sections that present themes
or identify trends (for more information on this see Taylor, D. (2001) “Writing a Literature
Review” at http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html).
6.4.7. WHAT MAKES A GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW?

A good literature review:

􀂃 clearly delimits the subject matter to be reviewed
􀂃 covers all important relevant literature
􀂃 is up-to-date
􀂃 provides an insightful analysis of the ideas and conclusions in the literature
􀂃 points out similarities and differences, strengths and weaknesses in the literature
􀂃 identifies gaps in the literature for future research
􀂃 identifies the context for which the literature is important.

6.4.8. SOME TECHNICALITIES OF REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. To quote or not?
• Reasons for using quotations:
• Quote if you use another person's words: you must not use another person's words as your
own;
• You need to support your points, quoting is one way to do this;
• Quote if the language used in the quotation says what you want to say particularly well.
• Reasons for not using quotations:
• do not quote if the information is well-known in your subject area;
 • do not use a quotation that disagrees with your argument unless you can prove it is
wrong;
• do not quote if you cannot understand the meaning of the original source;
• do not quote if you are not able to paraphrase the original;
• do not use quotations to make your points for you; use them to support your points

B. If you decide to quote

• Enclose all quoted material in quotation marks (" ") and cite the exact source immediately
after the quotation, even if you have mentioned this source earlier.
• Sometimes, for the sake of clarity or length, you may want to alter a direct quotation in
some way to eliminate unnecessary detail. If so, enclose any changed or added words in
square brackets [ ], and indicate any deletions with three ellipsis points (...)
• No need of indented quotation if it is less than three lines
• Indented quotation need not be enclosed in double quotation marks

C. Using Paraphrase and Summary: Paraphrase (keep the same length as the original but
express it in other words) or summarize (shorten the original and capture the key ideas),
when you feel:
 not all of the piece you want to quote is relevant,
 what you want to say in a rather lengthy way
 that his or her argument would not benefit from the inclusion of the exact words
 In both case mention the name of the author, the year of publication

6.4.9. NAME AUTHOR: INTEGRAL VS. NON-INTEGRAL

Integral citation
• According to Peters (1983) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical
phrases are learnt first as unanalyzed lexical chunks.
• Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that lexical phrases are learnt first as
unanalyzed lexical chunks was given by Peters (1983).

Non-integral citation
 • Evidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983) indicates that lexical phrases are
learnt first as unanalyzed lexical chunks.
• Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalyzed lexical chunks (Peters, 1983).

Compare these: Which one is integral or non-integral?

• Widdowson (1979, p. 5) states that “there is a good deal of argument in favor of

extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to
communicative effect.”
• Prominent scholars agree that "there is a good deal of argument in favor of extending the
concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect"
(Widdowson 1979, p. 5).
• According to Widdowson (1979),”there is a good deal of argument in favor of extending
the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect”
(p. 5).
• According to Widdowson, “there is a good deal of argument in favor of extending the
concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect”
(1979, p. 5).
• According to one researcher, “there is a good deal of argument in favor of extending the
concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect”
(Widdowson, 1979, p. 5).
7. MAKING HYPOTHESIS
7.1. INTRODUCTION

The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher experience. The
hypothesis is to draw the positive & negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis
narrows down the area of a research and keep a researcher on the right path. The important
consideration in the formulation of a research problem is the construction of hypothesis.
Hypotheses should be clear, specific and focuses to a research problem, but are not essential for a
study. You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing a single formal hypothesis. On
the other hand, within the context of a research study you can construct as many hypotheses as
you consider appropriating. Some believe that one must formulate a hypothesis to undertake an
investigation it is important to formulate hypotheses.

The importance of hypotheses lies in their ability to bring direction, specificity and focus to
research study. They tell a researcher what specific information to collect, and thereby provide
greater focus. Let us imagine you are at the race and you place a bet. You bet on a hunch that a
particular horse will win. You will only know if you hunch was right after the race. Take another
example suppose you have a hunch that there are more smokers than non-smokers in your class.
To test you hunch you ask either all or just some of the class if they are smokers you. Can them
conclude whether you hunch was smoker? Suppose you work in the area of public health. Your
clinical impression is that a higher rate of a particular condition prevails among people coming
from a specific population subgroup. You want to find our probable cause of this condition.
These could be many causes. To explore every conceivable possibility would require an
enormous amount of time and resources. Hence, to narrow the choice, based on your knowledge
of the field, you could identify what you assume to be the most probable cause. You could then
design a study to collect the information needed to verify your hunch.

Hypotheses are based upon similar logic as a researcher you do not know about a phenomenon a
situation the prevalence of a condition in a population on about the outcome of a program, but
you do have to form the basis of certain assumptions on gasses. You test these by collecting
information that will enable you to conclude if you hunch was right.

The verification process can have on the three outcomes you hunch proved to be right, partially
right or wrong. Hence a hypothesis is a hunch assumption suspicion ascertains or an idea about a
phenomenon, relationship as situation, the reality or truth on which you do not. Know a
researcher calls these assumptions, assertions, statements or hunches hypotheses and they
become the basis of an inquiry. In most studies the hypothesis will be based upon either previous
studies or on your own or someone else’s observation.

7.1.1. MEANING OF HYPOTHESES

There are many definitions of:
1) A hypothesis. “A hypothesis is conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more
variables.”
2) Webster’s New International Dictionary of English language defines “a hypothesis as a
proposition, condition, or principle which is assumed, perhaps without belief, in order to draw
out its logical consequences and by this method to test its accord with facts which are known or
may be determined.”
3) According to Grinnell and Slothers, a hypothesis is written in such as way that it can be
proven or disproven by valid and reliable data. it is in order to obtain these data that we perform
our study.
4) Hypotheses is a tentative proportion formulated for empirical testing it is a deductive
statement combining concepts. It is a tentative answer to a research question. He is tentative
because its veracity can be evaluated only after it has been tested empirically.
5) Lundberg defines hypothesis as a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be
tested. From the above definitions it is apparent that a hypothesis has certain characteristics.
 It is a tentative proportion
 Its validity is unknown
 In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.

7.1.2. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

These are a number of considerations to keep in mind when constructing a hypothesis as they are
important for valid verification.
A) Simple specific and conceptually clear: There is no place for ambiguity in the construction
of a hypothesis, as ambiguity will make the verification of your hypothesis almost impossible. If
should be one-dimensional. That is it should test only one relationship on hunch at a time to be
able to develop a good hypothesis you must be familiar with the subject are. The more insight
you have into a problem the easier it is to construct a hypothesis. For example “The average age
of the male students in this class is higher than that of the female students”. The above
hypothesis is clear, specific and easy to test. It tells you what you are attempting compare which
population groups are being compared, and what you want to establish. For example “suicide
rate very inversely with social cohesion”. This hypothesis is clear and specific but a lot more
difficult to test. These are three aspects of this hypothesis. Suicide rates vary inversely, which
stipulates the direction of the relationship and social cohesion. To find out the suicide rate and to
establish whether the relationship is inversed or otherwise are comparatively easy, but to
ascertain social cohesion is a lot more determines social cohesion? How can it be measure? This
problem makes if more difficult to test this hypothesis.
B) A hypothesis should be capable of verification:
Methods and techniques must be available for data collection and analysis. There is no point in
formulating a hypothesis if it cannot be subjected to verification because there are no techniques
to verify it. However this does not necessarily means that you should not formulate a hypothesis
for which there are no methods of verification. A hypothesis should be related to the existing
body of knowledge.
C) A hypothesis should be operational is sable this means that it can be expressed in terms that
can be measured it cannot be measured, it cannot be tested and no conclusion can be drawn.

7.1.3. SOURCES OF HYPOTHESES

Hypotheses can be derived from various sources. Some of the sources are given below.
1. Observation: Hypotheses can be derived from observation from the observation of price
behavior in a market. For example the relationship between the price and demand for an
article is hypothesized.
2. Analogies: Analogies are another source of useful hypotheses. Julian Huxley has pointed out
that casual observations in nature or in the framework of another science may be a fertile
source of hypotheses. For example, the hypotheses that similar human types or activities may
be found in similar geophysical regions come from plant ecology.
3. Theory: This is one of the main sources of hypotheses. It gives direction to research by
stating what is known logical deduction from theory lead to new hypotheses. For example,
profit / wealth maximization is considered as the goal of private enterprises. From this
assumption various hypotheses are derived’.
4. State of Knowledge: An important source of hypotheses is the state of knowledge in any
particular science where formal theories exist hypotheses can be deduced. If the hypotheses
are rejected theories are scarce hypotheses are generated from conception frameworks.
5. Culture: Another source of hypotheses is the culture on which the researcher was nurtured.
Western culture has induced the emergence of sociology as academic disciplines over the
past decade, a large part of the hypotheses on American society examined by researchers
were connected with violence.
6. Continuity of Research: The continuity of research in a field itself constitutes an important
source of hypotheses. The rejection of some hypotheses leads to the formulation of new ones
capable of explaining dependent variables in subsequent research on the same subject.

7.1.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

A) Simplicity: Hypotheses should be a simple one requiring fewer conditions on assumptions.

But, simple does not mean obvious, simplicity demands insight. The more insight the
researcher has into a problem the simpler will be his hypotheses about it.

B) Objectivity: Scientific hypotheses should be free from value judgment. In principle the
researcher’s system of values has no place in scientific method. However, as social phenomena
are affected by the Milier in which they take place the researcher must be aware of his values and
state them explicitly.

C) Consistency: Hypotheses must be logically consistent. Two or more propositions logically

derived from the some theory must not be mutually contradictory.

D) Theoretical relevance: A hypotheses should be related to a body of theory. A science can be

cumulative only by building on an existing body of facts and theory. It cannot develop if each
study is an isolated investigation when research is systematically based upon a body of existing
theory.
E) Availability of Techniques: Hypotheses should be related to available techniques; otherwise
they will not be researchable.
F) Testability: A hypothesis should be testable and should not be a moral judgment. It should be
possible to collect empirical evidences to test the hypothesis.

G) Specificity: A hypothesis should be specific and explain the expected relation between
variables and the conditions under which these relations will hold. E.g. when there is
dissatisfaction and no care is taken, deprivation will engender violence.

H) Conceptual clarity: A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. It should consist of clearly

defined and understandable concepts. Clarity is obtained by means of defining operationally the
concepts in the hypothesis.

Generally, hypothesis, though important are not essential for a study. A perfectly Hypothesis are
important for bringing clarity, specificity and focus to a research study. A hypothesis is a
speculative statement that is subjected to verification through a research study. In formulating a
hypothesis it is important to ensure that it is simple, specific and conceptually clean, is able to be
verified, is rooted in an existing body of knowledge.

8. PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research design is to prepare
by the researcher. It may draw the conceptual structure of the problem. Any type of research
design may be made, depend on the nature and purpose of the study.

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively
address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data. A detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design
will typically include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the
instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected. The key features of
a research design are:

i) It is a plan which describes the sources and kinds of information strongly related to the
research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy indicating which method will be employed for collecting and examining the
data.
(iii) It also consists of the time and cost budgets because most studies are done under these two
limitations. Generally, research design must, at least, contain:

(a) A clear statement of the research problem;

(b) Processes and methods to be utilized for collecting data;
(c) The population to be researched; and
(d) Techniques to be employed in processing and examining data.
Research design is what makes the entire research project work. More explicitly, the design
decisions happen to be in respect of:
What is the study about?
Why is the study being made?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where can the required data be found?
What periods of time will the study include?
What will be the sample design?
What techniques of data collection will be used?
How will the data be analyzed?
In what style will the report be prepared?

8.1.1. ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Consumes less time.
2. Ensures project time schedule.
3. Helps researcher to prepare himself to carry out research in a proper and a systematic way.
4. Better documentation of the various activities while the project work is going on.
5. Helps in proper planning of the resources and their procurement in right time.
6. Provides satisfaction and confidence, accompanied with a sense of success from the beginning
of the work of the research project.
8.1.2. NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research design has a significant impact on the
reliability of the results obtained. It thus acts as a firm foundation for the entire research. For
example, economical and attractive construction of house we need a blueprint (or what is
commonly called the map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect,
similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our
research project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis.

8.1.3. THE NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN IS AS FOLLOWS

Research design has the following functions.
 It reduces inaccuracy;
 Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
 Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
 Minimizes wastage of time;
 Helpful for collecting research materials;
 Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower,
time, and efforts;
 Provides an overview to other experts;
 Guides the research in the right direction.

8.1.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

Generally, a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to be
the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum information
and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is considered to be the
most appropriate and efficient design. A good research design possesses the following
characteristics; (i). Reliability: It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For
example, if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same
response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same
item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in
such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.
(ii) Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is
expected to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ should
measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly.

(iii) Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for
drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a
research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in
defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. while
preparing the research design. Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically
prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible. For ensuring the generalization we
should confirm that our research problem has the following characteristics;
a) The problem is clearly formulated.

b) The population is clearly defined.

c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an appropriate sample.

d) Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out.

e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.
(iv) Adequate Information: The most important requirement of good research design is that it
should provide adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide
perspective. An ideal design should take into account important factors like;
(i) Identifying the exact research problem to be studied
(ii) The objective of the research

(iii) The process of obtaining information

(iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and

(v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research.

(vii) Other Features: Some other important features of a good research design are flexibility,
adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design should minimize bias
and maximize reliability and generalization.

(Vi) Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of
the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly
objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same
report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of
agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one
independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of
analysis and interpretation.

8.2. SAMPLING

Sampling is the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a “sample”) of a population of

interest for purposes of making observations and statistical inferences about that population.
Social science research is generally about inferring patterns of behaviors within specific
populations. We cannot study entire populations because of feasibility and cost constraints, and
hence, we must select a representative sample from the population of interest for observation and
analysis. It is extremely important to choose a sample that is truly representative of the
population so that the inferences derived from the sample can be generalized back to the
population of interest.
8.2.1. THE SAMPLING PROCESS

Sampling has the following processes. These are:

A population can be defined as all people or items (unit of analysis) with the characteristics that
one wishes to study. The unit of analysis may be a person, group, organization, country, object,
or any other entity that you wish to draw scientific inferences about. Sometimes the population is
obvious. For example, if a manufacturer wants to determine whether finished goods
manufactured at a production line meets certain quality requirements or must be scrapped and
reworked, then the population consists of the entire set of finished goods manufactured at that
production facility. At other times, the target population may be a little harder to understand. If
you wish to identify the primary drivers of academic learning among high school students, then
what is your target population: high school students, their teachers, school principals, or parents?
The right answer in this case is high school students, because you are interested in their
performance, not the performance of their teachers, parents, or schools. Likewise, if you wish to
analyze the behavior of roulette wheels to identify biased wheels, your population of interest is
not different observations from a single roulette wheel, but different roulette wheels (i.e., their
behavior over an infinite set of wheels).

The second step in the sampling process is to choose a sampling frame. This is an accessible
section of the target population (usually a list with contact information) from where a sample can
be drawn. If your target population is professional employees at work, because you cannot access
all professional employees around the world, a more realistic sampling frame will be employee
lists of one or two local companies that are willing to participate in your study.
.
Note that sampling frames may not entirely be representative of the population at large, and if so,
inferences derived by such a sample may not be generalizable to the population. The last step in
sampling is choosing a sample from the sampling frame using a well defined sampling
technique. Sampling techniques can be grouped into two broad categories: probability (random)
sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is ideal if generalizability of results
is important for your study, but there may be unique circumstances where non-probability
sampling can also be justified. These techniques are discussed in the next two sections. A survey
may be conducted by either of two methods
1. Census Method or Parametric method and
2. Sampling method or Non-parametric method.

1. Census method: It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here the data are
collected for each and every unit of the universe. This method provides more accurate and exact
information as no unit is left out.
2. Sampling method: Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole universe. It
works with the objective to obtain accurate and reliable information about the universe with
minimum of cost, time and energy and to set out the limits of accuracy of such estimates. It
makes exhaustive and intensive study possible with much less time, money and material. It is
more popular in research work.

8.2.2. Population

Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is the parent group from
which a sample is to be formed. The term population or universe conveys a different meaning
than a traditional one. In census survey, the count of individuals (men, women and children) is
known as population.
But in Research Methodology population means characteristics of a specific group. For example
secondary school teachers of, who have some specific features like teaching experience, teaching
attitudes etc. Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population as
representative of that population. One type of population distinguished by educational
researchers is called the target population. By target population distinguished by educational
researchers is called the target population. By target population, also called universe, we mean
all the members of a real or hypothetical set of people, events or objects to which we wish to
generalize the results of our research. The first step in sampling is to define the target population.

Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from specificity to
generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which is applied to the population, it
is the general situation. The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a
population are termed as parameter. Generally parameters are estimated on the basis of sample
statistics.
Sampling is indispensable technique in behavioral research and not so common in physical
sciences. It is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioral and social research. It
makes research findings economical and accurate. Sampling means selection of individuals from
the population in such a way that every individual has equal chance to be taken into the sample.
Term sample should be reserved for a set of units or portion of an aggregate of material which
has been selected in the belief that it.

8.2.3. ASSUMPTIONS OF SAMPLING

1. Homogeneity amidst complexity: Social phenomenon is very complex in nature and every
unit appears to be different from another. But at the same time they also possess similarities in
many respects. It is, therefore, assumed that there is the possibility of such representative types in
the whole population that makes sampling possible.
2. Possibility of Representative Selection: Sampling has its origin in the mathematical theory
of probability and law of statistical regularity. The law of statistical regularity lies down that a
group of objects chosen at random from a large group tend to possess the characteristics of that
large group (universe) by
 L. R. Conner.
3. Absolute accuracy not essential but relative or significant accuracy i.e. needed in case of
large scale observations because it is practically impossible to achieve trough the presence of
errors in measurement, collection of data, analysis and interpretation.
“A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross section of the entire group or aggregate from
which the sample is taken.”
P. Y. Young
A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis .It is a
collection consisting of a part or sub-set of the objects or individuals of population which is
selected for the express purpose of representing the population. By observing the characteristics
of the sample, one can make certain inferences about characteristics of the population from
which it is drawn. It is the process of selecting a sample from the population. For this purpose,
the population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units.” Sampling designs means
the joint procedure of selection and estimation. Sampling is a part of the strategy of research.
W. G. Cocharn,
“In every branch of science we lack the resources, to study more than a fragment of the
phenomenon that might advance our knowledge.” i.e. fragment is sample and phenomenon is
population. The sample observations are applied to the phenomenon i.e. generalization.
David S. Fox,
“In the social sciences, it is not possible to collect data from every respondent relevant to our
study but only from some fractional part of the respondents. The process of selecting the
fractional part is called sampling.”

8.2.4. NEED OF SAMPLING

Sampling has the following needs for researchers. From theses some of them are:

1. Economy of time.

2. Economy of money.

3. True detailed knowledge.

4. Utility in experimental study.

 8.2.5. ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

The following are some of the advantages of sampling.

1. It has a greater adaptability.

2. It is an economical technique.

3. It has high speed for generalization.

4. According to W.G. Cocharan, “It has greater precision and accuracy in the observation”.

5. This technique has great accuracy.

6. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.

7. It has a greater scope in the field of research.

8. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.

8.2.6. DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATION OF SAMPLING

Sampling has the following limitations.

1. Scope of biasness (Less accuracy)

2. Problem of representative sample-Difficulty in selecting a truly representative sample.

3. Need of eligible researchers.

4. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in heterogeneous population.

5. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.

8.2.7. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

Sampling in research has the following characteristics. These are:

1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-aggregate
of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit prejudices, the learning and pre-
conception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation.
5. A good sample maintains accuracy .It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not
involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. The feature is closely linked with true
representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by specific
purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a good
representative of the population.
7. A good sample has the practicability for research. The researcher must design a sample. It is a
plan for taking its respondents from a specific areas or universe.
8.2.8. TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS/METHODS OF SAMPLING
The sample may be of two types: Probability Sampling and Non-probability Sampling
A Probability Sampling B Non-Probability Sampling
A 1 Random Sampling B-1 Incidental or Accidental Sampling
A-2 Systematic Sampling B-2 Judgment Sampling
A-3 Stratified Sampling B- 3 Purposive Sampling
A-4 Multistage Sampling B-4 Quota Sampling
A-5 Cluster Sampling
A-6 Multiple Sampling or Double Sampling

A. Probability sampling is of different types: these are

(1) Simple Random Sampling: It is one in which each element of the population has an equal
and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization
method is known as simple random sample and this technique is simple randomizing.
Randomization is done by using the following techniques:
(a) Tossing a coin
(b) Throwing a dice
(b) Lottery method
(d) Blind folded method
(c) Tippett’s table method
i. Merits of Randomization: It has the following advantages.

1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population.

2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.

3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose.

4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.

ii. Demerits of Randomization:

1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample.

2. It does not use the knowledge about the population.

3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample.

(2) Systematic Sampling: Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random
sampling. This method requires the complete information about the population. There should be
a list of information of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way. Now we
decide the size of the sample: Let the size of sample is = n and population size is = N. Now we
select each N/n individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of sample which is
known as systematic sample. Thus for this technique of sampling population should be arranged
in any systematic way.

i. Merits of systematic sampling

1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample.

2. It reduces the field cost.

3. Inferential statistics may be used.

4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.

5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.

ii. Demerits of systematic sampling

1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic list
by different individuals.
2. Knowledge of population is essential.

3. Information of each individual is essential..

4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness.

5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.

(3) Stratified Sampling

It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this technique, the researcher
divides his population into strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these
smaller homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of units.
Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems to be more relevant in his
research work.
Stratified sampling may be of three types;

(a) Disproportionate: Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the
size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal judgment and convenience.
This method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different error
possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population characteristics.

(b) Proportionate: It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is
proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure includes representativeness
with respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of
being able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the
population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this
method.
(c) Optimum allocation: Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than
other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum. Each stratum should be in
proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known as
optimum allocation sample.

A. Merits of Stratified Sampling

(i) It is a good representative of the population.

(ii) It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling.

(iii) It is an objective method of sampling.

(iv) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

II. Demerits Stratified Sampling
(i) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the
relevant criterion for stratification.

(ii) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it seems more than one
criterion relevant for stratification.

(iii) It is costly and time consuming method.

(iv) Selected samples may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for the
other.

(v) There is a risk of generalization.

(1) Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling
Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings. This is most
frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed
questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample. This is
done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them.
Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the
query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomenon being
studied.
To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and
the people interviewed to obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known as
repeated or multiple sampling. This double sampling technique enables one to check on the
reliability of the information obtained from first sample. Thus, double sampling, where in one
sample is analyzed and information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the
problem further.

i. Merits Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling

(i) Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a
number of observations.
(ii) This technique of sampling reduces the error.

(iii) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample.

ii. Demerits Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling

(i) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for small
sample.

(ii) This technique is time consuming and costly.

(i) Its planning and administration is more complicated.

(2) Multi Stage Sampling

This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type of
sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within
these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group. Stages of a
population are usually available within a group or population, whenever stratification is done by
the researcher. The individuals are selected from different stages for constituting the multi stage
sampling.

i. Merits Multi Stage Sampling

(i) It is a good representative of the population.

ii) Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.

(iii) It is an objective procedure of sampling.

(iv) The observations from multi stage sample may be used for inferential purpose.
ii. Demerits Multi Stage Sampling

(i) It is a difficult and complex method of sampling.

(ii) It involves errors when we consider the primary stages.

(iii) It is again a subjective technique of sampling.

(3) Cluster Sampling
To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In cluster sampling the
sample units contain groups of element (cluster) instead of individual members or items in the
population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly
selecting 15 % of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in
the city, selects at random 15 % of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the
selected schools as the sample.

i. Merits Cluster Sampling

(i) It may be a good representative of the population.

(ii) It is an easy method.

(iii) It is an economical method.

(iv) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.

(v) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

ii. Demerits Cluster Sampling

(i) Cluster sampling is not free from errors.

(ii) It is not comprehensive.

B. Non-Probability Sampling Method: Samples which are selected through non-random

methods are called non probability samples. Depending upon the technique used it may be;

(1) Incidental or Accidental Sampling: The term incidental or accidental applied to those
samples that are taken because they are most frequently available i.e. this refers to the groups
which are used as samples of a population because they are readily available or because the
researcher is unable to employ more acceptable sampling methods.

Merits:
(i) It is very easy method of sampling.

(ii) It is frequently used method in behavioral sciences.

(iii) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.

Demerits:

(i) It is not representative of the population.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) Parametric statistics cannot be used.

(2) Judgment Sampling: This involves the selection of a group from the population on the
basis of available information assuming as if they are representative of the entire population.
Here group may also be selected on the basis of intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed
to be self-evident. Generally investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling is
highly risky.

i. Merits of Judgment Sampling

(i) Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling.

(ii) This method of sampling is economical.

ii. Demerits Judgment Sampling

(i) This technique is objective.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) It includes uncontrolled variation.

(iv) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this sampling, so generalization is
not possible.

(3) Purposive Sampling: The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because
it is known to be representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well
matched groups. The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which is considered
important for the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places special
emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables.
A. Merits of Purposive Sampling
(i) Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.

(ii) Better control of significant variables.

(iii) Sample groups data can be easily matched.

(iv) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.

B. Demerits of Purposive Sampling

(i) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.

(ii) Knowledge of population is essential.

(iii) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.

(iv) Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.

(v) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.

(4) Quota Sampling: This combines both judgment sampling and probability sampling: on the
basis of judgment or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling
into each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is
allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in municipal
surveys.

A. Merits of Quota Sampling

(i) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.

(ii) It is an easy sampling technique.

(iii) It is not frequently used in social surveys.

B. Demerits of Quota Sampling

(i) It is not a representative sample.

(ii) It is not free from errors.

(iii) It has the influence of regional, geographical and social factors.

(5) Snowball Sampling: The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling
procedure in which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the observation or study
proceeds. The term snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would allow
computation of estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test of significance. For
example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular brand of cigarette. At
the first stage, we may pick up a few people who are known to us or can be identified to be the
smokers of that brand. At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain the names of other
persons known to the first stage subjects. Thus the subjects go on serving an informant for the
identification of more subjects and the sample goes on increasing. It has its own merits. These
are Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non-probabilistic can be converted
into probabilistic by selecting subjects randomly within each stage. On the other hand this
sampling error may creep in.
(6) Purposive or Expert Choice Sampling: Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because,
in the light of available information, these mirror some larger group with reference to one or
more given characteristics. The controls in such samples are usually identified as representative
areas (city, country, state, and district), representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex,
marital status, socio-economic status, and race) or types of groups (administrator, counselors,
teachers etc.). These controls may be further sub-divided by specified categories within classes
such as amount of training, years of experience or attitudes towards a specific phenomenon. Up-
to this stage, these controls are somewhat similar to those used in satisfaction. Purposive
sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that the actual selection of the units to be
included in the sample in each group is done purposively rather than by random method.
UNIT NINE

9. DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring data, information or any variables of
interest in a standardized and established manner that enables the collector to answer or test
hypothesis and evaluate outcomes of the particular collection. This is an integral, usually initial,
component of any research done in any field of study such as the physical and social sciences,
business, humanities and others.
Data collection is concerned with the accurate acquisition of data; although methods may differ
depending on the field, the emphasis on ensuring accuracy remains the same. The primary goal
of any data collection endeavor is to capture quality data or evidence that easily translates to rich
data analysis that may lead to credible and conclusive answers to questions that have been posed.
Data collection is the systematic approach to gathering and measuring information from a variety
of sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest. Data collection enables a
person or organization to answer relevant questions, evaluate outcomes and make predictions
about future probabilities and trends.

9.1. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE FOR PRIMARY DATA

The various steps involved are:

A. Planning the study

B. Modes of data collection
C. Sample selection
D. Editing the primary data
A. Planning the Study: Since the quality of results gained from statistical data depends upon
the quality of information collected, if is important that a sound investigative process be
established to ensure that the data is highly representative and unbiased. This requires a high
degree of skill and also certain precautionary measure may have to be taken.
B. Modes of primary data collection: There are basically three widely used methods for
collections of primary data:
 Observation
 Experimentation
 Questionnaire
C. Primary data –observation process: Information is collected by observing the process at
work the following are few examples.
(i) Services station – poses as a customer, go to a services station and observe.
(ii) To evaluate the effectiveness of display of sleep-well cushions in a departmental store,
observer notes. Such as how many pass by, how many stopped to look at the display and how
many decide to buy.
(iii) Super market – what is the best location in the shelf? Hidden cameras are used.
(iv) Concealed tape recorder with the investigator to determine typical sales arguments and find
out sales enthusiasm shown by various salesmen. By this method, response bias is eliminated.
The methods can be used to study sales techniques, customer movements, customer response,
etc. But the customer/consumer state of mind, their buying motives, their images are not
revealed. Their income and education is not obvious. It also takes time for the investigator to
wait for particular sections to take place.
D. Primary Data – Experimentation Method: Many of the important decisions facing the
marketing executive cannot be settled by secondary research observation or by surveying the
opinions of customers or experts. Experimental method may be used in the following
situations.

i) What is the best method for training salesmen?

ii) What is the best remuneration plan for salesman?
iii) What is the best shelf arrangement for displaying a product?
iv) What is the effectiveness of a point of purchase display?
v) What package design should be used?
vi) Which copy is the most effective? What media are the most effective?
vii)Which version of a product would consumers like best?
E. Primary Data- Questionnaire Technique: The survey method is a technique of gathering
data by a slang questions to people who are thought to have the desired information.
Advantages: One cannot known by observation why a buyer purchases or what his opinion
about a product is compared with either direct observation or experimentation, surveys yield a
broader range of information and are effective to produce information on socio-economic
characteristics, attitudes, opinions, motives, etc and together information for planning product
features, advertising copy, advertising media, sales promotions, channels of distributions and
other marketing variables. Questioning is usually faster and cheaper than observation.
F. Limitations of Primary Data Collection:
(a) Unwillingness of respondents to provide information: This requires salesmanship on the part
of the interviewer. The interviewer may assure that the information will be kept secret or some
present may be given.
(b) Inability of the respondents to provide information: This may be due to
i) Lack of Knowledge
ii) Lapse of memory
iii) Inability to identify their motives and prove reason why for their actions.
(c) Human Biases of the respondent: i.e. ego etc.
(d) Semantic difficulties: It is difficult, if not impossible, to state a given question in such a way
that is will mean exactly the same thing to every respondent. Similarly two different wordings of
the same question will frequently produce quite different results. These limitations can be
controlled to some extent by:
(i) Careful phrasing of question.
(ii) Careful control of data gathering by employing specially trained investigators who will
observe carefully and report on the subtle reaction of persons interviewed.
(iii) Cautions interpretation by a clear recognition of the limitations of the data and an
understanding of what exactly the data represent. This is especially true of responses to questions
like.
(iv) Looking at facts in relative rather than absolute terms. A dentifrice survey showed that 60%
of families in the middle income group used tooth paste. Taken by itself in the absolute sense,
the results of the survey are in come doubt because the question asked encountered an obvious
bias. But if this 60% is looked at on a relative basis viz. the corresponding figure of 90% for
upper income group families, a more meaningful and significant interpretation can be made,
even though the individual figure for each group may be slightly inflated

9.2. SECONDARY DATA

When an investigator uses the data which has already been collected by others, such data is
called secondary data. This data is primary data for the agency that collected it and becomes
secondary data for someone else who uses this data for his own purposes. The secondary data
can be obtained from journals, reports, government publications, publication of professional and
research organization and so on. For example, if a researcher desires to analyze the weather
conditions of different regions, he can get the required information or data from the records of
the meteorology department.

A. Some Advantages of using Secondary data

1. The data’s already there- no hassles of data collection
2. It is less expensive
3. The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (“I didn’t do it”)

B. Some disadvantages of using Secondary data:

1. The investigator cannot decide what is collected (if specific data about something is required,
for instance).
2. One can only hope that the data is of good quality
3. Obtaining additional data (or even clarification) about something is not possible
9.2.1. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Information you gather can come from a range of sources. Likewise, there are a variety of
techniques to use when gathering primary data. Listed below are some of the most common data
collection techniques.
 Interviews
 Questionnaires and Surveys
 Observations
 Focus Groups
 Ethnographies, Oral History, and Case Studies
 Documents and Records
9.2.1.1. QUESTIONNAIRE

It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as;

“A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of
population from which information is desired.” Barr, Davis & Johnson
“In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using
a form which the respondent fills in him.”
W. J. Goode & K. Hall
The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices .It is easy
to prepare and to administer. The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure
responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form
which the respondent will fill by himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an
important instrument being used to gather information from widely scattered sources. Normally
used where one cannot see personally all of the people from whom he desires responses or where
there is no particular reason to see them personally.

A. Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

The following are some of the characteristics of a questionnaire.
1. It deals with an important or significant topic.
2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports and
records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.
10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided.
11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.

B. Techniques for designing questionnaires

The key point to remember about questionnaire design is to make the interview possible for all
those using the document. It has to have the following characteristics:
 A Logical Sequence: This is important as the questions much follow on logically. If they do,
the interviewer will establish and maintain a rapport and collect the data required without
interruptions caused by inappropriate construction or repetitive questions. Intrusive questions are
more likely to be answered if they are inserted in to the sequence once the rapport has been
established ad built.
 Good Wording: The successful questions or the questions that ensure that a survey is
successful are those that are shortly, specific, clear and unambiguous. Try to help the informant
by specifying clearly what you want to evaluate and where possible show examples an
illustration with detailed descriptions.
 Write a clear layout: A questionnaire is working document. A question, the possible list of a
answer preceded the questionnaire the instructions to the interviewers, and the analysis
instructions all have to be clear so the interviewer does not get confused or reads out the wrong
words. Distinguish between all of these very carefully. Interviewer’s instruction should be in
capital and underlined. Hand our cards and visual prompts should be large enough to read by the
informants with poor sight.

 A reasonable length: A street or doorstep interview should not last more than ten minutes.
An in-home interview should be no more than one hour. A shop or trade interview or business to
business interview should not last more than 45 minutes. A questionnaire which is of a
reasonable length is one which is sufficiently long to collect the required information. It is one
which is interesting t the informant and it should be able to help the information to the informant
to learn their attitude to the subject or issue being researched. Good questionnaire depend on
good design, but this can very when behavior and attitudes have to be measured and monitored.
The essential part of monitoring behavior is to obtain an accurate recall of what a person did. The
effective way of doing this is to ask a series of questions about recent extents that the informant
might relate to ‘when did you last look at, buy or talk to…?’
C. TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Questions can be of 2 types, i.e. closed ended and open ended.

A) Close Ended: Question in which respondent selects one or more options from pre-determined
set of responses.
YES/ NO
(a) Two choices
(b) Multiple choices a/b/c/d etc
(c) Scale (likert)- here the amount of agreement or disagreement is shown
(d) Semantic differential – a scale is given between two words and respondent shown his
opinion,
(e) Important scale
(f) Rating scale
(g) Intention to buy scale.

(B) Open Ended: Questions in which the respondent answers in his own words.

 Completely unstructured, e.g. what is your opinion of Ethiopian Airlines?

 Word association
 What is the word that comes to your mind your hear the following?
Airline_____________
Ethiopians _____________
Travel_____________
 Sentence Completion
 When I chose an airline, the most important consideration in my decision is________
 Story completion.
An incomplete story is presented and response has to complete it
 Picture completion
 Thematic appreciation text (TAT): Some picture is shown and response is asked to write a
story

D. QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCITON

Conceptual framework questionnaire:

 Structured/unstructured
 Language
 Type of questions
 Administration
a) Questionnaire content to be kept in mind:
 Wording of questions
 General to specific (inverted funnel approach)
 Sequence of questions
 Easy question formats
 Personal questions at the end
 Double barrel question should be avoided
 Questions should be helpful in tabulations and analysis
 Questionnaire items
b) Questionnaire layout:
 Keep questionnaire short it possible, but too short they you sacrifice needed information
 Do not over crowd questionnaire
 Provide decent margin space
 Use multiple grid layout for questions with similar responses
 Use booklet from if possible
 Carefully craft the questionnaire title:
1. Captures respondent’s interest
2. Shows importance of the study
3. Shows interesting nature of the study.
c) Some key points to be remembered:
Overcome the inability to answer can the respondent remember?
E. Merits of Questionnaire Method:
1. it’s very economical.

2. It’s a time saving process.

3. It covers the research in wide area.

4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.

5. It is most reliable in special cases.

F. Demerits of Questionnaire Method:

1. Through this we get only limited responses.

2. Lack of personal contact.

3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.

4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.

5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.

6. It may be useless in many problems.

Generally, questionnaire should be brief to the point and as small as possible. It should meet the
desired objectives. A good questionnaire is one which examines the habits, awareness, attitudes
and needs of an informant and how all of these relate. In this way consumer behavior can be
analyzed, understood and simulated to predict now it could change. Questionnaire design is an
art and not a science, and therefore, it depends on an individual’s creative power to get it right.

9.2.1.2. THE INTERVIEW

Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information.
“Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.”
W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt
“The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the psychological process
involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the social research purpose of the
interview call for a varied response from the two parties concerned.”
Vivien Palmar
“The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or less
imaginatively into the inner life of a comparative stranger.”
P.V. Young
In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee. Not only is
physical distance between them annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also removed; and a
free mutual flow of ideas to and fro takes place. Both create their respective impression upon
each other. The interview brings them both on the same level and an emotional attachment
supervenes between them. In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened for
delivering into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious stirrings of the interviewee. Thus
here the ‘depth’ of subject (man) is gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check
his truthfulness of responses.
A. Characteristics of an Interview
A well qualified interview has the following characteristics.
1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes, and discover the origin of
problem.

2. It is appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person.

3. It can make cross questioning possible.

4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person concerned.

5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.

6. It has flexibility.

7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can be better judged through
cross questioning.

8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.

9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in historical, experimental, case

studies and clinical studies.
B. Merits of Interview
The advantages of interview are:
1. Direct research.

2. Deep research

3. Knowledge of past and future.

4. Knowledge of special features.

5. Mutual encouragement is possible.

6. Supra-observation is possible.

7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes.

8. Examination of known data.

C. Disadvantage of Interview: The demerits of interview are:

1. May provides misleading information.

2. Defects due to interviewee (low level of intelligence or may be emotionally unbalanced)

3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.

4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook of interviewee and
interviewer.

5. One sided and incomplete research.

6. Art rather than science.

D. Type of Interview: There are different types of interview. These are:

1. Unstructured Interviews: The strength of unstructured interviews is the almost complete

freedom they provide in terms of content and structure. You are free to order these in
whatever sequence you wish. You also have complete freedom in terms of the wording you
use and the way you explain questions to your respondents. You may formulate questions
and raise issue on the moment, depending upon what occur to you in the context of the
discussion. There are several types of unstructured interviewing, for example: in-depth
interviewing, focus group interviewing narratives and oral histories.

A. In-depth Interviews: The theoretical roots of in-depth interviewing are in what is known as
the interpretive tradition. According to Taylor and Bogdon, in-depth interviewing is,
‘repeated face-to-face encounter between the researcher and informants directed towards
understanding informants’ perspectives on their lives, experiences, or situations as expressed
in their own worlds’.

B. Focus Group Interviews: The only difference between a focus group interview and an in-
depth interview is that the former is undertaken with a group and the latter with an
individual. In a focus group interview; your explore the perceptions, experiences and
understandings of an group of people who have some experience in common with regard to a
situation or event. For example, you may explore with relevant groups such issues as
domestic violence, physical disability or refugees.
C. Narratives: The narrative technique of gathering information has even less structure that the
focus group. Narratives have almost no predetermined contents expect that the researcher
seeks to near the personal experience of a person with an incident of happening in her/his
life. Essentially, the person tells his/her story about an incident or situation and you, as the
researcher, listen passively. And, occasionally, you encourage the individual by using
techniques of active listening; that is you say words such as ‘uh huh’, ‘mmmm’, yean’,
‘right’ and nod as appropriate. Basically, you let the person talk freely and without
interrupting.

D. Oral Histories: Oral histories, like narratives, involve the use of both passive and active
listening. Oral histories, however, are more commonly used for learning about a historical
even or episode that took place in the past of for gaining information about a cultural, custom
or story that has been passed from generation to generation. Narratives are more about a
person’s personal experiences whereas, historical, social or cultural events are the subjects of
oral histories.

2. Structured Interviews: In a structured interview the researcher asks a predetermined set of

question, using the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview
schedule. An interview schedule is a written list of question, open-ended or closed-ended,
prepared for use by an interviewer in a person-to-person interaction (this may be face-to-face,
by telephone or by other electronic media). Note that an interview schedule is research
tool/instrument for collecting data, whereas interviewing is a method of data collection.

9.2.1.3. SCHEDULE

When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose it is known as schedule.
“Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are asked and filled by an
interviewer in a face to face situation with another.”
W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt
By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many things at once. It is best
suited to the study of a single item thoroughly. According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The
schedule is nothing more than a list of questions which, it seems necessary to test the
hypothesis.” Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented with the specific
purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis. In schedule method interview occupies a central
and plays a vital role.
As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely determined by the ability and tact of
the interviewer rather than by the quality of the questions posed. Because the interviewer
himself poses the questions and notes down the answers all by himself, the quality of questions
has not any great significance.

A. Important Features of Schedule

1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers are
noted down by him.
2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the circumscribed elements
essential to the analysis.
5. It aims at delimiting the subject.
6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down formally and the
interviewer is always armed with the formal document detailing the questions.

B. Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule;

1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.

2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.
3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.
4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.
5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.
6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included in schedule.
 C. Merits of Schedule
1. Higher percentage of responses.

2. Possible to observe personality factors.

3. Through interview personal contact is possible.

4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.

5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is there.

6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.

Difference between Interview and Questionnaire

Questionnaire Method Interview Method

1. Data is gathered directly.

1. Data is gathered indirectly.
2. There is face to face contact between
2. No face to face contact between two.
interviewer and interviewee.
3. Interviewer should have the general knowledge of
3. Skillful interviewer is needed.
the topic.
4. Some confidential information can also be
4. Interviewee will hesitate to write it.
obtained.
5. We get written information only.
5. We get written and oral both type of
information.

9.2.1.4. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE

This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used for evaluating cognitive
and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes,
values towards their life problems and situations. It is most useful technique for evaluating the
behaviors of children. It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural
situations. “It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this technique group
behaviors and social institutions problems are evaluated.”
C. Y. Younge
“Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than audio and vocal organs.”
C.A. Mourse
The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original form, is known as observation.
Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by watching them in action as they
express themselves in various situations and activities. Observation is recognized as the most
direct means of studying people when one is interested in their overt behavior. In questionnaires
and interview people may write answer as they think, they do but this is often different from
what they actually do. These restrictions are missing in observation so observation is a more
natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and formality of questionnaires and interview is
replaced by reality and informality in observation. Data obtained through observation are more
real and true than the data collected by any other method. It also plays a particular part in survey
procedure.

9.2.1.1. TYPES OF OBSERVATION

There are several methods of observation of which any one or a combination of some of them
could be used by the observer. Some of these are:
 Structured or unstructured method
 Disguised or undisguised method
 Direct-indirect observation
 Human-mechanical observation

A. Structured-Unstructured Observation

Whether the observation should be structured or unstructured depends on the data needed.
Example: A manager of a hotel wants to know "how many of his customers visit the hotel with
their families and how many come as single customers. Here, the observation is structured, since
it is clear "what is to be observed". He may instruct his waiters to record this. This information is
required to decide requirements of the chairs and tables and also the ambience. Suppose, the
manager wants to know how single customers and those with families behave and what their
attitudes are like.
In disguised observation, the respondents do not know that they are being observed. In non
disguised observation, the respondents are well aware that they are being observed. In disguised
observation, observers often pose as shoppers. They are known as "mystery shoppers". They are
paid by research organizations. The main strength of disguised observation is that it allows for
registering the true of the individuals. In the undisguised method, observations may be restrained
due to induced error by the objects of observation. The ethical aspect of disguised observations is
still open to question and debate.

B. Direct-Indirect Observation

In direct observation, the actual behavior or phenomenon of interest is observed. In indirect

observation, the results of the consequences of the phenomenon are observed. Suppose, a
researcher is interested in knowing about the soft drinks consumption of a student in a hostel
room. He may like to observe empty soft drink bottles dropped into the bin. Similarly, the
observer may seek the permission of the hotel owner to visit the kitchen or stores. He may carry
out a kitchen/stores audit, to find out the consumption of various brands of spice items being
used by the hotel. It may be noted that the success of an indirect observation largely depends on
"how best the observer is able to identify physical evidence of the problem under study".

C. Human-Mechanical Observation

Most of the studies in marketing research are based on human observation, wherein trained
observers are required to observe and record their observation. In some cases, mechanical
devices such as eye cameras are used for observation. One of the major advantages of electrical/
mechanical devices is that their recordings are free from any subjective bias.

Characteristics of Observation Schedule:

According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;

1. It serves a formulated research purpose.

2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly.

3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions.

4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity, reliability and precision.

5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a problem.

6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.

7. It employs own experiences.

8. It establishes cause-effect relationship.

9. It is an objective technique of data collection.

10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique.

11. It is formal as well as informal technique.

12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data collection.

9.2.1.2. Advantages of observation

1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information.

2. We get first hand data through this method.

3. Record of observation is also available immediately.

4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.

5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct information.

9.2.1.3. LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION

1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be observed directly.

2. It is subjective method.
3. It is very time consuming process.
4. Costly so energy consuming also.
5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e. subject becomes conscious.
6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not useful.
7. Observer should be trained and experienced.
9.2.1.4. SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN

Survey is used most often to describe a method of gathering information from samples of
individuals. For example, sample of voters are questioned before elections to determine how the
public perceives the candidate and the party. A manufacturer does a survey of the potential
market before introducing a new product. Government commissions conduct a survey to gather
the factual information; it needs to evaluate existing legislation, etc.

9.2.1.4.1. STEPS INVOLVED IN DESIGNING SURVEY METHOD

1. Select and formulate research problem.
2. Select an appropriate survey method.
3. Design the survey method/research design.
4. Conduct survey and collect data.
5. Analyze and report.
9.2.1.4.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEY

1. Survey is conducted in a natural setting.

2. Survey seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3. Survey is widely used in non-experimental social science research.
4. Often use questionnaire or interview method for data collection.
5. Survey involves real world samples.
6. Often it is quantitative method, but can also be qualitative.
7. It is systematic, follows specific set of rules, a formal and orderly logic of sequence.
8. It is impartial, select sample units without any prejudice and preference.

9.2.1.4.3. PURPOSE OF SURVEY

There are two purposes of survey, they are as follows:

1. Information gathering: It collects information for a specific purpose. For example, pools,
census, customer satisfaction, attitude, etc.
2. Theory testing and building: Surveys are also used for the purpose of testing and building
theory like personality and social psychology theories.
9.2.1.4.4. ADVANTAGES OF SURVEY

 Access to wide range of participants.

 Collection of large amount of data.
 May be more ethical than experimental designs.

9.2.1.4.4. DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEY

 Lack of control.
 Data may be superficial.
 Costly to obtain representative data.

9.2.1.4.5. SURVEY METHODS

Personal Interviews: An interview is called personal when the Interviewer asks the questions
face-to-face with the Interviewee. Personal interviews can take place at home, at a shopping
mall, on the street, and so on. It has the following advantages.

 The ability to let the Interviewee see, feel and/or taste a product.
 The ability to find the target population. For example, you can find people who have seen a
film much more easily outside a theater in which it is playing than by calling phone numbers
at random.
 Longer interviews are sometimes tolerated. Particularly with in-home interviews that have
been arranged in advance. People may be willing to talk longer face-to-face than to someone
on the phone. While the disadvantages are
 Personal interviews usually cost more per interview than other methods.
 Change in the characteristics of the population might make sample non-representative.

9.2.1.4.6. TELEPHONE SURVEYS

It is a process of collecting information from sample respondents by calling them over telephone.
Surveying by telephone is the most popular interviewing method.

A. Advantages of Telephone Surveys

 People can usually be contacted faster over the telephone than with other methods.
 You can dial random telephone numbers when you do not have the actual telephone numbers
of potential respondents.
 Skilled interviewers can often invite longer or more complete answers than people will give
on their own to mail, e-mail surveys.

B. Disadvantages of Telephone Surveys

 Many telemarketers have given legitimate research a bad name by claiming to be doing
research when they start a sales call.
 The growing number of working women often means that no one is at home during the
day. This limits calling time to a "window" of about 6-9 p.m. (when you can be sure to
interrupt dinner or a favorite TV program).
 You cannot show sample products by phone.
9.2.1.4.7. COMPUTER DIRECT INTERVIEWS

These are methods in which the respondents key in (enter) their answers directly into a computer.
A. Advantages of Computer Direct Interviews

 It eliminates data entry and editing costs.

 Answers are more accurate to sensitive questions through a computer than to a person or
paper questionnaire.
 Interviewer bias is eliminated. Different interviewers can ask questions in different ways,
leading to different results. The computer asks the questions the same way every time.
 Ensuring skip patterns are accurately followed. The Survey System can ensure people are not
asked questions they should skip based on their earlier answers. These automatic skips are
more accurate than relying on an Interviewer reading a paper questionnaire.
 Response rates are usually higher as it looks novel and interesting to some people.
B. Disadvantages
 The interviewees must have access to a computer or it must be provided for them.
 As with mail surveys, computer direct interviews may have serious response rate problems in
populations due to literacy levels being low.

9.2.1.4.8. E-MAIL SURVEYS

Email Questionnaire is a new type of questionnaire system that revolutionizes the way on-line
questionnaires are conducted. Unlike other on-line questionnaire systems that need a web server
to construct, distribute and manage results, Email Questionnaire is totally email based. It works
with the existing email system making on-line questionnaire surveys available to anyone with an
Internet connection.
A. Advantages
 Speed: An email questionnaire can gather several thousand responses within a day or two.
 There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been completed.
 Pictures and sound files can be attached.
 The novelty element of an email survey often stimulates higher response levels than ordinary
mail surveys.

B. Disadvantages
 Researcher must possess or purchase a list of email addresses.
 Some people will respond several times or pass questionnaires along to friends to answer.
 Many people dislike unsolicited email even more than unsolicited regular mail.
 Findings cannot be generalized with email surveys. People who have email are different from
those who do not, even when matched on demographic characteristics, such as age and gender.
 Email surveys cannot automatically skip questions or randomize question.

9.3. RATING SCALE

Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment regarding some situation, object or
character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by
which such judgments may be quantified.
“Rating is an essence and direct observation.”
Ruth Strong
“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of a variable.”
Von Dallen
Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and attributes. A rating method is a
method by which one systematizes, the expression of opinion concerning a trait. The rating is
done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and even by the self as well. The
special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of
the subjects but on the basis of the opinions and judgments of the experimenter himself. In
rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial expression, personal documents,
clinical type interview, projective techniques and immediate experiences as emotions, thoughts
and perceptions.
9.3.1. ADVANTAGES OF RATING SCALE

1. Writing reports to parents.

2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.

3. Finding out students’ needs.

4. Making recommendations to employers.

5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child.

6. Stimulating effect upon the rates.

9.3.2. LIMITATIONS OF RATING SCALE

1. Difference in rating abilities.

2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.

3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.

4. Average superior than single.

5. Impact of emotions.

6. Limits of self-rating.

7. Over rating.

8. Limits of rating of specific qualities.

9. Limits of justifications.

9.3.3. ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN DATA COLLECTION

Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the intended analysis. The collection
of data requires time and substantial effort for acquiring skills and making the necessary
arrangements for collection and to ensure adequate quality.

9.3.4. ACCESS TO DATA

Generally it is a problem for researcher to get access to data because the institutions or the
persons who generally control the data are not willing to provide him data for one or the other
reason or excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate such institutions or persons to
provide necessary data willingly. Some educational problems are of such nature that the subjects
specially girls are not willing to disclose correct information. Similarly a researcher of any board
or university may not have access to confidential data.
A. Adequate Standard: The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly
collected. It is possible if the following conditions are fulfilled.
(i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of validity. In other
words the data should, ensure what they claimed to measure.
(ii) (ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error.
9.3.5. The following types of error are possible in data collection

(a) Errors due to malfunctioning of measuring equipment/ instrument.

(b) Error of bias.
(c) Deliberate falsehood.
(d) Distortion of facts.
(e) Random errors.
(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the population so that proper
generalization could be made.
(iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The conditions under which
the data were gathered should be properly noted and suitable data recording method should be
used. The efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising during recording. The
data are generally recorded in the following forms;
(a) notes of the researcher
(b) Log books and journals are used by a researcher doing the experiment or conducting a field
study
(c) Interview notes
(d) Responses to questionnaires
(e) Recording on tape recorder.
(f) Video cameras
(g) Transcribing data for computer input

UNIT TEN

INTRODUCTION

Data interpretation is a crucial step in research. Data should not be studies in isolation of all
factors which might influence the origin of the data. Any decision taken needs a holistic
overview of paraphernalia factors associated with the subject in concern. The data which is
collected for the purpose of the study itself cannot several any things. This being a raw data it is
required to process and analyzed in order to have desired result. The data which is collected
cannot be directly use for making analysis. Before analysis data is requires to be processed.

10.1. DATA PROCESSING

Data processing is a crucial stage in research. After collecting the data from the field, the
researcher has to process and analyze them in order to arrive at certain conclusion which may
confirm or invalidate the hypothesis which he had formulated towards the beginning of his
research worth. The mass of data collected during the field work is to be processed with a view
to reducing them to manageable proportions. The processing of data includes editing, coding,
classification and tabulation. The data which is collected is analyzed with an object checking of
data, and reducing this data into manageable proportions. Data collected should be organized in
such way so that table charts can be prepared for presentation. The processing of data includes
various operations which will be explained here.
10.1.1. EDITING

The process of examining the collected data is called editing. This includes inspection and
schedule. There is possibility of error and omission in the on the part of investigator so the
editing help us to minimize such correctness. Editing is done at the time of collecting data. After
the collection of statistical data, the most important step in a statistical enquiry is the scrutinizing
of the collected data. This is in real sense known as editing of data. It is essential as in most of
the cases the collected data contains various types of mistakes and errors. It is quite likely the
some questions have been misunderstood by the informants, and if so, the particular and data has
to be recollected. Sometimes answer to a particular possible to draw any inference from them.
Some of the questions and schedules are so haphazardly filled that it is necessary to reject them.
Stages involved in Editing: The stages involved in editing are:

A) Field Editing: In this stage, the investigator makes the review of the reporting from for
completing what the latter has written in abbreviation and /or in illegible from at the time of
recording the responses of the respondents. Field editing is done as soon as possible after the
interview.
B) Central Editing: it is done when all forms of schedules have been completed or returned to
the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get through editing by a single editor
in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large enquiry. While performing their work
the editors should always keep the following things in mind.
I. They should be familiar with the instructions supplied to them for the purpose.
II. Editor’s initials and the date of editing should be placed on each completed form or schedule.
III. They may make entries on the form in some distinctive color and in a standardized form.
IV. While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they should first draw single
line on it so that the same may remain legible.
V. They should initial all answers they change or supply

10.1.2. CODING
It is the process of assignment numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses can be
put into a limited number of categories or classes. These chasses should posses the following
characteristics.
A. The classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration
B. The classes should be exhaustive i.e. these must be a class for every data item.
C. The classes should be mutually exclusive i.e. a specific answer can be placed in one and only
one cell in a given category set.
D. The classes should be one-dimensional i.e. every class must defined in teams of only one
concept. Coding is necessary for efficient analysis. It reduces several replies to a small number
of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding should be taken at
the designing stage of the questionnaire because it helps to precede the questionnaire choices.

10.1.3. CLASSIFICATION

It is the process of arranging data in groups or classes or the basis of common characteristics.
Due to this process data having common characteristics are placed in one class and in this way
the entire data get divided into number of groups or classes. According to Secrist, classification
is the process of arranging data into sequences and groups according to their common
characteristics of separating them into different but related parts. In other words, classification is
the process of arranging the collected data into homogenous classes of groups so as to exhibit its
common characteristics. Classification has been defined by Prof. Cannor in the following way;
classification is the process of arranging things in groups of class according to their resemblance
or affinities and give expression to the unity of attributes that may subsist amongst a diversity of
individuals.

10.1.4. OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION

Following are the main object of the classification of data:

 To express the complex, scattered haphazard into concise logical and intelligible form. The
marks of a thousand students convey no sense, but when they we grouped into first class
second class, third class and failures their significance can easily be followed.
 To make the points of similarity and dissimilarity clear, classification makes the similarity
and dissimilarity clear. Thus classification of people into rich, middle class and poor gives a
clear idea about their similarity disparity regarding economic status.
 To afford comparative study. Classification makes comparative study possible. If the marks
gained by the students of two colleges are given, it is difficult to say which class is better, but
when they are grouped into pass and fail the comparison becomes very easy.
 To avoid strain to the mind in understanding the significance. Classification makes the
complex data so simple that its significance be easily followed by the researcher without
much strain on the mind. Besides avoiding undue strain on the mind, classification helps to
follow the significance in its true form.
 To display underlying unity of the items. The items placed in one class are similar in some
respect. This helps us to understand those items more clearly. Thus if the workers are divided
into skilled and unskilled classes, we can form an idea about the skill of a person by knowing
the class to which he belongs.
UNIT ELEVEN

11. DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the qualitative and quantitative type. It
is usual tendency in behavioral research that much use of quantitative analysis is made and
statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques are
employed. The statistical methods and techniques have got a special position in research because
they provide answers to the problems. Kaul defines data analysis as, ”Studying the organized
material in order to discover inherent facts. The data are studied from as many angles as possible
to explore the new facts.”

Data Analysis is a process of collecting, transforming, cleaning, and modeling data with the goal
of discovering the required information. The results so obtained are communicated, suggesting
conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Data visualization is at times used to portray the
data for the ease of discovering the useful patterns in the data. The terms Data Modeling and
Data Analysis mean the same. Data Analysis Process consists of the following phases that are
iterative in nature .
  Data Requirements Specification
 Data Collection
 Data Processing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Analysis
 Communication

i. Data Requirements Specification: The data required for analysis is based on a question
or an experiment. Based on the requirements of those directing the analysis, the data
necessary as inputs to the analysis is identified (e.g., specified and obtained. Data may be
numerical or categorical.
ii. Data Collection: Data Collection is the process of gathering information on targeted
variables identified as data requirements. The emphasis is on ensuring accurate and
honest collection of data. Data Collection ensures that data gathered is accurate such that
the related decisions are valid. Data Collection provides both a baseline to measure and a
target to improve. Data is collected from various sources ranging from organizational
 databases to the information in web pages. The data thus obtained, may not be structured
and may contain irrelevant information. Hence, the collected data is required to be
subjected to Data Processing and Data Cleaning.
iii. Data Processing: The data that is collected must be processed or organized for analysis.
This includes structuring the data as required for the relevant Analysis Tools. For
example, the data might have to be placed into rows and columns in a table within a
Spreadsheet or Statistical Application. A Data Model might have to be created.
iv. Data Cleaning: The processed and organized data may be incomplete, contain
duplicates, or contain errors. Data Cleaning is the process of preventing and correcting
these errors. There are several types of Data Cleaning that depend on the type of data. For
example, while cleaning the financial data, certain totals might be compared against
reliable published numbers or defined thresholds. Likewise, quantitative data methods
can be used for outlier detection that would be subsequently excluded in analysis.
v. Data Analysis: Data that is processed, organized and cleaned would be ready for the
analysis. Various data analysis techniques are available to understand, interpret, and
derive conclusions based on the requirements. Data Visualization may also be used to
examine the data in graphical format, to obtain additional insight regarding the messages
within the data. Statistical Data Models such as Correlation, Regression Analysis can be
used to identify the relations among the data variables. These models that are descriptive
of the data are helpful in simplifying analysis and communicate results. The process
might require additional Data Cleaning or additional Data Collection, and hence these
activities are iterative in nature.
vi. Communication: The results of the data analysis are to be reported in a format as
required by the users to support their decisions and further action. The feedback from the
users might result in additional analysis. The data analysts can choose data visualization
techniques, such as tables and charts, which help in communicating the message clearly
and efficiently to the users. The analysis tools provide facility to highlight the required
information with color codes and formatting in tables and charts.

11.1. THE PURPOSE DATA ANALYSIS

The following are the main purposes of data analysis:
(i) Description: It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the development of
most fields. A researcher must be able to identify a topic about which much was not known; he
must be able to convince others about its importance and must be able to collect data.
(ii) Construction of Measurement Scale: The researcher should construct a measurement scale.
All numbers generated by measuring instruments can be placed into one of four categories:
a) Nominal: The number serves as nothing more than labels. For example no 1 was not less than
no 2 .Similarly no 2 was neither more than no 1 and nor less than no 3.

(b) Ordinal: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along some dimensions such as
from less to more, from small to large, from sooner to later.

(c) Interval: The interval provides more précised information than ordinal one. By this type of
measurement the researcher can make exact and meaningful decisions. For example if A,B and C
are of 150 cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5 cm taller than B and
B is 5 cm taller than C.

(d) Ratio Scale: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between points can be
demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale has a conceptually meaningful zero point.
(iii) Generating empirical relationships: Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of
regularities and relationships among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the relationship
which will be found from the collected data. If the data were available in details it will be easier
to determine the relationship. The researcher can develop theories if he is able to recognize
pattern and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among variables, which may
be done by calculating correlation among variables or showing order, precedence or priority. The
derivation of empirical laws may be made in the form of simple equations relating one interval or
ratio scaled variable to a few others through graph methods.
(iv) Explanation and prediction: Generally knowledge and research are equated with the
identification of causal relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in many
fields the research has not been developed to the level where causal explanation is possible or
valid predictions can be made. In such a situation explanation and prediction is construct as
enabling the values of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another.
11.2. FUNCTIONS DATA ANALYSIS

The following are the main functions of data analysis:

(i) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining the statement of the problem.

(ii) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining each hypothesis of the
problem.

(iii) The researcher should study the original records of the data before data analysis.

(iv) The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the research problem in lay man’s
term.

(v) The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through statistical calculations.

(vi) The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that the available data permits for
the analysis of data.

11.3. STATISTICAL CALCULATIONS

The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics for the purpose
of the analysis.
(i) The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms:
(a) Measures of Central Tendency: These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean
and harmonic mean. In behavioral statistics the last two measures are not used. Which of the first
three will be used in social statistics depends upon the nature of the problem.
b) Measures of Variability: These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and
standard deviation. In social statistics the first two measures are rarely used. The use of standard
deviation is very frequently made for the purpose of analysis.
(c) Measures of Relative Position: These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores),
percentiles and percentile ranks .All of them are used in educational statistics for data analysis.
(d) Measures of Relationship: There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial
correlation and multiple correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for the
analysis of data. However the use of rank method is made more in comparison to Karl Pearson
method.
(ii)The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:
(a) Significance of Difference between Means: It is used to determine whether a true
difference exists between population means of two samples.
(b) Analysis of Variance: The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any
significant difference between the means of two random samples. The F test enables the
researcher to determine whether the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent
then the test scores differ from their own sample means using the F ratio.
(c) Analysis of Co-Variance: It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of
difference between means of final experimental data by taking into account the Correlation
between the dependent variable and one or more Co-variates or control variables and by
adjusting initial mean differences in the group.
(d) Correlation Methods: Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of
calculating the significance of the difference between Co-efficient of Correlation.
(e) Chi Square Test: It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance
accounts to the observed relationship. In this test the expected frequency and observed frequency
are used for evaluating Chi Square.
(f) Regression Analysis: For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or
for predicting the phenomenon or relationship between different variables regression analysis is
cone.

11.4. DATA ANALYSIS MODELS

There are seven steps that remain consistent across organizations and their data analysis
processes:
 Decide on the objectives : Determine objectives for data science teams to develop a
quantifiable way to determine whether the business is progressing toward its goals; identify
metrics or performance indicators early
 Identify business levers: Identify goals, metrics, and levers early in data analysis projects to
give scope and focus to data analysis; this means the business should be willing to make
changes to improve its key metrics and reach its goals as well
 Data collection: Gather as much data from diverse sources as possible in order to build
better models and gain more actionable insights
 Data cleaning: Improve data quality to generate the right results and avoid making incorrect
conclusions; automate the process but involve employees to oversee the data cleaning and
ensure accuracy.
 Grow a data science team: Include on your science team individuals with advanced degrees
in statistics who will focus on data modeling and predictions, as well as infrastructure
engineers, software developers, and other experts; then, give the team the large scale data
analysis platforms they need to automate data collection and analysis.
 Optimize and repeat: Perfect your data analysis model so you can repeat the process to
generate accurate predictions, reach goals, and monitor and report consistently.

11.5. TYPES OF ANALYSIS

There are different types of data analyses. These are
A. Qualitative analysis
B. Content analysis
C. Quantitative analysis
D. Descriptive analysis
E. Bivariate analysis
F. Sequential analysis
G. Casual analysis
H. Multivariate analysis
I. Inferential analysis
J. Statistical analysis.
A. Qualitative Analysis: It is less influenced by theoretical assumption. The limitation of this
type of analysis is that the findings tend to be unrealizable. The information categories and
interpreted after, differ considerable from one investigator to another one. In this system
researcher to go through, research cycle, to increase reliability, repeating the research cycle is
of value in some ways, but it does not ensure that the findings will have high reliability.
Qualitative analyses are carried out in several different kinds of study like interview, case
studies and observational studies.
B. Content Analysis: Content analysis is used where originally qualitative information is
reduced to numerical terms. It is a method of analysis media output includes articles
 published in news papers, speeches made in radio, television and various type of propaganda.
This method of analysis is applied to all most all form of communications.
C. Quantitative Analysis: The numerical data collected in study through descriptive statistics
analysis can be conducted through measure of central tendency.
D. Descriptive Analysis: This analysis of one variable is called one dimensional analysis. This
analysis measures condition at particular time.
E. Bivariate Analysis: The analysis in respect of two variables is called bivariate analysis. In
this analysis collected data in placed into tabular form, so that the meaning of the data can be
derived. In this method simple dimensional data is developed and put into two or more
categories.
F. Sequential Analysis:
When only factor is revel in the table at one time, this type of analysis is called sequential
analysis is called sequential analysis. If we do the further analysis of the same data regard four
going showed that person with leave travel concession facilities are more frequently going on
tourism than those who are not gating facilities of casual analysis. It is concerned with study of
one variable affecting another one.
G. Multivariate Analysis: With an advancement of compute application there is fast
development of multivariate analysis, in which statistical method simultaneously analysis
more than two variables.
H. Inferential Analysis: In order to decide the validity of data to indicate conclusion this
analysis is concerned with tests for significance of hypothesis. One the basis of inferential
analysis the task of interpretation is performed by estimating the population values.
 REFERENCES

 Ackoff, Russell L. (1961). The Design of Social Research, University of Chicago Press:
Chicago.
 Allen, T. Harrell, (1978). New Methods in Social Research, Praeger Publication: New
York.
 Baker, R.P. & Howell, A.C. (1958). The Preparation of Reports, Ronald Press: New
York.
 Barzun, Jacques & Graff. F. (1990).The Modern Researcher, Harcourt, Brace
Publication: New York.
 Berelson Conard & Colton, Raymond. (1978). Research and Report Writing for Business
and Economics, Random House: New York.
 Best, John, W.& Kahn, James. (1986).Research in Education, 5th ed., Prentice–Hall of
India Pvt Ltd: New Delhi.
 Bhattacharya, Srinivas. (1972).Psychometrics & Behavioural Research, Sterling
Publishers Pvt.Ltd.: New Delhi.